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Lists of capitals

Lists of capitals are systematic enumerations of cities designated as the primary seats of government for sovereign states, subnational entities, historical polities, and other administrative divisions, reflecting the organizational centers of political authority.^[1]^[2] These compilations, often drawn from authoritative references like government databases, serve essential roles in education by fostering spatial awareness of global governance structures and in diplomacy by clarifying administrative loci amid territorial complexities.^[3]^[4] Key variations include single versus distributed capitals, where nations like South Africa allocate executive functions to Pretoria, legislative to Cape Town, and judicial to Bloemfontein to balance regional influences post-apartheid.^[5] Planned capitals, such as Brazil's Brasília or Nigeria's Abuja, exemplify deliberate shifts from overcrowded historical centers to promote equitable development and national unity.^[6] Compilations from sources like the CIA World Factbook standardize entries with geographic coordinates and time zones, aiding empirical analysis of political geography.^[7] Notable controversies arise from sovereignty disputes, where inclusion hinges on recognition criteria; Jerusalem's dual claims by Israel and Palestinian authorities, Taiwan's Taipei excluded from some multilateral lists due to non-UN membership, and Kosovo's Pristina acknowledged variably among states underscore how lists embody causal tensions in international law rather than neutral consensus.^[8]^[9] Such variances highlight the empirical grounding of lists in de facto control and bilateral accords over ideologically driven narratives.

Capitals of Sovereign Nations

Current National Capitals

Current national capitals designate the principal cities where the governments of sovereign states exercise central authority, housing key institutions such as parliaments, presidential palaces, and supreme courts. As of October 2025, the United Nations comprises 193 member states, each with a designated capital, alongside two non-member observer states: the Holy See (Vatican City State), whose capital is Vatican City itself, and the State of Palestine, which claims East Jerusalem as its capital but operates primary administrative functions from Ramallah due to ongoing disputes. ^[10] The U.S. Department of State recognizes 197 independent states, incorporating entities like Kosovo (Pristina) and Taiwan (Taipei) based on bilateral diplomatic relations. ^[11] Disputes over capital status persist in cases such as Israel, where Jerusalem serves as the capital under Israeli law and U.S. recognition since December 6, 2017, though many nations maintain embassies in Tel Aviv pending a final status agreement. Similarly, Armenia and Azerbaijan contest certain border areas, but Yerevan and Baku remain undisputed capitals. Capital relocations are rare; for instance, Indonesia's planned shift from Jakarta to Nusantara has faced delays beyond initial 2024 targets due to infrastructure challenges. The table below enumerates the capitals of the 193 UN member states and two observer states, sorted alphabetically by English country name, drawing from official government designations and verified international references. ^[12]

Country	Capital
Afghanistan	Kabul
Albania	Tirana
Algeria	Algiers
Andorra	Andorra la Vella
Angola	Luanda
Antigua and Barbuda	Saint John's
Argentina	Buenos Aires
Armenia	Yerevan
Australia	Canberra
Austria	Vienna
Azerbaijan	Baku
Bahamas	Nassau
Bahrain	Manama
Bangladesh	Dhaka
Barbados	Bridgetown
Belarus	Minsk
Belgium	Brussels
Belize	Belmopan
Benin	Porto-Novo
Bhutan	Thimphu
Bolivia	Sucre (constitutional); La Paz (administrative)
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo
Botswana	Gaborone
Brazil	Brasília
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan
Bulgaria	Sofia
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou
Burundi	Gitega
Cambodia	Phnom Penh
Cameroon	Yaoundé
Canada	Ottawa
Cape Verde	Praia
Central African Republic	Bangui
Chad	N'Djamena
Chile	Santiago
China	Beijing
Colombia	Bogotá
Comoros	Moroni
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Kinshasa
Congo, Republic of the	Brazzaville
Costa Rica	San José
Côte d'Ivoire	Yamoussoukro
Croatia	Zagreb
Cuba	Havana
Cyprus	Nicosia
Czechia	Prague
Denmark	Copenhagen
Djibouti	Djibouti
Dominica	Roseau
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo
Ecuador	Quito
Egypt	Cairo
El Salvador	San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo
Eritrea	Asmara
Estonia	Tallinn
Eswatini	Mbabane
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa
Fiji	Suva
Finland	Helsinki
France	Paris
Gabon	Libreville
Gambia	Banjul
Georgia	Tbilisi
Germany	Berlin
Ghana	Accra
Greece	Athens
Grenada	St. George's
Guatemala	Guatemala City
Guinea	Conakry
Guinea-Bissau	Bissau
Guyana	Georgetown
Haiti	Port-au-Prince
Holy See	Vatican City
Honduras	Tegucigalpa
Hungary	Budapest
Iceland	Reykjavík
India	New Delhi
Indonesia	Jakarta
Iran	Tehran
Iraq	Baghdad
Ireland	Dublin
Israel	Jerusalem
Italy	Rome
Jamaica	Kingston
Japan	Tokyo
Jordan	Amman
Kazakhstan	Astana
Kenya	Nairobi
Kiribati	Tarawa
Korea, North	Pyongyang
Korea, South	Seoul
Kosovo	Pristina
Kuwait	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek
Laos	Vientiane
Latvia	Riga
Lebanon	Beirut
Lesotho	Maseru
Liberia	Monrovia
Libya	Tripoli
Liechtenstein	Vaduz
Lithuania	Vilnius
Luxembourg	Luxembourg
Madagascar	Antananarivo
Malawi	Lilongwe
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur
Maldives	Malé
Mali	Bamako
Malta	Valletta
Marshall Islands	Majuro
Mauritania	Nouakchott
Mauritius	Port Louis
Mexico	Mexico City
Micronesia	Palikir
Moldova	Chișinău
Monaco	Monaco
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar
Montenegro	Podgorica
Morocco	Rabat
Mozambique	Maputo
Myanmar	Naypyidaw
Namibia	Windhoek
Nauru	Yaren
Nepal	Kathmandu
Netherlands	Amsterdam
New Zealand	Wellington
Nicaragua	Managua
Niger	Niamey
Nigeria	Abuja
North Macedonia	Skopje
Norway	Oslo
Oman	Muscat
Pakistan	Islamabad
Palau	Ngerulmud
Palestine	Ramallah (de facto); Jerusalem (claimed)
Panama	Panama City
Papua New Guinea	Port Moresby
Paraguay	Asunción
Peru	Lima
Philippines	Manila
Poland	Warsaw
Portugal	Lisbon
Qatar	Doha
Romania	Bucharest
Russia	Moscow
Rwanda	Kigali
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre
Saint Lucia	Castries
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Kingstown
Samoa	Apia
San Marino	San Marino
São Tomé and Príncipe	São Tomé
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh
Senegal	Dakar
Serbia	Belgrade
Seychelles	Victoria
Sierra Leone	Freetown
Singapore	Singapore
Slovakia	Bratislava
Slovenia	Ljubljana
Solomon Islands	Honiara
Somalia	Mogadishu
South Africa	Pretoria (administrative); Cape Town (legislative); Bloemfontein (judicial)
South Sudan	Juba
Spain	Madrid
Sri Lanka	Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
Sudan	Khartoum
Suriname	Paramaribo
Sweden	Stockholm
Switzerland	Bern
Syria	Damascus
Taiwan	Taipei
Tajikistan	Dushanbe
Tanzania	Dodoma
Thailand	Bangkok
Timor-Leste	Dili
Togo	Lomé
Tonga	Nuku'alofa
Trinidad and Tobago	Port of Spain
Tunisia	Tunis
Turkey	Ankara
Turkmenistan	Ashgabat
Tuvalu	Funafuti
Uganda	Kampala
Ukraine	Kyiv
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi
United Kingdom	London
United States	Washington, D.C.
Uruguay	Montevideo
Uzbekistan	Tashkent
Vanuatu	Port Vila
Venezuela	Caracas
Vietnam	Hanoi
Yemen	Sana'a
Zambia	Lusaka
Zimbabwe	Harare

This compilation prioritizes de facto administrative capitals where constitutional and practical designations differ, such as Bolivia's dual system or South Africa's tiered structure. ^[12] Variations in recognition, particularly for Kosovo and Taiwan, reflect geopolitical realities rather than universal consensus. ^[13]

Former National Capitals

Former national capitals are cities that once functioned as the political centers of sovereign states but lost that status due to relocation of government institutions, often motivated by factors such as geographic centrality, security concerns, economic development, or political symbolism. These shifts have occurred throughout history, with modern examples frequently involving planned new cities to address imbalances in population distribution or regional tensions. While some former capitals retain economic or cultural prominence, others have declined in influence following the move. The following table lists selected examples of former national capitals of sovereign states, focusing on verified relocations in the 19th to 21st centuries:

Country	Former Capital	Period as Capital	Successor Capital	Key Reason for Relocation
Australia	Melbourne	1901–1927	Canberra	To establish a neutral, purpose-built federal capital away from rival state hubs Sydney and Melbourne, as mandated by the Australian Constitution.^[14]
Brazil	Rio de Janeiro	1763–1960	Brasília	To stimulate development in the underdeveloped interior and reduce overcrowding in coastal Rio.^[15]
Japan	Kyoto	794–1868	Tokyo	Transfer during the Meiji Restoration to modernize administration from the eastern commercial center of Edo (renamed Tokyo).^[16]
Kazakhstan	Almaty	1929–1997	Astana	To position the capital more centrally in the vast steppe territory for better accessibility and security.^[15]
Nigeria	Lagos	1960–1991	Abuja	To promote national unity by moving from the ethnically dominant Yoruba south to a neutral central location.^[15]
Pakistan	Karachi	1947–1959	Islamabad	Shift inland from the vulnerable port city to a secure, purpose-built site amid post-partition instability.^[15]
West Germany	Bonn	1949–1990	Berlin	Provisional choice post-WWII due to Berlin's division; restored to Berlin after reunification to symbolize continuity.^[17]

These relocations often involved significant infrastructure investments in successor cities, though former capitals like Rio de Janeiro and Melbourne continue to thrive as economic hubs. In cases of partitioned or reunified states, such as West Germany, the change reflected broader geopolitical realignments rather than internal planning. Historical records indicate hundreds of such shifts globally, particularly in newly independent or reconfigured nations, but comprehensive enumeration requires distinguishing de jure from de facto capitals and excluding temporary wartime seats.^[18]

Subnational Capitals

Capitals of States, Provinces, and Regions

Subnational capitals serve as the primary administrative hubs for states, provinces, or analogous regions within larger countries, particularly in federal systems where power is divided between national and subnational governments. These cities function as seats for regional legislatures, governors or premiers, and courts, facilitating local governance over matters like education, health, and infrastructure. In contrast to national capitals, subnational ones vary widely in size and prominence, often lacking the symbolic weight of sovereign capitals but playing crucial roles in regional policy-making and economic coordination. In Canada, the 10 provinces and 3 territories each designate a capital city for provincial or territorial administration. These capitals, established through historical settlement patterns and legislative decisions, include urban centers like Toronto and smaller ones like Charlottetown. The list is as follows:

Province/Territory	Capital
Alberta	Edmonton
British Columbia	Victoria
Manitoba	Winnipeg
New Brunswick	Fredericton
Newfoundland and Labrador	St. John's
Nova Scotia	Halifax
Ontario	Toronto
Prince Edward Island	Charlottetown
Quebec	Quebec City
Saskatchewan	Regina
Northwest Territories	Yellowknife
Nunavut	Iqaluit
Yukon	Whitehorse

India, a federal republic with 28 states and 8 union territories, assigns capitals to states for state-level governance, with some union territories sharing or lacking separate ones. Andhra Pradesh's capital, Amaravati, exemplifies recent designations amid administrative realignments post-2014 bifurcation. Key state capitals include:

State	Capital
Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar
Assam	Dispur
Bihar	Patna
Chhattisgarh	Raipur
Goa	Panaji
Gujarat	Gandhinagar
Haryana	Chandigarh
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla
Jharkhand	Ranchi
Karnataka	Bengaluru
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal
Maharashtra	Mumbai
Manipur	Imphal
Meghalaya	Shillong
Mizoram	Aizawl
Nagaland	Kohima
Odisha	Bhubaneswar
Punjab	Chandigarh
Rajasthan	Jaipur
Sikkim	Gangtok
Tamil Nadu	Chennai
Telangana	Hyderabad
Tripura	Agartala
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow
Uttarakhand	Dehradun
West Bengal	Kolkata

Australia's 6 states and 2 mainland territories feature capitals that are often major metropolitan areas, reflecting the country's federated structure established in 1901. Sydney, for instance, serves as New South Wales' capital and economic powerhouse. The designations are:

State/Territory	Capital
Australian Capital Territory	Canberra
New South Wales	Sydney
Northern Territory	Darwin
Queensland	Brisbane
South Australia	Adelaide
Tasmania	Hobart
Victoria	Melbourne
Western Australia	Perth

In other federal nations like Brazil, subnational capitals mirror this pattern, with 26 states and the federal district each having a designated seat, such as Rio Branco for Acre and Salvador for Bahia, supporting regional autonomy under the 1988 constitution. Similar arrangements exist in the United States, where all 50 states maintain capitals like Albany (New York) and Austin (Texas) for state operations, and in countries like Germany and Mexico, where Länder or estados host administrative centers distinct from the national capital.^[22]

Capitals Organized by Country

Subnational capitals serve as the primary administrative, legislative, and often judicial centers for provinces, states, or equivalent divisions within a country. In federal systems, these capitals facilitate regional governance while distinct from the national capital, enabling localized policy implementation and representation. Countries like Australia, Canada, India, and Germany exemplify this organization, with lists below drawn from official governmental resources. Comprehensive enumeration for all nations exceeds practical scope here, but these illustrate structured devolution; for instance, Australia's states maintain parliaments in their capitals, independent of Canberra.^[23] Australia
Australia comprises six states and two mainland territories, each with a designated capital hosting state or territory assemblies. These were established post-federation in 1901, with capitals selected for geographic centrality or historical precedence.^[21]

State/Territory	Capital
New South Wales	Sydney
Queensland	Brisbane
South Australia	Adelaide
Tasmania	Hobart
Victoria	Melbourne
Western Australia	Perth
Northern Territory	Darwin
Australian Capital Territory	Canberra (national, but territorial seat)

Canada
Canada's ten provinces and three territories each designate a capital for provincial or territorial legislatures, with selections rooted in colonial history or compromise; for example, New Brunswick's Fredericton was chosen in 1785 to balance Acadian and Loyalist interests. Ottawa serves nationally but not provincially.^[19]^[24]

Province/Territory	Capital
Alberta	Edmonton
British Columbia	Victoria
Manitoba	Winnipeg
New Brunswick	Fredericton
Newfoundland and Labrador	St. John's
Nova Scotia	Halifax
Ontario	Toronto
Prince Edward Island	Charlottetown
Quebec	Quebec City
Saskatchewan	Regina
Northwest Territories	Yellowknife
Nunavut	Iqaluit
Yukon	Whitehorse

India
India's 28 states and 8 union territories feature state capitals as seats of legislative assemblies, with many designated post-independence in 1947 or during reorganizations like the 1956 States Reorganisation Act; union territories often lack full capitals, administered from Delhi unless specified. Amaravati for Andhra Pradesh remains under development as of 2025.^[20]^[25]

State	Capital
Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar
Assam	Dispur
Bihar	Patna
Chhattisgarh	Raipur
Goa	Panaji
Gujarat	Gandhinagar
Haryana	Chandigarh (shared with Punjab)
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla
Jharkhand	Ranchi
Karnataka	Bengaluru
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal
Maharashtra	Mumbai
Manipur	Imphal
Meghalaya	Shillong
Mizoram	Aizawl
Nagaland	Kohima
Odisha	Bhubaneswar
Punjab	Chandigarh (shared with Haryana)
Rajasthan	Jaipur
Sikkim	Gangtok
Tamil Nadu	Chennai
Telangana	Hyderabad (shared with Andhra Pradesh until 2024 transition)
Tripura	Agartala
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow
Uttarakhand	Dehradun
West Bengal	Kolkata

Germany
Germany's 16 Bundesländer (states) have capitals as Länder seats, formalized in the 1949 Basic Law, with reunification in 1990 reinstating eastern ones like Dresden; city-states like Berlin function dually as state and national capital. These centers host Landtage (parliaments) and manage devolved powers in education and policing.^[26]

State (Bundesland)	Capital
Baden-Württemberg	Stuttgart
Bavaria (Bayern)	Munich (München)
Berlin	Berlin
Brandenburg	Potsdam
Bremen	Bremen
Hamburg	Hamburg
Hesse (Hessen)	Wiesbaden
Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen)	Hanover (Hannover)
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	Schwerin
North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen)	Düsseldorf
Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz)	Mainz
Saarland	Saarbrücken
Saxony (Sachsen)	Dresden
Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt)	Magdeburg
Schleswig-Holstein	Kiel
Thuringia (Thüringen)	Erfurt

Capitals of Territories and Non-Sovereign Entities

Dependent Territories and Associated States

Dependent territories encompass overseas possessions and insular areas administered by sovereign states but lacking full sovereignty, typically featuring local governance structures with capitals serving as administrative centers. These entities vary in autonomy, from unincorporated territories of the United States like Puerto Rico, where San Juan functions as the capital handling executive and legislative functions, to British Overseas Territories such as Bermuda, with Hamilton as its capital overseeing financial and governmental operations.^[27] French overseas collectivities, including New Caledonia (capital: Nouméa), maintain capitals for regional administration under Paris's oversight.^[28] Associated states, or freely associated states, are independent nations that delegate specific powers like defense and foreign relations to a partner state while retaining self-governance and distinct capitals. Examples include the Federated States of Micronesia (capital: Palikir), Republic of the Marshall Islands (capital: Majuro), and Republic of Palau (capital: Ngerulmud), all in free association with the United States via Compacts of Free Association renewed as of 2024.^[29]^[30] Similarly, New Zealand's associated states Cook Islands (capital: Avarua) and Niue (capital: Alofi) manage internal affairs independently since 1965 and 1974, respectively.^[31]^[32] The following table lists select dependent territories and associated states, grouped by administering state, with their capitals:

Administering State	Territory/Associated State	Capital
Australia	Norfolk Island	Kingston^[33]
Denmark	Faroe Islands	Tórshavn^[34]
Denmark	Greenland	Nuuk^[35]
France	French Guiana	Cayenne^[28]
France	French Polynesia	Papeete^[28]
France	Guadeloupe	Basse-Terre^[28]
France	Martinique	Fort-de-France^[28]
France	Mayotte	Mamoudzou^[28]
France	New Caledonia	Nouméa^[28]
France	Réunion	Saint-Denis^[28]
Netherlands	Aruba	Oranjestad^[36]
Netherlands	Bonaire	Kralendijk^[36]
Netherlands	Curaçao	Willemstad^[36]
Netherlands	Saba	The Bottom^[36]
Netherlands	Sint Eustatius	Oranjestad^[36]
Netherlands	Sint Maarten	Philipsburg^[36]
New Zealand	Cook Islands	Avarua^[32]
New Zealand	Niue	Alofi^[37]
United Kingdom	Anguilla	The Valley^[38]
United Kingdom	Bermuda	Hamilton^[27]
United Kingdom	British Virgin Islands	Road Town^[38]
United Kingdom	Cayman Islands	George Town^[38]
United Kingdom	Falkland Islands	Stanley^[27]
United Kingdom	Gibraltar	Gibraltar^[27]
United Kingdom	Montserrat	Plymouth (de facto: Brades)^[38]
United Kingdom	Saint Helena	Jamestown^[27]
United Kingdom	Turks and Caicos Islands	Cockburn Town^[38]
United States	American Samoa	Pago Pago^[39]
United States	Guam	Hagåtña^[39]
United States	Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan^[39]
United States	Puerto Rico	San Juan^[39]
United States	U.S. Virgin Islands	Charlotte Amalie^[39]
United States (assoc.)	Federated States of Micronesia	Palikir^[30]
United States (assoc.)	Marshall Islands	Majuro^[30]
United States (assoc.)	Palau	Ngerulmud^[30]

Uninhabited or minimally populated territories, such as Australia's Ashmore and Cartier Islands or the UK's South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, lack designated capitals.^[33]^[38] Status and administrative details can evolve, as seen in the Netherlands Antilles dissolution in 2010, redistributing islands into constituent countries or special municipalities.^[36]

Supranational and International Capitals

Supranational organizations, which involve member states delegating certain sovereign powers to common institutions, often designate primary administrative centers that serve as functional capitals. The European Union (EU), established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and expanded through subsequent treaties, has its key institutions concentrated in Brussels, Belgium, including the European Commission, Council of the European Union, and European Council. Strasbourg, France, hosts the European Parliament's plenary sessions, while Luxembourg accommodates the European Court of Justice, reflecting a distributed but Brussels-centric model formalized by the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht. International organizations, formed by treaties among sovereign states without supranational authority transfer, similarly locate headquarters in host cities that facilitate diplomacy and operations. The United Nations (UN), founded in 1945 via the UN Charter signed in San Francisco, maintains its principal headquarters in New York City, United States, spanning 18 acres along the East River and hosting the General Assembly, Security Council, and Secretariat. Geneva, Switzerland, serves as a major hub for UN specialized agencies, including the World Health Organization (WHO, established 1948) and International Labour Organization (ILO, founded 1919), due to Switzerland's neutrality and the city's diplomatic infrastructure developed since the 19th-century Geneva Conventions. Other prominent international headquarters include the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank Group in Washington, D.C., United States, both established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference to stabilize global finance post-World War II. Vienna, Austria, hosts the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, founded 1960) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, created 1957), leveraging the city's central European position and multilateral facilities. Regional bodies also designate capitals: the African Union (AU), successor to the Organization of African Unity and established in 2002, is headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on a 240-hectare campus to coordinate continental integration efforts. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed in 1967, rotates its secretariat among member states but maintains a permanent base in Jakarta, Indonesia, since 1976. These locations often result from host agreements providing legal immunities, tax exemptions, and infrastructure, as seen in the 1947 UN-US Headquarters Agreement.

Organization	Headquarters City	Host Country	Year Established
European Union (de facto)	Brussels	Belgium	1957 (EEC precursor)
United Nations	New York City	United States	1945
World Health Organization	Geneva	Switzerland	1948
International Monetary Fund	Washington, D.C.	United States	1944
African Union	Addis Ababa	Ethiopia	2002
OPEC	Vienna	Austria	1960
ASEAN Secretariat	Jakarta	Indonesia	1967 (permanent HQ 1976)

These designations can evolve; for instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), founded in 1949, relocated its headquarters to a new Brussels campus in 2017 to enhance security and capacity for 31 member states. Host cities derive economic benefits, such as employment and tourism, but face challenges like extraterritorial privileges and protest risks, as evidenced by demonstrations at the 2001 WTO Ministerial Conference in Doha, though primarily UN and EU sites experience routine diplomatic tensions.

Multiple and De Facto Capitals

Countries with Multiple Designated Capitals

Several sovereign states designate more than one city as a capital, assigning specific governmental functions to each to distribute political power, honor historical precedents, or foster regional equity. These arrangements are typically enshrined in constitutions or foundational laws, distinguishing them from de facto administrative centers without formal designation. As of 2025, at least eight countries maintain such systems, often evolving from compromises during nation-building or post-colonial transitions.^[40]^[41]

Country	Capitals and Designations
Bolivia	Sucre (constitutional and judicial capital, per 2009 constitution); La Paz (executive and legislative seat, established after 1898 civil war resolving rivalry between mining and coastal interests).^[41]^[42]
Burundi	Gitega (political capital, designated 2019 to centralize administration and reduce ethnic tensions in the east); Bujumbura (economic capital, retaining commercial role on Lake Tanganyika).^[40]
Côte d'Ivoire	Yamoussoukro (official political capital since 1983 decree by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, housing presidency and national assembly); Abidjan (economic and de facto diplomatic hub, with some legislative functions).^[43]^[41]
Eswatini	Mbabane (administrative capital, site of government offices); Lobamba (legislative and royal capital, location of parliament and king's residence, per traditional monarchy structure).^[40]^[44]
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur (federal and royal capital, hosting monarchy and parts of legislature); Putrajaya (administrative capital since 1999, designed as a planned city for federal agencies to alleviate Kuala Lumpur's congestion).^[41]^[45]
Netherlands	Amsterdam (constitutional capital, where monarch is inaugurated and constitution upheld, per 1814/1848 constitutions); The Hague (seat of government, parliament, supreme court, and international tribunals).^[46]^[42]
South Africa	Pretoria (administrative capital, executive branch); Cape Town (legislative capital, national assembly); Bloemfontein (judicial capital, supreme court of appeal), formalized in 1910 Union constitution to balance Boer and British legacies post-1899-1902 war, reaffirmed 1996.^[41]^[43]
Sri Lanka	Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (administrative and legislative capital since 1982 relocation for security amid ethnic conflict); Colombo (commercial and executive capital, retaining partial diplomatic functions).^[40]^[44]

These designations reflect pragmatic governance choices rather than unified centralization, with functions rarely overlapping significantly to avoid inefficiency. For instance, South Africa's tripartite model prevents dominance by any single region, while Bolivia's split perpetuates highland-lowland tensions resolved violently in the late 19th century. Changes are infrequent; Burundi's 2019 shift aimed to assert control over Hutu-Tutsi dynamics but faced logistical hurdles.^[41]^[40]

Disputed or Unrecognized Capitals

The status of certain capitals remains contested due to partial international recognition of the claiming entity, ongoing territorial disputes, or lack of consensus on sovereignty. These cases typically involve breakaway regions, self-declared states, or partitions where the capital's legitimacy is challenged by parent states or the broader community of nations, often leading to limited diplomatic engagement and no widespread embassy relocations. As of October 2025, such capitals are associated with entities that do not meet full criteria for universal sovereignty under frameworks like the Montevideo Convention, despite de facto governance in some instances.^[47] Pristina serves as the capital of Kosovo, which unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on February 17, 2008. Kosovo's independence is recognized by 119 United Nations member states, including the United States, United Kingdom, and most European Union countries, but it is rejected by Serbia, Russia, China, and others, preventing UN membership. This partial recognition, totaling about 62% of UN members, stems from Serbia's claim that Kosovo remains an autonomous province within its territory, a position upheld by International Court of Justice advisory opinions emphasizing self-determination limits without explicit secession rights.^[48]^[49]^[50] Taipei functions as the seat of government for Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, which operates as a de facto independent entity governing 23.8 million people since retreating to the island in 1949 following the Chinese Civil War. Only 12 UN member states—primarily small nations in Latin America and the Pacific, such as Paraguay, Guatemala, and Palau—plus the Holy See maintain formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan as of 2025, pressured by the People's Republic of China's "One China" policy that views Taiwan as a renegade province. The United States and others provide unofficial support via arms sales and economic partnerships but adhere to strategic ambiguity on formal recognition to avoid escalation.^[51]^[52] Hargeisa is the capital of Somaliland, a self-declared republic that separated from Somalia in 1991 after the collapse of the Siad Barre regime, controlling a territory of approximately 176,120 square kilometers with a population exceeding 5 million. Despite holding democratic elections, issuing its own currency, and maintaining relative stability compared to Somalia, Somaliland lacks recognition from any foreign government, as international policy prioritizes Somalia's territorial integrity under the African Union charter. Efforts for recognition, including recent U.S. congressional advocacy, have not succeeded, leaving Hargeisa without formal diplomatic missions beyond informal trade offices.^[53]^[54] Sukhumi acts as the capital of Abkhazia, which broke away from Georgia amid ethnic conflict in the early 1990s and formally declared independence in 1999, with de facto control over about 8,660 square kilometers. Abkhazia receives diplomatic recognition from only five UN members—Russia (since 2008), Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria—primarily due to Russian military support following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, which Georgia deems an occupation. The European Union and most Western states view Abkhazia as Georgian territory under illegal Russian influence, limiting Sukhumi's international engagement.^[55]^[56] Lefkoşa (the northern part of Nicosia) is the capital of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, established after Turkey's 1974 invasion of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed coup. Proclaimed in 1983, Northern Cyprus is recognized solely by Turkey, with all other states and the UN regarding it as Cypriot territory under unlawful occupation, per UN Security Council resolutions. The division of Nicosia itself symbolizes the island's partition, with the Republic of Cyprus administering the southern portion as its capital.^[47] Jerusalem's status as capital is disputed between Israel and the Palestinian territories. Israel declared it its undivided capital in 1980, a move recognized by the United States since December 2017 via embassy relocation, and by a handful of others like Guatemala; however, the UN and most nations (over 140 UN members recognizing Palestine) deem East Jerusalem occupied Palestinian territory pending bilateral negotiations, maintaining embassies in Tel Aviv. The State of Palestine, a UN non-member observer state recognized by 145 UN members, claims East Jerusalem as its capital but administers from Ramallah due to Israeli control.^[57]^[58]^[59] Other examples include Tskhinvali, capital of South Ossetia (recognized by the same five states as Abkhazia, disputed by Georgia), and Tiraspol, capital of Transnistria (no recognition, claimed by Moldova). These cases highlight how limited recognition perpetuates isolation, with de facto governance often reliant on patron states like Russia.^[55]

Planned and Emerging Capitals

Purpose-Built Capitals Under Construction

The construction of purpose-built national capitals involves designing and developing entirely new cities from undeveloped land to serve as seats of government, often motivated by overcrowding in existing capitals, geographic centralization, or economic diversification. As of October 2025, two major projects exemplify this approach: Indonesia's Nusantara and Egypt's New Administrative Capital, both aimed at relocating administrative functions while incorporating modern infrastructure like smart city technologies and sustainable features. These initiatives face challenges including funding shortfalls, construction delays, and debates over economic viability, yet they represent ambitious efforts to engineer urban centers tailored for governance.^[60] Egypt's New Administrative Capital (NAC), located approximately 45 kilometers east of Cairo in the desert, broke ground in 2015 as part of Egypt Vision 2030 to alleviate Cairo's congestion and centralize government operations in a planned metropolis spanning 700 square kilometers. Designed to accommodate over 6 million residents eventually, the NAC features a central business district with the 393-meter Iconic Tower, government buildings, and AI-monitored utilities for water and traffic management. By March 2025, satellite imagery revealed substantial progress, including completed foundational structures for ministries and residential districts, with phase two construction slated to commence that year to expand administrative and residential zones. Chinese firms, such as those contracted for key infrastructure, are integral to the project, which has drawn skepticism over its $58 billion estimated cost and potential to exacerbate inequality by prioritizing elite developments amid Egypt's economic pressures.^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65] Indonesia's Nusantara, situated in East Kalimantan on Borneo, initiated construction in 2022 to succeed Jakarta, which faces subsidence and overpopulation, with the goal of fostering equitable development across the archipelago. The 256,000-hectare site targets completion in phases by 2045, encompassing presidential palaces, legislative buildings, and green spaces, at an estimated cost of $35 billion. As of early 2025, core infrastructure like the airport and initial government facilities reached partial operational status for an August 17 inauguration event, but full relocation has been deferred to 2028 amid budget reductions—from $2.66 billion in 2024 to $386 million in 2026—and slowed progress due to investor hesitancy and environmental concerns over deforestation. Critics warn of a potential "white elephant" if private investment fails to materialize, as government funding covers only a fraction of needs, though proponents highlight its role in decentralizing power from Java.^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]

Project	Country	Location	Initiation Year	Estimated Cost	Key Status (2025)	Planned Features
New Administrative Capital	Egypt	East of Cairo	2015	$58 billion	Phase two starting; significant foundational work complete	Smart city AI, Iconic Tower, 6+ million capacity^[61]^[63]
Nusantara	Indonesia	East Kalimantan, Borneo	2022	$35 billion	Partial inauguration; relocation delayed to 2028	Phased build to 2045, sustainable zones, decentralization focus^[69]^[67]

Smaller-scale or nascent projects, such as Equatorial Guinea's Ciudad de la Paz and South Sudan's Ramciel, have been proposed as purpose-built capitals but exhibit limited verifiable construction activity as of 2025, hampered by political instability and funding constraints, rendering their status more aspirational than active.^[60]

Proposed or Recently Relocated Capitals

In recent decades, several nations have proposed or initiated capital relocations to mitigate urban congestion, environmental vulnerabilities, or geographic imbalances, often involving purpose-built cities in less populated regions. These efforts frequently face delays due to funding constraints, logistical challenges, and political shifts, with full implementation spanning years or decades. Notable examples include Indonesia's Nusantara project and Egypt's New Administrative Capital, both actively under development as of 2025.^[66]^[61] Indonesia announced plans in 2019 to relocate its capital from Jakarta to Nusantara (also known as Ibu Kota Nusantara or IKN), a new city in East Kalimantan, citing Jakarta's subsidence, flooding risks, and overpopulation affecting 10 million residents. Construction began in 2022, with initial phases focusing on infrastructure like the presidential palace and government buildings; by 2025, a Rp36.25 trillion (about $2.2 billion) budget supports ongoing work, including civil servant housing and connectivity. In October 2025, regulations redefined Nusantara as the "political capital," with President Prabowo Subianto confirming full government relocation by 2028, though earlier targets like August 2024 were postponed amid funding and environmental concerns.^[70]^[66]^[67] Egypt's New Administrative Capital (NAC), located 45 kilometers east of Cairo on 700 square kilometers of desert, was proposed in 2015 to decongest Cairo, which houses over 20 million people and strains resources. Development accelerated post-2018, with the parliament relocating there in 2021; by 2023, more than 30,000 government employees had moved, establishing it as the official administrative seat, though Cairo retains economic functions. As of 2025, construction continues on districts for 6 million residents, including a central business district, with Chinese firms contributing significantly to projects like the government headquarters.^[61]^[64]^[71] Burundi designated Gitega as its political capital in January 2019 via parliamentary vote, shifting from Bujumbura—100 kilometers east—to centralize governance in the country's geographic heart and promote national unity, while Bujumbura remains the economic hub. The transition, planned over three years, involved relocating legislative, executive, and judicial branches; President Pierre Nkurunziza initiated the process in 2007, with full implementation by early 2020s despite criticisms of resource diversion amid economic hardship.^[72]^[73]^[74] Tanzania accelerated its long-delayed shift to Dodoma, officially designated in 1974 for its central location to foster equitable development away from coastal Dar es Salaam. President John Magufuli relocated the executive in October 2019, moving over 1,500 officials by 2023 as part of a renewed push, including new parliamentary buildings; however, Dar es Salaam continues as the de facto commercial center, with full decentralization challenged by infrastructure gaps.^[75]^[76] Equatorial Guinea proposed Ciudad de la Paz (formerly Oyala or Djibloho) in 2011 as a new inland capital to replace island-based Malabo, vulnerable to volcanic activity from Mount Cameroon and isolation from the mainland population. Spanning jungle terrain, the project includes a presidential palace and conference center, but as of 2025, it remains largely unoccupied and underutilized despite billions invested, with no firm relocation timeline amid criticisms of opacity in funding from oil revenues.^[77]^[78]

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