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Lomas

Lomas, also known as fog oases or mist oases, are isolated ecosystems of vegetation sustained primarily by marine fog in the hyperarid coastal deserts of Peru and northern Chile.^[1] These formations occur as discontinuous "islands" along approximately 3,000 kilometers of the Pacific coast, from northern Peru (around 7°S latitude) to central Chile (around 30°S), where the cold Humboldt Current generates persistent fog that provides essential moisture in regions receiving less than 50 mm of annual rainfall.^[2]^[3] Characterized by low hills or lomas (Spanish for "hills") that trap fog droplets, these ecosystems support diverse plant communities, including endemic species adapted to the foggy microclimate, functioning as terrestrial islands separated by barren desert.^[4] Floristically, lomas host high levels of endemism (approximately 30% in Peru and 67% in Chile), with around 675 vascular plant species in Peru alone, many of which are succulent or shrub-like and bloom seasonally during the foggy winter months (June to October).^[5]^[6] Beyond their botanical richness, lomas play critical ecological roles, such as carbon sequestration, water regulation in arid zones, and serving as habitats for wildlife including birds, reptiles, and insects.^[7] Culturally, they hold historical significance, with archaeological evidence of human use dating back nearly 9,000 years for foraging and settlement.^[7] Despite their importance, lomas face severe threats from climate change, which is altering fog patterns and reducing moisture availability, as well as habitat destruction due to urbanization, agriculture, and mining activities.^[8] Recent conservation efforts, including the establishment of protected areas like Peru's Lomas de Atiquipa National Reserve in 2024, aim to safeguard these fragile oases, with ongoing research mapping undiscovered lomas to enhance preservation strategies.^[8]^[3]

Introduction and Definition

Etymology and Terminology

The term "lomas" derives from the Spanish word "loma," which denotes a small hill, knoll, or gentle slope, with "lomas" serving as its plural form.^[9] This usage reflects the topographic features of low, rounded elevations along the coastal regions of South America. The word "loma" itself originates from "lomo," meaning the back or loin of an animal, borrowed from Latin lumbus (loin), likely due to the resemblance of such hills to a rounded, elongated back. In ecological contexts, particularly along the arid Pacific coast of Peru and northern Chile, "lomas" has evolved into a specialized term designating coastal hills that harbor unique vegetation communities sustained by atmospheric moisture from fog.^[11] This contrasts with its broader colloquial application in Spanish-speaking regions to any hilly terrain. Alternative designations include "fog oases" or "mist oases" in English-language scientific literature, emphasizing their role as isolated, fog-dependent green patches in desert environments, while in Chile, they are often called "oasis de niebla" to highlight the fog (niebla) mechanism.^[12] The related concept of "garúa ecosystems" refers specifically to the foggy conditions (garúa being the Peruvian term for coastal mist) that enable these formations.^[13] The scientific adoption of "lomas" traces back to early botanical explorations in Peru, with the term appearing in descriptions by Spanish botanists Hipólito Ruiz López and José Antonio Pavón during their expedition from 1777 to 1788.^[14] In their 1799 publication Flora Peruviana et Chilensis, they documented plant collections from specific sites such as the "lomas of Lachay" and "lomas of Chancay," marking one of the earliest formal uses of the term in natural history literature. Subsequent 19th-century accounts by explorers and naturalists, including references in works on Peruvian geography and flora, further entrenched "lomas" as a descriptor for these ecologically distinct hill systems.^[15]

General Characteristics

Lomas are coastal hills or slopes situated in hyper-arid desert environments along the Pacific coast of South America, where vegetation is sustained primarily through the interception of marine fog rather than precipitation from rainfall. These ecosystems, often referred to as fog oases, emerge as isolated patches of greenery in otherwise barren landscapes, relying on advective fog to provide essential moisture for plant growth during the austral winter season.^[16]^[11]^[4] Physically, lomas typically occur at elevations ranging from 100 to 1,000 meters above sea level, though some extend up to 1,300 meters or higher in certain regions. Their soils are predominantly sandy or loamy in texture, frequently rocky, and enriched with high organic matter derived from fog deposition, which enhances water retention and nutrient availability in an otherwise nutrient-poor environment. In terms of scale, lomas vary from small patches covering a few hectares to expansive formations spanning thousands of hectares, with over 100 such sites identified across Peru and Chile.^[16]^[11]^[4]^[17] Functionally, lomas serve as island-like ecosystems, surrounded and isolated by vast expanses of desert, which fosters the development of distinct microclimates conducive to specialized flora and fauna. This isolation contributes to their status as biodiversity hotspots, harboring high levels of endemism and supporting unique ecological processes within these fog-dependent refugia.^[18]^[16]^[4]

Geographical Distribution

Locations in Peru

The lomas formations in Peru are concentrated along the central and southern coast, extending from approximately 5°S to 18°S latitude, where the cold Humboldt Current promotes the advection of marine fog that sustains these seasonal oases amid the arid coastal desert.^[1]^[15] A key site is Lomas de Lachay, positioned at 11°21′S, 77°23′W near Lima in the departments of Huaral and Huaura, functioning as a national reserve of 5,070 hectares established on June 21, 1977, via Supreme Decree No. 310-77-AG to preserve its unique fog-trapped vegetation and archaeological significance.^[19]^[15] Lomas de Amancaes, located at 12°01′S, 77°02′W in Lima's Rimac district, lies adjacent to urban expansion and covers more than 237 hectares, though much of its original vegetation has been degraded by housing developments and land trafficking, highlighting its vulnerability as a peri-urban ecosystem.^[15]^[20]^[21] In southern Peru, Lomas de Atiquipa at 15°48′S, 74°22′W in the Arequipa region features higher elevations averaging 740 meters and spans over 42,000 hectares, making it the largest and most intact lomas formation in the country, with slopes rising from near sea level to 1,000 meters.^[15]^[1]^[22] Northern lomas occur in the Sechura Desert between roughly 5°S and 10°S latitude and 80°W to 78°W, forming scattered oases in Piura and La Libertad departments that rely on intermittent fog to support diverse plant communities within the hyper-arid landscape.^[15]^[12] In June 2024, Peru granted a conservation concession for the 6,449-hectare (15,936-acre) Lomas y Tillandsiales de Nasca in the Ica region of southern Peru, securing state-owned land rich in endemic and threatened species against threats like mining and agriculture.^[8]

Locations in Chile

Lomas in Chile are predominantly distributed along the northern coastal belt, with the majority concentrated in the Coquimbo Region between approximately 29°S and 32°S latitude, where the interaction of coastal fog with arid topography creates isolated vegetated patches amid the surrounding desert. These formations extend northward into the hyper-arid Atacama Desert in the Atacama and Antofagasta Regions, featuring smaller, more discontinuous oases adapted to extreme aridity, and include fringes along the desert's coastal edges where fog deposition is sporadic but sufficient to support specialized plant communities. The total core verdant area of Chilean lomas is estimated at 1,714 km², comprising over 900 discrete patches that are generally smaller and more fragmented than their Peruvian counterparts, often separated by distances exceeding 150 km due to intensifying aridity northward.^[2] One of the most prominent sites is Bosque Fray Jorge National Park in the Coquimbo Region, situated about 100 km south of La Serena at 30°40'S, 71°41'W, where coastal hills trap fog to sustain a relict Valdivian temperate rainforest—an anomalous ecosystem in this semi-arid zone otherwise dominated by scrub and succulents. This park, covering 9,989 hectares, is distinguished by its elevation-driven fog capture on north-facing slopes, creating a misty microclimate that supports ancient forest relics far north of their typical range. Recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve since 1977, Bosque Fray Jorge highlights the role of fog oases in preserving disjunct biodiversity hotspots within Chile's coastal deserts.^[23]^[24] Further north, in the Atacama Region, Llanos de Challe National Park near Chañaral (28°30'S) represents a transitional fog oasis with expansive scrublands and seasonal herbaceous growth, covering over 44,000 hectares and serving as a southern anchor for Atacama lomas characterized by resilient drought-tolerant species. In the same region, Pan de Azúcar National Park (26°10'S) features coastal lomas with high endemism, including bromeliad-dominated fringes that thrive on minimal fog inputs amid hyper-arid conditions. Smaller patches persist near Antofagasta, such as at Paposo (25°28'S) and Alto Patache (24°20'S), where isolated hills form compact oases—often under 10 km²—dominated by Tillandsia air plants that exploit fog for survival in one of the driest places on Earth.^[2]^[25]

Ecological Features

Flora

The flora of Lomas ecosystems consists primarily of herbaceous shrubs, grasses, and succulents that form isolated patches of vegetation sustained by coastal fog in otherwise hyperarid deserts. In Peruvian Lomas, herbaceous perennials and annuals dominate, including species from the Poaceae family such as Eragrostis peruviana, alongside shrubs like Croton alnifolius and cacti such as Neoraimondia arequipensis.^[26] In Chilean Lomas, the vegetation shifts toward shrub-dominated communities with succulents like Copiapoa spp. and Eulychnia spp., as well as shrubs including Euphorbia lactiflua and members of the Asteraceae family.^[26] Across these formations, approximately 1,100 vascular plant species have been documented in Peru, spanning 83 families and 385 genera, with Poaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, and Fabaceae representing the most diverse families.^[27]^[15]^[4] Plants in Lomas exhibit specialized adaptations to capture and utilize fog moisture, their primary water source, which can provide 488–676 mm annually at sites like Lomas de Lachay in Peru. Many species feature pubescent or hairy leaf surfaces that enhance fog condensation and reduce transpiration, as observed in shrubs such as Croton and Baccharis spp., allowing them to thrive in low-rainfall conditions. Epiphytic bromeliads like Tillandsia landbeckii rely on foliar uptake of fog water, forming dense stands at fog-zone margins in the Atacama region of Chile. Vegetation growth is highly seasonal, with most herbaceous species germinating, growing, and blooming during the winter fog period from June to September, when stratus clouds provide consistent moisture.^[26]^[26]^[28] Endemism rates in Lomas flora are notably high, exceeding 40% of species in many formations due to long-term isolation by surrounding deserts, with approximately 42% of species in Peruvian Lomas being endemic. Southern Peruvian Lomas (15°–18°S) show particularly elevated endemism at 62%, including genera such as Nolana in the endemic family Nolanaceae. In Chile, endemism is similarly pronounced in the northern Atacama (24°14'–26°21'S), with unique elements like the cacti genera Islaya and Copiapoa. Relict forests of Nothofagus spp. in Fray Jorge, Chile, represent isolated outliers of Valdivian temperate rainforest, sustained by fog but vulnerable to environmental shifts.^[26]^[15]^[26]^[29]

Fauna

The fauna of lomas ecosystems is characterized by relatively low diversity due to the isolated, seasonal nature of these fog-dependent habitats, with typical assemblages including around 20 mammal species and 50 bird species across various sites.^[30] This limited biodiversity reflects adaptations to the ephemeral availability of moisture and vegetation, where many animals rely on the winter fog season (June to November) for foraging and breeding. Invertebrates and reptiles also exhibit specialized fog adaptations, such as skin structures in lizards for water collection, contributing to the ecosystem's resilience in hyper-arid coastal deserts.^[8] Among mammals, key species include the critically endangered Peruvian guanaco (Lama guanicoe cacsilensis), a subspecies found in lomas like those of Atiquipa, where it grazes on seasonal herbaceous vegetation.^[31] Rodents such as leaf-eared mice of the genus Phyllotis (e.g., Phyllotis limatus) are common, inhabiting scrub and rocky areas while serving as prey for predators. Birds feature prominently, with around 80-90 species recorded in larger lomas formations; notable examples include the endemic oasis hummingbird (Rhodopis vesper), which forages on nectar from fog-nurtured flowers in coastal scrub. Reptiles, such as lizards in the genus Liolaemus (e.g., Liolaemus species of the montanus group), dominate herpetofauna with about 10 species per site.^[32] Invertebrates, including fog-adapted insects like beetles and orthopterans, show lower documented diversity but play crucial roles in decomposition and pollination. Ecological interactions in lomas emphasize dependencies on the fog-driven flora, with many species acting as pollinators (e.g., hummingbirds and insects) and seed dispersers (e.g., rodents and guanacos) that facilitate plant reproduction during the brief green season.^[1] Migration patterns are closely tied to fog availability, as numerous birds seasonally descend from the Andes to exploit the lomas' temporary pastures and insect blooms when highland resources dwindle.^[2] These dynamics underscore the lomas' role as vital refugia, though isolation limits overall faunal richness compared to more connected ecosystems.

Climatic and Environmental Formation

Fog Mechanism

The garúa fog essential to lomas formations arises from the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters driven by the Humboldt Current along the Pacific coasts of Peru and northern Chile. This oceanic process cools the overlying air, promoting the development of low-lying stratus clouds that form a persistent fog layer, typically confined below a stable atmospheric temperature inversion layer at altitudes of 150–900 meters depending on the region.^[13] At night, the fog-laden air ascends the cooler slopes of coastal hills, where it condenses into water droplets upon contact with the terrain and vegetation surfaces. This nocturnal condensation is facilitated by the topography of the lomas, which acts as a barrier intercepting the moist air and enhancing deposition rates.^[13] The interception process by lomas vegetation and landforms captures fog water at rates of approximately 5–10 liters per square meter per day during peak events, providing a critical supplement to the region's extremely low annual rainfall of less than 50 millimeters. Fog thereby constitutes up to 90% of the total moisture available to lomas ecosystems, enabling the persistence of otherwise unsustainable plant communities in hyper-arid conditions.^[13] Scientific recognition of fog's dominant role in lomas hydrology dates to studies in the 1960s, including detailed analyses by Espinosa (1961) on Peruvian coastal fog dynamics and Rundel and Mahu (1976) on community structure in Chilean fog zones, which established the meteorological foundations for these oases.^[13]

Seasonal and Climatic Variations

The Lomas ecosystems exhibit a pronounced seasonal cycle driven primarily by the coastal fog, known as garúa in Peru and camanchaca in Chile, which provides the essential moisture in an otherwise hyper-arid environment. The "green season," occurring during the austral winter from approximately May to October, features persistent fog cover that sustains vegetation growth, transforming the hillsides into lush oases with ephemeral herbs and grasses emerging rapidly. During this period, relative humidity often reaches 80-100%, enabling occult precipitation that supports biodiversity hotspots amid the surrounding desert.^[33]^[11] In contrast, the "dry season" spans the austral summer from November to April, when the inversion layer lifts, fog diminishes, and sunny conditions prevail, leading to vegetation dormancy and a reversion to barren, desert-like landscapes. Average temperatures during the green season range from 12-15°C, with occasional drops to 7°C at night, while the dry season sees highs around 18-20°C, exacerbating water stress through increased evaporation. These climatic parameters highlight the Lomas' dependence on the narrow temporal window of fog for survival, with annual precipitation equivalents from fog estimated at 50-200 mm in favorable sites.^[11]^[34] Variability in these patterns is influenced by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), where El Niño events warm sea surface temperatures and reduce low-cloud formation, thereby disrupting fog incidence and shortening the effective green season. For instance, during the 1997-98 El Niño, fog frequency decreased in southern Peru and northern Chile, though compensatory heavy rains temporarily altered dynamics before seasonal norms resumed. La Niña phases, conversely, enhance fog persistence, stabilizing the cycle.^[35]^[33] As relict ecosystems originating in the Middle Miocene (approximately 13-15 million years ago) due to the establishment of the Humboldt Current and Andean uplift, the Lomas have persisted under relatively stable arid conditions along the Pacific coast, with the modern configuration stabilized since the mid-Holocene.^[13]^[11]

Human Impacts and Threats

Historical and Current Destruction

Human activities have long impacted lomas ecosystems, beginning with pre-colonial indigenous groups who utilized these fog oases for grazing wild guanaco and gathering plant resources such as tubers and fruits, alongside hunting land snails and using vegetation for fuel in hearths.^[36] This resource extraction, including overexploitation of woody plants for fuel, contributed to early ecosystem destabilization during the Middle Preceramic Period (c. 8000–5000 BP).^[37] Historical pressures, including agriculture and fuelwood harvesting, have depleted woody vegetation in lomas.^[37] Contemporary threats continue this degradation pattern, with urban expansion in Peru—particularly Lima's sprawl encroaching on lomas like Amancaes and Villa María del Triunfo—leading to habitat fragmentation, informal settlements, and loss of endemic flora through deforestation and pollution.^[38] In southern Peru, copper and gold mining operations overlap with lomas areas, causing soil contamination, water diversion, and vegetation clearance that disrupt fog-dependent habitats.^[39] Off-road vehicle use further damages fragile soils and vegetation by compacting ground, eroding surfaces, and fragmenting wildlife corridors across both Peruvian and Chilean lomas.^[2] Recent studies highlight persistent damage from off-road vehicles, with 2024 efforts exploring paramotoring as a low-impact alternative for accessing remote lomas to reduce environmental footprint.^[40] Air pollution from urban and industrial sources reduces fog viability by altering atmospheric moisture capture, exacerbating desiccation in these ecosystems.^[2] Overall, lomas have been significantly reduced and fragmented over centuries due to these human pressures, with only about 4% formally protected as of recent assessments in Peru and Chile.^[8]

Climate Change Effects

Climate change poses significant threats to the sustainability of lomas ecosystems, primarily through alterations in their fog-dependent water supply and associated environmental conditions. Warmer sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean are projected to reduce marine fog frequency and intensity, which is essential for lomas vegetation as it provides nearly all moisture in these arid coastal zones.^[41] Additionally, shifting patterns of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are expected to disrupt rainfall variability, leading to more irregular precipitation events that exacerbate water scarcity in lomas regions.^[41] Increased drought stress under future scenarios, particularly higher-emission pathways like SSP3-7.0, will further intensify aridification, reducing soil moisture and challenging the adaptive limits of fog-reliant flora.^[41] These climatic shifts are anticipated to severely impact lomas biodiversity, with habitat suitability for plant species projected to decline across both low- (SSP1-2.6) and high-emission (SSP3-7.0) scenarios by the end of the century.^[41] Endemic plants, which comprise a significant portion of lomas flora, face heightened vulnerability, prompting potential upslope migrations that may not succeed due to topographic constraints.^[41] Overall, these changes could accelerate desertification, undermining the ecological connectivity that sustains lomas as biodiversity hotspots.^[4] Recent studies from 2021 to 2022 provide evidence of ongoing declines in fog occurrence within key lomas areas, including the Sechura Desert in northern Peru and the Atacama in northern Chile, where reduced fog has already contributed to vegetation stress and habitat contraction.^[3]^[42] These observations align with broader trends of aridification along the Pacific coast, amplifying the risk of ecosystem tipping points as fog frequency—historically the primary water source—continues to wane.^[41]

Conservation and Preservation

Protected Areas

The Lomas de Lachay National Reserve in Peru, established on June 21, 1977, protects 5,070 hectares of coastal lomas ecosystems in the Huaura and Huaral provinces, serving as one of the most intact examples of this fog-dependent habitat.^[19] Managed by Peru's Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado (SERNANP), the reserve features designated trails and guided entry points for monitoring visitor impacts.^[43] In Chile, Bosque Fray Jorge National Park, created in 1941 and designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977, encompasses approximately 10,000 hectares, including significant lomas formations alongside relict Valdivian forests in the Coquimbo Region.^[23]^[24] Administered by the Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF), the park implements government oversight through patrols and access controls, limiting off-trail activities to prevent erosion and habitat degradation in these arid coastal zones. A notable recent development is the 2024 establishment of the Lomas y Tillandsiales de Amara y Ullujaya conservation concession in southern Peru, covering 6,449 hectares and safeguarding unique lomas habitats.^[8] Overall, these and other designations protect approximately 4% of global lomas ecosystems across Peru and Chile, highlighting the ongoing need for expanded formal safeguards.^[2]

Conservation Efforts

Conservation efforts for lomas ecosystems have intensified in recent decades, driven by international botanical institutions and local organizations to address habitat loss and biodiversity decline. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has led the Fog Oasis project since the early 2010s, focusing on comprehensive mapping of these ecosystems across Peru and Chile through satellite imagery and ground surveys, while collecting plant specimens for preservation in the Millennium Seed Bank to safeguard genetic diversity against threats like climate variability.^[7]^[44] In parallel, Peruvian non-governmental organizations such as Huarango Nature have undertaken restoration initiatives since 2001, planting native species in coastal lomas to restore degraded vegetation and enhance ecosystem resilience, including efforts in areas like Lomas de Atiquipa.^[44]^[45] Advancements in research have bolstered these programs by improving monitoring capabilities. A 2021 study utilizing 20 years of MODIS satellite imagery mapped over 17,000 km² of fog oases in Peru and Chile, revealing more than four times the previously estimated area—such as 12,052 km² of verdant lomas in Peru compared to 3,060 km² in earlier assessments—thus highlighting previously undocumented sites for targeted protection.^[2] Building on this, in 2024, Kew scientists collaborated with paramotor experts to conduct aerial surveys in remote Peruvian lomas, enabling rapid plant sampling, habitat monitoring, and sensor deployment while minimizing ground disturbance; these missions covered distances up to nine times faster than traditional off-road vehicles and reduced carbon emissions by two-thirds, facilitating efficient data collection for conservation planning.^[40]^[46] On the international front, efforts have leveraged global frameworks to advocate for broader safeguards. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), in alignment with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), has funded projects like the 2016 initiative for the conservation, management, and rehabilitation of fragile lomas ecosystems in Lima Province, Peru, emphasizing integrated protection strategies and calling for expanded designations to cover the low 4% of currently protected fog oases.^[47]^[48] Community engagement has also been integral, with local groups in Peru participating in habitat restoration and monitoring to protect keystone species such as guanacos (Lama guanicoe), which utilize lomas as vital foraging corridors, thereby reducing poaching pressures through collaborative anti-encroachment patrols.^[49]

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[42]
Lomas de Atiquipa | Natural History of Ecological Restoration
Jan 3, 2016 · 500 years ago, the river valleys were occupied by dense woodlands or veritable forests of Prosopis limensis (local name – Huarango), which is ...Missing: fuelwood | Show results with:fuelwood
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Beyond 4 × 4: Paramotoring a novel approach to accelerate plant ...
Sep 24, 2024 · Our study demonstrates the scientific potential of paramotoring to access fragile desert ecosystems and investigate unrecorded habitats and species.
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Extreme botany: Paramotorists soar across remote Peru desert to ...
Sep 25, 2024 · Scientists work with paramotorists to reach delicate and inaccessible desert ecosystems for urgent conservation; This 'extreme sport' offers ...
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Conservation, Management and Rehabilitation of Fragile Lomas ...
Contribute to an integrated management and protection of fragile lomas ecosystems in the Province of Lima. Project Details. GEF Project ID. 5458. Country. Peru.Missing: restoration | Show results with:restoration
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GEF-financed projects on conservation
Jul 31, 2023 · 2016 Conservation, Management and Rehabilitation of Fragile Lomas Ecosystems Peru United Nations Development Programme $1,983,799; 2016 ...
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Palynological characterization of a diverse desertic ecosystem
Oct 1, 2024 · Lomas vegetation is highly dynamic, with some species remaining consistent every year while others fluctuate, appearing and disappearing with ...