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Long posterior ciliary arteries

The long posterior ciliary arteries are a pair of arteries, typically one medial and one lateral, that originate from the ophthalmic artery and provide essential blood supply to key structures in the anterior segment of the eye, including the ciliary muscle, ciliary body, iris, and anterior choroid.^[1]^[2]^[3] These arteries branch off the ophthalmic artery near the junction of its first and second intraorbital segments, with variations occasionally resulting in one or two vessels rather than the standard pair.^[1]^[3] They pierce the sclera adjacent to the optic nerve at the posterior pole of the eye, then course anteriorly in a horizontal plane between the sclera and choroid, extending radially toward the iris without penetrating the choroid itself.^[2]^[3] Along their path, the long posterior ciliary arteries give rise to smaller branches that nourish the choroid and ciliary muscle, while the main trunks continue to form the major arterial circle of the iris near the ciliary body, distributing blood to the iris and ciliary processes.^[1]^[2]^[4] Functionally, these arteries ensure nutrient delivery and waste removal to the ciliary body and iris, supporting accommodation and aqueous humor regulation, while their anastomoses with short posterior ciliary arteries contribute to the circle of Zinn-Haller, which supplies the optic nerve head.^[3]^[4] Clinically, occlusion or compromise of the long posterior ciliary arteries can lead to ischemic damage in the choroid or optic nerve, potentially contributing to conditions like anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, though their anatomy exhibits inter-individual variability that complicates targeted interventions.^[3]

Overview

Definition and origin

The long posterior ciliary arteries are paired branches of the ophthalmic artery, typically consisting of one medial and one lateral artery that supply sectors of the anterior uveal tract.^[1] They arise as part of the posterior ciliary artery system from the ophthalmic artery, which itself originates from the internal carotid artery.^[5] In relation to the overall branching pattern of the ophthalmic artery, the long posterior ciliary arteries arise as part of the posterior ciliary arteries, which often emerge in proximity to other key branches such as the central retinal artery and short posterior ciliary arteries.^[6] These arteries originate from the second (intraorbital) segment of the ophthalmic artery, shortly after it passes through the optic canal and travels within the dural sheath of the optic nerve. The site of origin is located approximately 5-10 mm posterior to the globe, near the posterior pole of the eye, where the arteries pierce the sclera adjacent to the optic nerve sheath. This positioning allows them to enter the intraocular space in a horizontal plane, medial and lateral to the optic nerve.^[7] The nomenclature "long posterior ciliary arteries" distinguishes them from the short posterior ciliary arteries (typically 10-20 in number), as the long variants extend further anteriorly between the sclera and choroid without early branching, ultimately contributing to the major arterial circle of the iris near the ciliary body.^[8] In contrast, the short posterior ciliary arteries branch more proximally to supply localized posterior choroidal regions and the optic nerve head.^[1] This distinction was clarified through experimental studies demonstrating their differential paths and supply territories.^[8] The historical naming of these arteries traces back to early 19th-century anatomical works, with detailed descriptions emerging in systematic texts that categorized ocular vascular structures based on their length and trajectory. Seminal 20th-century research, such as experimental investigations in primates, further refined understanding of their origins and distinctions by addressing prior misconceptions about direct branching from the ophthalmic artery.^[8]

General characteristics

The long posterior ciliary arteries are typically two in number, comprising one medial (superonasal) and one lateral (inferotemporal) vessel that arise as branches of the ophthalmic artery. These arteries exhibit notable anatomical variability, with studies reporting the presence of one or two arteries per eye; in one analysis of 100 eyeballs, 67% featured both medial and lateral branches, while 33% had only a single artery, often located medially. Reports of three long posterior ciliary arteries occur occasionally, though instances of four remain rare and are not well-documented in large cohorts.^[1]^[9] In terms of size, these arteries measure approximately 0.3 mm in diameter at their origin (range 0.2-0.4 mm), with a slight increase anteriorly due to branching. Their length spans roughly the axial length of the globe from the posterior pole to the iris root. Anatomical variations may include the presence of multiple smaller branches instead of distinct single trunks or, rarely, direct origin from sources other than the standard ophthalmic pathway. Asymmetry between the two eyes, such as differences in number or positioning, is observed in approximately 5-10% of individuals based on cadaveric and imaging studies.^[10]^[2] Macroscopically, the long posterior ciliary arteries appear as thin-walled, tortuous vessels embedded within the plane between the sclera and choroid, facilitating their anterior progression without significant exposure to surrounding orbital structures. These features contribute to their resilience in the confined ocular environment while allowing for the observed inter-individual variability.^[1]^[9]

Anatomy

Course and relations

The long posterior ciliary arteries, typically two in number (one nasal and one temporal), originate as branches of the ophthalmic artery and enter the orbit by piercing the sclera approximately 3 to 4 mm from the optic nerve insertion, with the nasal artery entering medially and the temporal artery laterally.^[11]^[6] Upon entry, they course forward within the suprachoroidal space, a potential space between the sclera and choroid.^[12]^[2] These arteries run anteriorly in the horizontal plane between the sclera and choroid, diverging to the medial and lateral aspects of the globe, with the nasal artery positioned medial to the optic nerve and the temporal artery lateral to it, thereby loosely encircling the nerve without direct contact.^[6]^[13] Posteriorly, they lie adjacent to the short posterior ciliary arteries, which enter closer to the optic nerve.^[11]^[2] Along their path, they course parallel to the vortex veins, which also traverse the suprachoroidal space before exiting at the equator.^[2] Positioned within the loose connective tissue of the perichoroidal (suprachoroidal) space, these arteries are particularly vulnerable to traction forces, especially at their scleral penetration sites during surgical manipulation.^[12]^[14] The arteries continue anteriorly to reach the ciliary body near the ora serrata, approximately 18 to 24 mm from the optic disc margin, longer temporally than nasally.^[6]^[15] At this point, they penetrate the ciliary body to terminate by forming arterial arcades within the iris stroma.^[13]^[5]

Branches and distribution

The long posterior ciliary arteries, typically numbering two (one medial and one lateral), exhibit minimal branching along their initial course after piercing the sclera near the optic nerve. The main trunks travel anteriorly in the suprachoroidal space, giving off small branches that supply discrete sectors of the posterior choroid up to the equator. These branches provide a segmental vascular supply to the choroid, with the temporal artery covering a smaller sector and the nasal artery a larger one, ensuring non-overlapping coverage that collectively contributes to circumferential perfusion of the posterior uveal tract.^[6]^[8] In their distribution to the choroid, the long posterior ciliary arteries deliver blood to medial and lateral sectors extending from the peripapillary region to the equator, nourishing the choriocapillaris and underlying structures without significant early ramifications beyond these targeted areas. Upon reaching the anterior segment near the ora serrata, the arteries enter the ciliary muscle and processes from the suprachoroidal space. Here, they form branches that contribute to the minor arterial circle of the ciliary body, providing essential vascularization to this structure responsible for accommodation.^[1]^[3] Further anteriorly, the long posterior ciliary arteries anastomose at the iris root to establish the major arterial circle, from which recurrent branches arise to supply the anterior surface of the iris and pupillary margin. This distribution pattern underscores the arteries' role in maintaining isolated, segmental territories within the uvea, minimizing overlap and supporting efficient oxygenation of the anterior ocular structures.^[1]^[6]

Anastomoses

The long posterior ciliary arteries establish key vascular interconnections with other ocular arteries, ensuring redundancy in blood supply to the uveal tract and adjacent structures. Posteriorly, non-terminal branches of these arteries anastomose with branches of the short posterior ciliary arteries near the optic nerve head, contributing to the formation of the peripapillary circle, which encircles the optic disc and supports laminar blood flow in the region.^[16] ^[6] Anteriorly, the long posterior ciliary arteries connect with the anterior ciliary arteries—derived from the muscular branches supplying the extraocular rectus muscles—at the corneoscleral limbus. This union completes a circumferential vascular network for the anterior segment, often described as the anterior segment circle, facilitating integrated perfusion of the ciliary body and iris periphery.^[1] ^[12] Within the choroid, the long posterior ciliary arteries supply medial and lateral sectors and interconnect with the short posterior ciliary arteries through the extensive capillary plexus known as the choriocapillaris. This microvascular network allows for diffuse mixing of arterial inputs, promoting even distribution of nutrients across choroidal lobules despite the primarily segmental nature of the supplying arteries.^[6] ^[17] At the iris, the two long posterior ciliary arteries converge and anastomose to form an incomplete major arterial circle near the ciliary body margin, with branches from the major arterial circle forming the minor arterial circle centrally. This arrangement supports radial distribution to iris stroma and pupillary margin, enhancing circumferential flow.^[1] ^[18] These anastomotic connections provide potential collateral pathways in the ocular circulation, mitigating the risk of ischemia during partial arterial compromise by allowing alternative routes for blood flow, though experimental evidence indicates limited inter-arterial mixing in vivo due to watershed zones between major contributors.^[17]

Function

Supply to ocular structures

The long posterior ciliary arteries provide essential vascular supply to the anterior choroid, where they branch into smaller vessels that form part of the choriocapillaris network, facilitating the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients to support the high metabolic demands of photoreceptors in the outer retina.^[2] This contribution is integral to the choroidal circulation, which accounts for approximately 85% of total ocular blood flow, ensuring adequate oxygenation for retinal function despite the avascular nature of the outer retinal layers.^[19] In the ciliary body, the long posterior ciliary arteries deliver blood to the ciliary processes, which are critical for the production of aqueous humor through active secretion mechanisms, and to the ciliary muscle, enabling its contraction for lens accommodation during focusing.^[20] This perfusion supports the metabolic processes required for humor formation and muscular activity, maintaining the eye's optical adjustments.^[21] For the iris, the long posterior ciliary arteries extend forward to form the major arterial circle at the iris root, branching to perfuse the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles, thereby ensuring their oxygenation for precise pupillary constriction and dilation in response to light and autonomic stimuli.^[22] Adequate blood supply here is vital for rapid neuromuscular responses that regulate light entry and protect intraocular structures.^[3] As high-flow, low-resistance vessels, the long posterior ciliary arteries promote efficient oxygen delivery across uveal tissues, helping to sustain necessary pressure gradients within the eye while minimizing vascular impedance to match the choroid's rapid transit needs for nutrient exchange.^[2] This hemodynamic profile supports overall tissue viability without compromising intraocular dynamics.^[17] The long posterior ciliary arteries contribute indirectly to optic disc nutrition through peripapillary anastomoses with short posterior ciliary arteries, forming networks like the circle of Zinn-Haller that supplement blood flow to the retinal nerve fiber layer and laminar regions.^[3] These connections enhance resilience in the optic nerve head's vascular bed.^[17]

Role in circulation

The long posterior ciliary arteries form an integral part of the posterior ciliary arterial system, which collectively arises from the ophthalmic artery to supply the uveal tract. Typically numbering two—one medial and one lateral—these arteries balance the dominant supply from the more numerous short posterior ciliary arteries. This distribution ensures a dual medial-lateral perfusion pattern that supports the overall ocular vascular network, with the long arteries primarily directing flow to anterior uveal structures and select choroidal sectors. Autoregulation of blood flow in the long posterior ciliary arteries is mediated by myogenic mechanisms within their vessel walls, allowing them to respond dynamically to fluctuations in intraocular pressure. When intraocular pressure rises, the vascular smooth muscle contracts to maintain stable perfusion, preventing excessive pressure transmission to downstream tissues; conversely, reductions in pressure trigger vasodilation to preserve flow. This myogenic response is crucial for stabilizing choroidal hemodynamics across a wide range of physiological conditions, as demonstrated in experimental models of isolated choroidal arteries. In scenarios of vascular occlusion, the long posterior ciliary arteries facilitate collateral pathways that support retrograde flow, thereby sustaining choroidal perfusion through interconnections with adjacent arterial segments and choriocapillaris lobules. Experimental occlusion studies reveal that while primary supply is segmental, recovery of flow occurs via these collaterals, minimizing ischemic damage to perfused zones. Additionally, these arteries interact closely with the venous drainage system, channeling blood into the vortex veins that exit the globe posteriorly; this integration helps regulate choroidal volume and hydrostatic pressure, as the arteries' positioning influences the compartmentalization of flow and prevents excessive venous congestion. Embryologically, the long posterior ciliary arteries develop from extensions of the hyaloid vascular system during early ocular angiogenesis, establishing their characteristic dual medial-lateral supply configuration by the eighth week of gestation. This timing aligns with the closure of the embryonic fissure and the maturation of the choroidal vasculature, ensuring balanced perfusion from the outset of uveal development.^[23]

Clinical significance

Associated pathologies

Choroidal infarction resulting from long posterior ciliary artery occlusion is a rare condition, manifesting as characteristic triangular patches of pale fundus known as the Amalric sign, which may evolve into areas of retinal pigment epithelium atrophy over time. These infarcts arise from hypoperfusion in the anterior choroidal circulation and are associated with immunological disorders, including giant cell arteritis (GCA), which accounts for a notable proportion of cases in elderly patients. Arterial hypertension serves as a primary risk factor for such ischemic events.^[24]^[25] Iris ischemia due to dysfunction or occlusion of the long posterior ciliary arteries disrupts blood supply to the anterior segment, contributing to anterior segment ischemia (ASI) and potentially leading to neovascular glaucoma through hypoxic stimulation of angiogenesis in the iris and anterior chamber angle. This ischemia can result in anterior chamber angle closure, pupillary abnormalities, and inflammatory responses such as uveitis, with the long posterior ciliary arteries providing 20-30% of the anterior segment's vascular supply.^[26]^[27] In diabetic vasculopathy, structural changes such as vessel wall thickening and impaired autoregulation affect the long posterior ciliary arteries, reducing blood flow and exacerbating conditions like diabetic retinopathy by compromising choroidal and anterior segment perfusion. These alterations increase the risk of ischemic optic neuropathy and other ocular complications in diabetic patients.^[28]

Diagnostic and surgical considerations

Diagnostic imaging plays a crucial role in identifying occlusions or hypoperfusion involving the long posterior ciliary arteries. Fluorescein angiography (FA) is a standard invasive technique that visualizes vascular flow dynamics, revealing delayed choroidal filling or segmental non-perfusion in cases of posterior ciliary artery occlusion, which aids in confirming ischemic events affecting the choroid and optic nerve head.^[29] Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) offers a non-invasive alternative, enabling detection of choroidal hypoperfusion through depth-resolved imaging of the choriocapillaris and deeper vessels without dye injection, particularly useful in conditions like giant cell arteritis where posterior ciliary artery involvement leads to reduced flow.^[30] In ocular surgeries such as glaucoma filtration procedures, including trabeculectomy, manipulation or traction on the long posterior ciliary arteries poses risks of vascular rupture, leading to suprachoroidal or hyphema hemorrhage; reported incidences of postoperative hyphema range from 3.9% to 56%, with lower rates for severe suprachoroidal events around 0.6–1.4%.^[31]^[32] To mitigate these risks, surgeons must exercise caution during scleral dissection to avoid undue tension on these vessels, which supply the anterior uveal structures. Therapeutic interventions targeting pathologies linked to long posterior ciliary artery compromise emphasize rapid initiation to limit damage. During cataract surgery or procedures involving scleral fixation, such as intraocular lens implantation, intraoperative preservation of the long posterior ciliary arteries is essential; surgeons should avoid scleral manipulation at the 3 and 9 o'clock positions, the typical entry points of these arteries, to prevent iatrogenic occlusion, hyphema, or vitreous hemorrhage.^[33] Postoperative monitoring utilizes fundus autofluorescence (FAF) to detect early choroidal alterations following occlusion, highlighting areas of lipofuscin accumulation or RPE disruption indicative of ischemic injury before structural changes become evident on other modalities.^[34]

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