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Ophthalmic artery

The ophthalmic artery (OA) is the first major branch of the internal carotid artery (ICA), typically arising from its supraclinoid segment just distal to the cavernous sinus and medial to the anterior clinoid process.^[1] It enters the orbit through the optic canal, running lateral and inferior to the optic nerve, before crossing superiorly over the nerve in approximately 83% of cases to supply the contents of the orbit, the globe, and adjacent extracranial structures.^[2]^[3] The artery's course within the orbit is divided into three segments: an initial straight portion in the optic canal, a bend where it turns medially, and a tortuous terminal segment along the medial orbital wall.^[2] Its branches are categorized into ocular, orbital, and extraorbital groups, providing essential vascularization to the eye and surrounding tissues. Key branches include the central retinal artery, which supplies the inner retina; the ciliary arteries (posterior and anterior), which nourish the choroid and ciliary body; the lacrimal artery, feeding the lacrimal gland and lateral conjunctiva; muscular branches to the extraocular muscles; and extracranial extensions such as the supraorbital, ethmoidal (anterior and posterior), supratrochlear, and dorsal nasal arteries, which perfuse the forehead, nose, and eyelids.^[1]^[3] Additionally, dural branches like the recurrent meningeal artery contribute to the blood supply of the anterior cranial fossa meninges.^[2] Functionally, the ophthalmic artery is critical for delivering oxygenated blood to the retina, choroid, extraocular muscles, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and parts of the frontal scalp and nasal cavity, ensuring visual function and orbital integrity.^[1] Its extensive anastomoses with branches of the external carotid artery, such as the middle meningeal and facial arteries, provide collateral circulation but also pose risks during interventions.^[3] Clinically, occlusion of the ophthalmic artery—often due to emboli from the ICA—can lead to anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, central retinal artery occlusion, or amaurosis fugax, resulting in sudden monocular vision loss.^[1] Anatomical variants, including origins from the middle meningeal artery (up to 7-8% of cases) or an intracavernous course, are embryologically derived from dual ventral and dorsal sources and must be considered in neurosurgical, endovascular, or ophthalmic procedures to avoid complications like blindness during tumor embolizations.^[2]^[3]

Anatomy

Origin

The ophthalmic artery arises as the first intracranial branch of the internal carotid artery (ICA), typically emerging from the supraclinoid segment (C6) just after the ICA exits the cavernous sinus.^[1] This origin occurs medial to the anterior clinoid process, on the antero- or supero-medial aspect of the ICA.^[4] In most cases (approximately 83-90%), the origin is intradural, though variants include extradural emergence in about 10% of individuals.^[5] From its origin, the ophthalmic artery follows a short intracranial course of 0.5-9.5 mm through the subarachnoid space before entering the optic canal, often exhibiting a tortuous trajectory due to the close proximity to the optic nerve.^[5] Its initial diameter measures approximately 1.3-1.8 mm, varying slightly by sex and individual anatomy, with averages around 1.5 mm reported in cadaveric studies.^[6]^[7] The artery is accompanied by sympathetic nerve fibers originating from the internal carotid plexus, which travel along the ICA and extend through the optic canal alongside the ophthalmic artery to innervate orbital structures.^[8] These fibers contribute to vasomotor control and pupillary dilation in the eye.^[9]

Course and relations

The ophthalmic artery arises from the internal carotid artery in its supraclinoid segment, immediately after emerging from the cavernous sinus. It then travels a short intracranial course before entering the optic canal, where it passes inferior and lateral to the optic nerve, accompanied by sympathetic nerve fibers and the meningeal sheaths of the nerve.^[1]^[10] Upon exiting the optic canal into the orbit through the optic foramen, the artery initially lies inferolateral to the optic nerve at the orbital apex, in close proximity to the annulus of Zinn, which forms the fibrous ring surrounding the optic canal and part of the adjacent superior orbital fissure. The artery then courses anteriorly along the inferolateral margin of the optic nerve before crossing superiorly over it from lateral to medial, creating a characteristic Z-shaped (or bayonet) curve in about 83% of cases; in the remaining 17%, it passes inferior to the nerve for a straighter trajectory.^[11]^[12]^[2]^[13] Throughout its intraorbital path, the ophthalmic artery maintains a close relation to the optic nerve, initially lateral and then superior to it after the crossover. It runs anterosuperiorly between the medial rectus and superior oblique muscles, and more anteriorly becomes superior to the superior rectus and medial rectus muscles. The artery is associated with the superior and inferior ophthalmic veins, which course parallel within the orbital fat. Its length within the orbit measures approximately 2-3 cm along the main trunk before significant branching occurs.^[14]^[1]^[2]^[15]

Branches

Ocular branches

The ocular branches of the ophthalmic artery primarily supply the intraocular structures, including the retina, choroid, iris, and ciliary body, ensuring perfusion essential for visual function. These branches arise as the ophthalmic artery enters the orbit through the optic canal and approaches the optic nerve. The central retinal artery is the first and smallest major branch of the ophthalmic artery, originating near the entry point to the optic nerve. It pierces the dural sheath of the optic nerve approximately 5 to 15 mm posterior to the globe, traveling intraneurally before entering the eye at the optic disc. With a diameter of about 0.3 mm, it supplies the inner two-thirds of the retina through an end-arterial pattern, forming superior and inferior arcades that distribute to the retinal layers without significant anastomoses.^[16]^[17]^[18] Typically numbering two to three, the long posterior ciliary arteries arise from the ophthalmic artery close to the optic nerve and pierce the sclera near the posterior pole. They course anteriorly between the sclera and choroid, extending to the iris root and forming the major arterial circle of the iris. These arteries supply the ciliary body, iris, and anterior portion of the choroid, providing vascular support to the anterior uveal structures.^[17]^[19]^[20] The short posterior ciliary arteries, usually 10 to 20 in number, originate from the ophthalmic artery near the central retinal artery and encircle the optic nerve before piercing the sclera in a ring around it. They arborize into the choroidal vasculature, supplying the posterior choroid, optic disc, and outer retinal layers via the choriocapillaris. These arteries form the circle of Zinn-Haller, an anastomotic ring at the optic nerve head that enhances perfusion to the laminar and postlaminar regions.^[17]^[19]^[21]

Orbital branches

The orbital branches of the ophthalmic artery provide vascular supply to the extraocular muscles, lacrimal gland, and associated orbital connective tissues, distinct from branches entering the globe itself. The lacrimal artery, the second and largest orbital branch, arises early from the ophthalmic artery shortly after its entry into the orbit via the optic canal. It courses superolaterally along the upper margin of the lateral rectus muscle to reach the lacrimal gland, which it primarily supplies along with the lateral portions of the upper and lower eyelids. En route, it emits 1-2 lateral palpebral arteries that ramify into the tarsal plates and skin of the eyelids, as well as small conjunctival branches that nourish the lateral bulbar conjunctiva. The lacrimal artery forms anastomoses with the middle meningeal artery, facilitating collateral circulation between the internal and external carotid systems.^[1]^[17] The muscular branches, typically numbering 7-10 small vessels, originate directly from the ophthalmic artery within the orbit and distribute to the extraocular muscles, including the four rectus muscles and the superior and inferior obliques. These branches emerge mainly from the medial and lateral aspects of the parent vessel, with the medial group supplying the medial rectus and inferior oblique, and the lateral group serving the lateral rectus and superior oblique. Additionally, the muscular branches give rise to 5-7 anterior ciliary arteries that travel anteriorly with the muscle bellies, pierce the sclera near the limbus, and contribute to the vascular arcade of the anterior eye segment, including the conjunctiva and episclera.^[17]^[22] The recurrent meningeal branch, often arising from the proximal segment of the ophthalmic artery or its lacrimal branch, takes a posterior course and pierces the optic canal to supply the dura mater surrounding the optic nerve sheath and portions of the anterior cranial fossa. This vessel anastomoses with the middle meningeal artery, providing a potential pathway for meningeal collateral flow.^[23]^[24]

Extracranial branches

The extracranial branches of the ophthalmic artery emerge from the orbit to supply structures of the face, nasal cavity, and adjacent dura mater. These branches include the supraorbital artery, anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries, medial palpebral arteries, and the terminal supratrochlear and dorsal nasal arteries. They provide critical anastomotic connections between the internal and external carotid arterial systems, facilitating collateral circulation.^[5] The supraorbital artery arises from the ophthalmic artery within the orbit and exits through the supraorbital foramen or notch to supply the forehead, scalp, and frontalis muscle. It anastomoses with the frontal branch of the superficial temporal artery, a terminal branch of the external carotid artery.^[1]^[25] The ethmoidal arteries consist of anterior and posterior branches that exit the orbit via dedicated foramina. The anterior ethmoidal artery passes through the anterior ethmoidal foramen into the anterior cranial fossa, supplying the nasal cavity, frontal sinus, and dura mater along the cribriform plate; it gives rise to the anterior meningeal artery for dural perfusion. The posterior ethmoidal artery emerges via the posterior ethmoidal foramen to supply the sphenoidal sinus, posterior nasal cavity, and portions of the dura mater. Both ethmoidal arteries anastomose with branches of the external carotid system, such as the sphenopalatine artery.^[5]^[26]^[1] The superior and inferior medial palpebral arteries originate from the ophthalmic artery near the medial orbital wall and supply the medial aspects of the upper and lower eyelids as well as the adjacent conjunctiva. They form peripheral and marginal arterial arcades within the eyelids and anastomose laterally with the superior and inferior lateral palpebral arteries, which arise from the lacrimal artery.^[27]^[1] The terminal branches of the ophthalmic artery are the supratrochlear and dorsal nasal arteries, which exit the orbit medially above and below the trochlea, respectively. The supratrochlear artery ascends to supply the medial forehead, glabella, and scalp, anastomosing with branches of the external carotid artery. The dorsal nasal artery courses along the dorsum of the nose to supply the external nose and glabella, forming an anastomosis with the angular artery, a terminal branch of the facial artery, at the medial canthus.^[5]^[1]

Function

Supply to ocular structures

The central retinal artery, a primary branch of the ophthalmic artery, provides the exclusive arterial blood supply to the inner layers of the retina, including the ganglion cell layer and nerve fiber layer, ensuring oxygenation and nutrient delivery essential for visual signal transmission. Upon entering the optic disc, it divides into four main intraretinal branches—superior temporal, inferior temporal, superior nasal, and inferior nasal—that arborize within these layers to perfuse the neurosensory retina without penetrating the outer retinal layers.^[28]^[29] The posterior ciliary arteries, comprising long and short variants originating from the ophthalmic artery, deliver oxygenated blood primarily to the choroid, optic nerve head, and anterior uveal structures such as the ciliary body and iris. The short posterior ciliary arteries (typically 10-20 in number) form the circle of Zinn-Haller to supply the optic nerve head and the bulk of the choroid, while the two long posterior ciliary arteries traverse the suprachoroidal space to vascularize the anterior choroid and uvea. Choroidal blood flow, accounting for approximately 85% of total ocular blood flow, supports the high metabolic demands of the outer retina and retinal pigment epithelium through a dense capillary network known as the choriocapillaris; this flow is tightly autoregulated by vasodilatory factors like nitric oxide and vasoconstrictive agents such as endothelin-1 to maintain stable perfusion despite fluctuations in systemic pressure.^[17]^[30]^[31] Overall ocular blood flow in humans averages 0.8-1.2 mL/min, with the choroid receiving 80-85%, the retina 5-10%, and the anterior segment less than 5%, reflecting the disproportionate vascular investment in posterior structures to meet the retina's oxygen consumption, which rivals that of the brain per unit weight.^[32]^[33]^[31]

Supply to orbital and periorbital structures

The lacrimal artery, a major branch of the ophthalmic artery, provides essential vascular supply to the lacrimal gland, supporting its secretory function in tear production, while also contributing to the blood flow of the upper eyelid and conjunctiva.^[27] Additionally, the muscular branches arising from the ophthalmic artery deliver the primary arterial supply to the extraocular muscles, enabling their role in ocular motility and maintaining precise eye movements.^[34] These branches collectively ensure the nutritional and oxygenation needs of the orbital soft tissues beyond the globe itself. The supraorbital artery, another key branch, irrigates the superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris muscles within the orbit, extends to supply the periosteum and skin of the forehead, and contributes to the vascularization of the frontal sinus mucosa.^[1] Complementing this, the anterior ethmoidal artery supplies the anterior and middle ethmoidal air cells, the frontal sinus, the lateral nasal wall, and the nasal septum, thereby supporting the mucosal lining of the nasal cavity.^[35] Meanwhile, the medial and lateral palpebral arteries furnish blood to the eyelids and palpebral conjunctiva, facilitating thermoregulation through the eyelid skin and bolstering mucosal immunity in the conjunctival layer.^[17] These distributions underscore the ophthalmic artery's role in sustaining the structural integrity and physiological functions of periorbital tissues, including protection against environmental stressors and local immune responses. An extensive anastomotic network connects the ophthalmic artery to branches of the external carotid artery, such as the facial and maxillary arteries, forming potential pathways for collateral circulation.^[36] This connectivity is particularly vital in cases of internal carotid artery stenosis, where it can enable retrograde flow through the ophthalmic artery to compensate for reduced anterior circulation.^[37]

Clinical significance

Pathological conditions

Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is a critical ischemic event typically caused by embolic or thrombotic blockage of the central retinal artery, a primary branch of the ophthalmic artery, leading to sudden, painless vision loss in the affected eye.^[38] This condition results in retinal infarction, with characteristic fundoscopic findings including a cherry-red spot at the macula due to preserved choroidal circulation contrasting against the pale, edematous retina.^[39] When the occlusion extends to or involves the proximal ophthalmic artery, it can precipitate broader ocular ischemic syndrome (OIS), encompassing ischemia across multiple ocular tissues beyond the inner retina, with profound visual impairment and potential neovascular complications.^[40] Ophthalmic artery aneurysms represent between 0.5% and 11% of all intracranial aneurysms and commonly arise at the artery's origin from the internal carotid artery.^[41] These aneurysms often present with compressive symptoms such as visual field defects from optic nerve impingement or cavernous sinus syndrome due to mass effect on adjacent structures.^[41] The annual rupture risk for unruptured ophthalmic artery aneurysms is around 1%, comparable to other small to medium intracranial aneurysms, though larger sizes or irregular morphology elevate this hazard.^[42] Anatomical variations, such as fenestrations or aberrant origins, may predispose certain individuals to aneurysm formation at this site.^[43] In cases of internal carotid artery (ICA) occlusion, the ophthalmic artery can serve a collateral role through reversed flow, redirecting blood from the external carotid system to perfuse the anterior cerebral circulation via retrograde pathways.^[44] However, this compensatory mechanism often leads to chronic hypoperfusion of ocular structures, predisposing to anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION), characterized by optic disc swelling and acute vision loss from infarction of the optic nerve head.^[44] OIS, which may incorporate such ischemic events, occurs in approximately 5% of patients with severe carotid stenosis or occlusion.^[45]

Diagnostic and interventional approaches

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) remains the gold standard for detailed visualization of ophthalmic artery aneurysm morphology, providing high-resolution images of vascular anatomy and flow dynamics essential for treatment planning.^[46] Computed tomography angiography (CTA) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) serve as non-invasive alternatives for initial screening, offering sensitivities exceeding 90% for detecting aneurysms larger than 3 mm while minimizing procedural risks.^[46] Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) enables non-invasive assessment of retinal branch occlusions supplied by the ophthalmic artery, revealing microvascular flow disruptions and ischemia without dye injection.^[47] Endovascular coiling achieves complete aneurysm occlusion rates of around 60-75% immediately, particularly when combined with balloon assistance, providing a safer alternative to open surgery for ophthalmic artery aneurysms.^[48] Flow diversion using devices like the Pipeline Embolization Device (PED) effectively treats these aneurysms by redirecting blood flow, with low rates of visual morbidity and sustained patency of the ophthalmic artery in over 90% of patients.^[49] For acute central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO), intra-arterial thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) delivered selectively into the ophthalmic artery has shown improved visual outcomes compared to traditional intravenous treatment when administered 1-3 days after symptom onset; thrombolysis for CRAO remains investigational.^[50] Carotid endarterectomy in cases of internal carotid artery stenosis preserves collateral flow through the ophthalmic artery, reducing ischemic risk to ocular structures and maintaining visual function post-procedure.^[51] Post-2017 advancements include refined PED variants optimized for small paraophthalmic aneurysms, enhancing occlusion rates while minimizing optic nerve complications through improved device flexibility and deployment techniques.^[52] AI-enhanced CTA integrates into stroke protocols for rapid detection of arterial abnormalities in ischemic events, with diagnostic accuracy of 72%.^[53]

Anatomical variations and development

Anatomical variations

The ophthalmic artery (OA) most commonly originates from the supraclinoid segment of the internal carotid artery (ICA), with a prevalence of 97.8%.^[54] Anomalous origins occur in approximately 2-4% of cases overall.^[55] Among these, the OA arises from the middle meningeal artery (MMA) in 1.45-2.2% of individuals, representing a connection to the external carotid artery system.^[56]^[54] Origins from the anterior cerebral artery (ACA) or middle cerebral artery (MCA) are exceedingly rare, typically documented only in isolated case reports rather than population-level studies. Branching patterns of the OA exhibit notable variability beyond the standard configuration. Duplication of the OA, involving two parallel arteries supplying the orbit (often one classic and one dorsal variant), occurs in less than 2% of cases.^[5] Hypoplasia of the central retinal artery is an uncommon variation, in which reduced caliber or incomplete development leads to compensatory supply from the choroidal circulation via posterior ciliary arteries.^[13] Similarly, absence of ethmoidal branches, particularly the posterior ethmoidal artery, is observed in 15-19% of specimens, with collateral perfusion often provided by branches of the maxillary artery, such as the sphenopalatine artery.^[58] At its origin, the OA may demonstrate bi- or trifurcation, where the initial division into multiple trunks (e.g., central retinal, lacrimal, and muscular branches) deviates from the typical sequential pattern. These variations, while often asymptomatic, carry clinical relevance in endovascular interventions, such as aneurysm embolization or dural arteriovenous fistula treatment, where atypical origins or branching can elevate the risk of embolic complications to ocular structures.^[59] Such deviations are thought to arise from incomplete regression of embryonic vascular plexuses, though detailed etiologies are addressed in developmental contexts.^[13]

Embryonic development and congenital anomalies

The ophthalmic artery (OA) originates during early embryogenesis from the primitive internal carotid artery (ICA), with development beginning around the 4-5 mm embryonic stage, corresponding to approximately 4 weeks gestation. Initially, two primitive components form: the dorsal ophthalmic artery (DOA), arising from the second aortic arch via the stapedial artery, and the ventral ophthalmic artery (VOA), emerging as a branch of the primitive ICA near the level of the anterior choroidal artery. These vessels supply the developing optic vesicle and choroid, with the DOA providing initial orbital and maxillary contributions while the VOA focuses on retinal and ocular structures. By the 7-12 mm stage (around Carnegie stage 16, or 5-6 weeks gestation), the primitive dorsal OA (PDOphA) supplies the optic cup's capillary plexus, and the PDOA and PVOA anastomose to form the foundational orbital vasculature.^[60]^[61]^[62] As development progresses, the stapedial artery's supraorbital branch migrates through the superior orbital fissure, contributing to the OA's extracranial segments, while the proximal DOA involutes by approximately 8 weeks gestation, establishing ICA dominance for the mature OA. The VOA undergoes caudal migration along the ICA, regressing proximally to originate from the supraclinoid ICA, and fuses with elements of the carotid rete mirabile by around 10 weeks, completing the adult configuration by the 40 mm embryonic stage (about 10-11 weeks). This process involves complex anastomoses, including the supraorbital division of the stapedial artery forming a transient arterial ring around the optic nerve. Disruptions in these regressions, often linked to defects in neural crest cell migration that influence periocular mesenchyme and vascular patterning, can lead to congenital malformations.^[63]^[61]^[62] Congenital anomalies of the OA primarily arise from incomplete regression of embryonic vessels. The persistent stapedial artery (PSA), occurring in 0.02-0.48% of individuals, represents failure of DOA involution, resulting in a vessel connecting the middle meningeal artery to the OA and potentially coursing through the middle ear, though it is usually asymptomatic. Remnants of the hyaloid artery, a transient branch of the primitive OA supplying the fetal lens, manifest as Bergmeister's papilla—a benign, glial-covered tuft at the optic disc center—with a reported prevalence varying from approximately 0.8% on clinical examination to 67-72% when detected by optical coherence tomography (OCT), often as an incidental finding without visual impact.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] Failed regression of the stapedial artery's supraorbital ring can produce persistent vascular loops or rings encircling the optic nerve, occasionally associated with optic disc anomalies or mild compressive effects, though rare and often discovered incidentally. These malformations underscore the OA's dual embryonic heritage and the precision required in vascular remodeling during gestation.^[68]

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May 19, 2023 · Software developed using artificial intelligence may automatically identify arterial occlusion and provide collateral vessel scoring on CT angiography (CTA) ...Missing: ophthalmic | Show results with:ophthalmic
[54]
Investigation into the ophthalmic artery and its branches by ...
Mar 23, 2022 · The ophthalmic artery originated 97.8% from the internal carotid artery and 2.2% from the middle meningeal artery. The mean diameter of ...
[55]
Investigation into the ophthalmic artery and its branches by ...
The ophthalmic artery originated 97.8% from the internal carotid artery and 2.2% from the middle meningeal artery. The mean diameter of ophthalmic artery was ...Missing: communicating | Show results with:communicating
[56]
Persistent Dorsal Ophthalmic Artery Arising from the Internal Carotid ...
Nov 28, 2016 · The prevalence of persistent dorsal OA was 0.42%, and the prevalence of OA arising from the middle meningeal artery was 1.45% with a tendency ...Missing: trifurcation | Show results with:trifurcation
[57]
Ophthalmic artery originating from the anterior cerebral ... - PubMed
Apr 6, 2016 · The ophthalmic artery has an anomalous origin in 2-3 % of cases and rarely arises from the anterior cerebral artery.
[58]
Posterior Ethmoidal Artery - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Hayreh reported absence of the posterior ethmoidal artery in 15% of specimens where the ophthalmic artery crosses under the optic nerve, and 19% of ophthalmic ...
[59]
The complete anatomy of the ophthalmic artery: a meta-analysis with ...
Jul 18, 2025 · ... mm, and the third part 5.26 mm. These findings have direct ... ophthalmic artery arising from posterior communicating artery. Am J ...
[60]
Anatomy of the Ophthalmic Artery: Embryological Consideration - PMC
... mm stage, should be the branch of the optic tissue, whereas the supraorbital ... ophthalmic artery arising from posterior communicating artery. Am J ...
[61]
Embryology of the Ophthalmic Artery: a Revived Concept
Embryology of the ophthalmic artery (OA) is complex, as elegantly depicted by Padget in detailed embryonic diagrams about 60 years ago.
[62]
Anatomic and Embryologic Analysis of the Dural Branches of the ...
Mar 1, 2021 · The OA starts its development when the embryo is about 4 mm and reaches its adult configuration at about 40 mm. Its development is strictly ...
[63]
Embryology of the ophthalmic artery - PMC - NIH
This artery is embryologically composed of the ventral and dorsal ophthalmic arteries supplying the retina and choroid, and is called the primitive ophthalmic ...
[64]
Persistent stapedial artery | Radiology Reference Article
Jul 4, 2022 · The prevalence is thought to range from 0.02 to 0.48% in the population. ... Hatipoglu HG, Cetin MA, Yuksel E et-al. A case of a coexisting ...
[65]
Persistent Stapedial Artery: CT Findings
Sep 1, 2000 · A persistent stapedial artery (PSA) is a rare vascular anomaly with a prevalence calculated to be 0.48% in a histopathologic study of 1000 temporal bones.
[66]
Bergmeister Papilla - EyeWiki
... to as an epipapillary veil, it is a structure remnant of the fibrous sheath surrounding the fetal hyaloid artery during embryological development.Disease Entity · Etiology · Diagnosis · Diagnostic procedures