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Magicicada cassini

Magicicada cassini, commonly known as Cassini's 17-year periodical cicada, is a species of cicada in the genus Magicicada endemic to eastern North America, renowned for its synchronized 17-year life cycle that involves prolonged subterranean development as a nymph followed by brief, massive adult emergences for reproduction.^[1]^[2] This species, first described by James Coggswell Fisher in 1851 and named in honor of ornithologist John Cassin, is one of three 17-year periodical cicadas, alongside M. septendecim and M. septendecula, and plays a significant role in forest ecosystems through its periodic resource pulses and predator satiation strategies.^[1]^[3] Physically, M. cassini adults are smaller than those of M. septendecim, typically measuring about 2.5–3 cm in length, with a predominantly black body, striking red eyes, and orange-tinged wing veins at the base.^[2] Unlike some congeners, it lacks orange coloration anterior to the wing insertion point behind the eye and has an entirely black abdomen ventrally, though faint yellow-orange marks may appear on some western populations; females are slightly larger than males and possess a robust ovipositor for egg-laying.^[1]^[2] These features aid in distinguishing it during emergences, which occur in late spring, primarily in May and June, when soil temperatures reach approximately 18°C (64°F).^[2] The life cycle of M. cassini exemplifies extreme periodicity, with nymphs spending 17 years underground, feeding on xylem sap from tree roots using specialized mouthparts, before emerging en masse as adults that live only 4–6 weeks.^[2] Upon emergence, adults climb trees, molt to reveal their winged forms, and engage in chorusing behaviors to attract mates; females then oviposit up to 600 eggs in small slits made in pencil-thin twigs of deciduous trees, often causing branch tip dieback known as "flagging."^[2]^[4] This strategy synchronizes broods—distinct populations emerging in specific years and regions—such as Broods II, X, XIII, and XIV (which emerged in 2025), minimizing predation through sheer numbers.^[2]^[5] Distributed across the eastern and midwestern United States, from New York to Iowa and south to Louisiana, M. cassini occupies forested habitats and is present in 10 of the 12 recognized 17-year broods, with emergences varying by brood cycle (e.g., Brood X in 2021 covered parts of 15 states).^[2]^[1] Its chorusing behavior features a distinctive calling song—a rapid series of 12–40 ticks (16–25 per second) crescendoing into a 2–4 second shrill buzz—produced by males to form synchronized aggregations, enhancing mating success and creating auditory landscapes that can reach 90–100 decibels.^[2]^[6]^[1] Ecologically, M. cassini emergences provide a massive, pulsed resource to predators, decomposers, and soil biota, with billions of individuals per brood contributing nutrient-rich biomass that boosts soil nitrogen and stimulates microbial activity, while their oviposition influences tree demography and succession.^[3]^[7] This predator satiation—where abundance overwhelms consumers—allows most to reproduce successfully, underscoring the species' evolutionary adaptation to periodic life histories.^[3]

Taxonomy and systematics

Naming and discovery

The first formal report of Magicicada cassini as a distinct periodical cicada came from Margaretta Hare Morris in 1846, who presented her observations of differing larvae and adults near Philadelphia to the Academy of Natural Sciences, noting variations from the known Cicada septendecim.^[8] Her findings highlighted a smaller-bodied form with unique behaviors, unearthed during excavations in local orchards, marking an early recognition of species diversity among periodical cicadas.^[8] In 1852, physician and naturalist James C. Fisher formally described the species as Cicada Cassinii in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, naming it in honor of ornithologist John Cassin, who had documented its emergence in 1851 near Philadelphia—the first observed since 1834—and confirmed its separation from C. septendecim based on morphology and vocalizations.^[9] Fisher's description emphasized its smaller size (male body length approximately 23 mm), darker coloration, and a buzzing call resembling a grasshopper's, while early 19th-century records, including Cassin's, established its strict 17-year cycle as a key trait distinguishing it from annual cicadas.^[9] The species was reclassified into the new genus Magicicada by entomologist William T. Davis in 1925, who proposed the name to capture the "magic" of the periodical cicadas' synchronized, long-cycle emergences and to separate them taxonomically from other North American cicadas based on life history and morphology.^[10] The original specific epithet "Cassinii" was subsequently emended to "cassini" under International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) rules on prevailing usage, as justified in a 2022 taxonomic review that analyzed historical literature and confirmed "cassini" as the standard form since the mid-20th century to align with original intent and common practice.^[11]

Phylogenetic relationships

Magicicada cassini is classified within the Cassini species group of the genus Magicicada, alongside the 13-year periodical cicada M. tredecassini, based on shared acoustic signaling patterns, morphological similarities, and mitochondrial DNA phylogenies that delineate three major lineages in the genus: Decim, Cassini, and Decula.^[12] This grouping reflects parallel evolutionary histories across the lineages, where each contains both 13-year and 17-year forms, with M. cassini representing the 17-year member of the Cassini group.^[13] Genetic analyses indicate that the divergence between 13-year and 17-year life cycles within the Cassini group occurred relatively recently, approximately 121,000 years ago, contrasting with deeper splits in the Decim group around 197,000 years ago.^[14] Whole-mitogenome sequencing reveals minimal genomic sequence divergence between these cycle variants within groups, suggesting that the 17-year synchronization evolved multiple times from 13-year ancestors, potentially driven by predator avoidance, with ongoing gene flow limiting differentiation.^[15] The overall phylogeographic structure of Magicicada shows three genetic subdivisions per group, shaped by Pleistocene glacial cycles, though the Cassini group's divergence is estimated at about 320,000 years ago for its main clades.^[12] The co-evolved bacterial endosymbiont Hodgkinia cicadicola, critical for supplementing nutrients from xylem sap, has undergone significant genome degradation in Magicicada species, including M. cassini, with metagenomic studies documenting idiosyncratic lineage splitting into multiple interdependent genomes.31311-8) This fragmentation, which has proceeded along divergent paths across species, began around 1.5–4 million years ago and involves no transcriptional compensation for imbalanced gene dosages, underscoring the role of relaxed selection in endosymbiont evolution within long-lived hosts like periodical cicadas.^[16] Such genomic instability highlights the ancient co-speciation between Magicicada and their symbionts, predating the recent life-cycle divergences.^[17] A 2022 metagenomic survey using 16S rRNA sequencing of gut microbiomes from 17-year Magicicada broods, including M. cassini, revealed highly similar bacterial compositions across species in the Cassini, Decim, and Decula groups, dominated by Sulcia muelleri and Hodgkinia cicadicola.^[18] These shared communities, conserved between nymphal and adult stages, support essential functions like amino acid synthesis for xylem feeding, indicating that microbial symbiosis has been retained despite phylogenetic separations within the genus.^[19] No subspecies are recognized for M. cassini, which maintains a distinct phylogenetic position within the Cassini group while showing close genetic affinities to other 17-year congeners like M. septendecim in the Decim group, as evidenced by low inter-group divergence in shared genomic regions and co-emergence patterns.^[20] Distinctions from M. septendecim are reinforced by unique chorus song structures that serve as species-specific mating signals, reflecting underlying genetic isolation.^[21]

Morphology and physiology

External morphology

Magicicada cassini adults are robust insects measuring 24-27 mm in body length, with a wingspan reaching up to 70 mm.^[22]^[23] The head is black, featuring large red compound eyes positioned widely apart and three ocelli arranged in a triangular formation on the vertex.^[3] The thorax consists of a black pronotum marked by a narrow orange posterior band along its rear edge, while the legs exhibit orange striping.^[1]^[24] The abdomen is generally entirely black, though some individuals in western or midwestern populations may exhibit faint yellow-orange marks on the ventral surface, and males possess genital claspers at the posterior end.^[1]^[23] The wings are translucent, supported by prominent orange veins, with blackish tips on the forewings and orange bases on the hind wings.^[3] Sexual dimorphism is evident, with males generally smaller than females and bearing external tymbals on the sides of the first abdominal segment for sound production, whereas females have a more robust, pointed abdomen terminating in a strong ovipositor.^[25]^[3] The red eyes serve as a key diagnostic trait distinguishing M. cassini within the Decim species group.^[1]

Physiological adaptations

Magicicada cassini nymphs and adults are adapted to xylem feeding, extracting water and limited nutrients from plant root fluids using specialized piercing-sucking mouthparts that penetrate xylem vessels.^[26] This diet is nutrient-poor, particularly in amino acids, necessitating reliance on gut endosymbionts for supplementation.^[27] Microbiome analyses reveal that Sulcia and Hodgkinia bacteria dominate the gut community in both nymphs and adults, provisioning essential amino acids through symbiotic biosynthesis that compensates for the xylem's deficiencies.^[28] These endosymbionts are vertically transmitted and maintain stable populations across the 17-year life cycle, enabling survival on this sparse resource.^[27] The species' exceptional longevity underground stems from a low metabolic rate, which conserves energy during the prolonged nymphal phase spent feeding on root xylem fluids.^[29] This reduced metabolism, potentially involving enzymes optimized for slow activity, allows nymphs to endure 17 years in soil with minimal nutritional input, avoiding the need for high-energy foraging.^[29] Additionally, developmental plasticity influences cycle timing; laboratory studies demonstrate that molting rates vary with temperature, permitting life-cycle lengths from 13 to 21 years under controlled conditions, though field synchrony enforces the 17-year norm. Sound production in M. cassini relies on males' tymbal organs, paired structures on the abdomen that buckle and rebound to generate vibrations through rapid muscle contractions.^[30] These organs produce chorus calls with dominant frequencies around 4-6 kHz, forming high-pitched buzzes that synchronize in aggregations to attract females.^[31] Females respond to these calls with substrate-borne wing flicks, signaling receptivity without vocalization.^[32] Rare genetic mutations in M. cassini occasionally result in blue-eyed individuals, occurring at a frequency of approximately 1 in 1 million.^[33] This phenotype arises from anomalies disrupting ommochrome pigment synthesis, which normally imparts the characteristic red eye color; the absence of these pigments reveals underlying blue structural coloration, but the mutation confers no adaptive advantage.^[34]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Magicicada cassini is endemic to eastern North America, with no established populations outside this continent.^[35] Its distribution is confined to the eastern and midwestern United States, where arid barriers in the western regions prevent westward expansion.^[36] The core geographic range of M. cassini extends from the southern Great Lakes southward to northern Georgia and westward to eastern Kansas and Oklahoma, encompassing the Atlantic Coast from New York to the Carolinas.^[36] This range includes southern portions of Ontario in Canada and numerous northern U.S. states, such as Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York.^[37] Within this area, populations are associated primarily with 17-year periodical cicada broods, reflecting the species' life cycle synchronization.^[1] M. cassini is a key component of Brood X, one of the largest 17-year broods by geographic extent, which emerged in 2021 across 15 states including Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and others from Georgia to New York.^[24] It also features prominently in Brood XIII, which emerged in 2024 in the Midwest, spanning Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Michigan.^[38] These brood-specific patterns result in patchy distributions tied to historical synchrony among populations.^[39] The species' range originated from post-glacial colonization following the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet approximately 12,000–14,000 years ago, allowing expansion into newly available deciduous forest habitats across the eastern deciduous forest biome.^[36] Recent studies indicate that while populations remain stable overall, habitat fragmentation from urbanization and agriculture has led to increasingly patchy distributions, with some local extirpations but resilience in connected woodland areas.^[39]^[40]

Habitat preferences

Magicicada cassini nymphs require well-drained, sandy-loam soils for burrowing during their prolonged subterranean phase, typically found in floodplain and riparian forests rather than strictly upland areas, with preferences for soils that are neutral to slightly acidic to support root access and development.^[41]^[42] Compacted or flooded urban soils are avoided, as they impede nymphal movement and survival, leading to reduced densities in such environments.^[43] This species associates closely with deciduous woodlands dominated by hardwood trees such as oaks (Quercus spp.), maples (Acer spp.), and hickories (Carya spp.), where the 17-year underground phase relies on xylem fluids from tree roots.^[44] Recent studies indicate a strong preference for larger trees exceeding 35 cm in diameter at breast height (DBH) for nymph emergence, with higher emergence densities under Quercus alba and Carya species, while oviposition favors smaller Quercus trees under 35 cm DBH in canopy gaps with greater light exposure.^[45]^[46] In temperate climatic zones of eastern North America, cold winters facilitate the diapause required for synchronized development, ensuring nymphs remain dormant until emergence cues align.^[47] Habitat fragmentation from urbanization diminishes suitable woodland patches by increasing soil compaction and altering microclimates, though populations persist in remnant woodlots and fencerows, albeit with shifted emergence timing compared to rural forests.^[39]^[48]

Life cycle

Nymphal development

The nymphal stage of Magicicada cassini constitutes the vast majority of its 17-year life cycle, with nymphs remaining underground for approximately 16–17 years after hatching from eggs laid in tree branches. Upon hatching 6–10 weeks after oviposition, first-instar nymphs drop to the soil surface, burrow downward, and begin feeding on root xylem, initiating a prolonged period of subterranean development. This stage is divided into five instars, with molting occurring irregularly—typically annually in early instars but potentially biennially in later ones, depending on the availability of suitable roots and environmental conditions that influence growth rates.^[47]^[49] Nymphs sustain themselves by sucking xylem sap from the shallow roots of deciduous trees and shrubs, generally at depths of 0–30 cm, using their piercing-sucking mouthparts to extract the nutrient-poor fluid. To facilitate feeding, they construct small mud chimneys or turrets around their burrows, which help maintain access to roots and regulate moisture in the soil tunnel system; these structures can reach 2–8 cm in height and are often observed in areas with high nymph density. Growth during this phase is exceedingly slow, averaging 1–2 mm per year, reflecting the low nutritional value of xylem and the energy demands of burrowing and overwintering.^[50]^[51]^[52] Developmental timing is governed by diapause mechanisms responsive to temperature and photoperiod cues, which synchronize nymphal growth with annual host plant cycles and ensure mass emergence after 17 years; these cues allow for developmental plasticity, resulting in rare off-cycle emergences termed "stragglers" that appear in non-brood years, often four years early or late. Survival through the nymphal stage is challenging, with high mortality attributed to soil pathogens such as fungi and nematodes, as well as flooding events that can drown burrows during heavy precipitation. Studies following the 2021 Brood X emergence, including analyses in 2025, have highlighted density-dependent effects on nymph growth and survival, where higher densities correlate with increased competition for roots and elevated pathogen transmission.^[53]^[3]^[29]^[54]

Emergence patterns

Magicicada cassini follows a strict 17-year periodicity, emerging synchronously in defined broods across its range. For instance, Brood X, one of the largest, last emerged in 2004 and 2021, with the next anticipated in 2038.^[55] While M. cassini itself adheres to the 17-year cycle, a closely related species, Magicicada tredecassini, exhibits a 13-year cycle in southern populations, representing a variant periodicity in those regions.^[47] The mass emergence is primarily triggered by soil temperature reaching approximately 64°F (18°C) at a depth of 8 inches (20 cm).^[3] This environmental cue synchronizes the exit from the soil, typically occurring after a warm rain in late spring. Fine-tuning of the exact night may involve additional factors, though soil temperature remains the dominant signal.^[3] Emergences span 2-4 weeks from May to June, depending on latitude and local conditions. A 2025 study analyzing Brood X phenology across 1987, 2004, and 2021 found consistent first emergences for M. cassini on day 141 (May 21) in both 1987 and 2021, with average emergence around day 153 (early June) in 2021, though showing greater variance and increased protandry (males emerging 1.72 days before females) in recent events, potentially linked to warming trends.^[39] In core areas, densities can exceed 1 million individuals per acre, creating overwhelming numbers that facilitate predator satiation as a defense mechanism.^[51] Straggler emergences, where individuals appear 1 or 4 years off-cycle, remain rare and do not significantly disrupt the brood synchrony.^[56]

Adult stage

The adult stage of Magicicada cassini begins immediately after nymphal emergence and eclosion, lasting approximately 2–5 weeks.^[57]^[58] During this period, adults focus on reproduction, with rapid senescence occurring post-mating; females typically die shortly after oviposition, while males succumb soon after.^[59] This brief aboveground phase contrasts sharply with the extended subterranean nymphal development, emphasizing the evolutionary prioritization of synchronized mass emergence for predator satiation. Locomotion in adult M. cassini is characterized by clumsy, short-distance flights, with individuals rarely dispersing more than 50 m in a single bout across open areas or forest edges, though cumulative travel can extend farther through repeated flights.^[60] Males commonly perch on tree branches to aggregate for chorusing, facilitating mate attraction, while females exhibit more ground-based crawling to locate oviposition sites in twigs. Adults continue limited feeding on xylem fluids from tree twigs during this stage.^[61]^[62] Daily rhythms of M. cassini adults are predominantly diurnal, with peak activity—including flight and chorusing—occurring during daylight hours and settling into nocturnal rest at night.^[63] Studies from the 2021 Brood X emergence have documented mammal activity responses to cicada density, with some species increasing foraging in high-density areas.^[64] Mortality rates among adult M. cassini are exceptionally high, driven primarily by exhaustion from reproductive efforts, predation by birds and other vertebrates, and opportunistic fungal infections.^[61]^[65] The shed exuviae from emerging nymphs persist at soil surfaces, distinctly marking sites of prior emergences and aiding in population monitoring.^[61]

Ecology and behavior

Feeding and diet

Magicicada cassini nymphs spend the majority of their 17-year life cycle underground, feeding exclusively on xylem sap extracted from the roots of deciduous trees, including oaks (Quercus spp.) and maples (Acer spp.).^[62] This nutrient-poor diet, primarily composed of water and dilute minerals, is supplemented by bacterial endosymbionts such as Sulcia muelleri and Hodgkinia cicadicola, which synthesize essential amino acids and vitamins to support development.^[27] Field studies indicate a strong preference for Quercus species, with nymph densities and oviposition scars significantly higher on these trees compared to Acer, reflecting targeted root feeding on preferred hosts.^[45] Notably, there is no evidence of herbivory on leaves or other plant tissues during the nymphal stage. Upon emergence, adult M. cassini shift to feeding on xylem sap from twigs and branches of trees and shrubs, using their piercing mouthparts to access the fluid.^[62] Feeding is limited, typically initiating 1–2 days post-emergence and serving mainly to replace water lost during molting and activity, as the short adult lifespan (2–6 weeks) prioritizes reproduction over extensive nutrition.^[62] The high water content of this diet helps sustain hydration amid intense chorusing and mating behaviors, though the low solute levels pose challenges for long-term energy demands.^[62] Adults exhibit polyphagy, drawing from multiple tree genera like Quercus and Acer, but avoid foliar tissues entirely.^[62] The reliance on xylem across life stages underscores adaptations to a low-nutrient niche, with the gut microbiome playing a key role in extracting maximal value from this resource.^[27]

Predation and defenses

Magicicada cassini faces predation from a diverse array of animals during its brief adult emergence, with birds serving as the primary predators. Avian species such as starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula), yellow-billed cuckoos (Coccyzus americanus), and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) actively consume adult cicadas, often leading to increased foraging activity in emergence areas.^[66] Mammals, including squirrels (Sciurus spp.) and raccoons (Procyon lotor), also exploit the abundance, with recent studies documenting heightened mammalian activity and satiation behaviors in high-density cicada patches during 17-year emergences.^[64] Reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, opportunistically feed on both nymphs and adults when available.^[67] Additionally, the fungal pathogen Massospora cicadina infects emerging adults, hijacking their behavior to facilitate spore transmission while effectively sterilizing and eventually killing the hosts.^[68] The primary defense of M. cassini against these predators is predator satiation, achieved through synchronized mass emergences where billions of individuals overwhelm the capacity of predators to consume them all, ensuring sufficient survival for reproduction.^[69] This strategy relies on the cicadas' conspicuous appearance and lack of individual evasion tactics, such as flight or hiding, making the sheer numerical density crucial for population persistence.^[70] Adult M. cassini exhibit no specialized chemical or physical defenses beyond this collective approach, though their brief above-ground lifespan limits exposure time.^[71] The massive die-off following emergence creates a significant ecological impact, as cicada carcasses deliver a nutrient pulse rich in nitrogen and phosphorus to forest soils, enhancing microbial activity and plant growth in the subsequent year.^[7] This temporary resource boom supports detritivores and higher trophic levels, temporarily bolstering forest food webs by providing high-quality protein to decomposers and scavengers. Studies from the 2024 Brood XIII emergence confirmed these nutrient enrichment effects in midwestern forests.^[72]^[73] In urban environments, habitat fragmentation reduces M. cassini population densities, impairing the predator satiation strategy and increasing vulnerability to predation from remaining predators, which can lead to local population declines.^[74]

Reproduction and mating

Courtship behaviors

Males of Magicicada cassini engage in chorusing behaviors to attract females, forming leks where groups of 20-100 individuals synchronize their calls on tree branches in sunlit areas. These choruses produce aggregated songs characterized by a series of rapid ticks followed by a shrill buzz, with phrases lasting 1.5-3 seconds separated by 1-2 second gaps, repeated in cycles that can build to peaks of intensity over several seconds. The fundamental frequency of the calling song ranges from 1-3 kHz, enabling long-range attraction while minimizing overlap with other sympatric species. Tymbals on the males' abdomen facilitate these sounds through rapid muscle contractions.^[75]^[76]^[71] Females do not produce calling songs but respond to male choruses with wing flicks, generating brief, broad-frequency clicks that serve as acoustic and visual signals to guide males toward them. These responses are timed in a species-specific manner, occurring shortly after a male's phrase to initiate duetting and close-range courtship. During courtship, males transition to specialized calls: Courtship I (shortened calling phrases), Courtship II (continuous buzzing with possible upslurs), and Courtship III (4-6 staccato buzzes per second), which help secure mating. Wing flicks are detectable both auditorily and visually, with males orienting via both cues in dense aggregations.^[75] Species isolation during courtship relies on acoustic differences in song structure and timing, with M. cassini exhibiting a faster tick rate in its calling phrases compared to the slower, more whirring song of the sympatric M. septendecim. Visual cues, such as the absence of a reddish stripe behind the eyes in M. cassini (versus present in M. septendecim), further aid recognition in mixed-brood emergences where multiple species overlap. Lek dynamics involve tree-based choruses where males compete acoustically and visually, with observations from the 2021 Brood X emergence indicating high densities in chorusing sites, enhancing mate location efficiency.^[1]^[77]^[71]^[78]

Oviposition and offspring survival

Following mating, female Magicicada cassini engage in oviposition by using their specialized ovipositor to create V-shaped slits in the bark of pencil-thin twigs, typically 3-7 mm in diameter. Each slit, or eggnest, receives 20-30 eggs, with females often depositing eggs in multiple nests along a single twig. This behavior occurs primarily in floodplain and woodland edge habitats, where females show a preference for certain deciduous tree species, including oaks (Quercus spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), and elm (Ulmus spp.). Oaks, in particular, are a common host, comprising a substantial portion of oviposition sites in mixed forests.^[3]^[46] A single female typically lays 200-600 eggs over her adult lifespan of 3-5 weeks, distributing them across 10-30 twigs to maximize offspring dispersal and reduce risk concentration. Eggs develop for 6-10 weeks during midsummer, after which first-instar nymphs hatch synchronously and drop to the forest floor, burrowing into the soil within minutes to begin feeding on root xylem. This rapid descent is crucial, as the tiny nymphs (about 2 mm long) lack mobility and are vulnerable to predation or desiccation on the surface.^[3]^[79] Egg survival is low due to several abiotic and biotic factors. Twig desiccation or breakage from excessive oviposition damage causes many eggs to wither before hatching, while host trees can mount induced defenses, such as exuding gum into nests in responsive species like black cherry (Prunus serotina), which reduces hatching success. Parasitoid attack on eggs is minimal, as the embedded position in bark provides protection, though fungal infections occasionally contribute. Once hatched, nymph establishment success depends heavily on soil conditions; dry, compacted soil leads to high post-hatching mortality in early instars, but rain-softened earth facilitates burrowing and initial root attachment.^[80]^[79] The reproductive strategy ensures brood fidelity to the 17-year cycle, as eggs laid during emergences develop directly into nymphs programmed for synchronized underground development over 17 years, without deviation across generations. This temporal lock-in reinforces the species' periodicity, linking oviposition success to long-term habitat stability in deciduous woodlands. Observations from the 2024 Brood XIII emergence, which included M. cassini populations, highlighted ongoing oviposition in fragmented forests, with no major deviations in mating behaviors reported as of 2025.^[81]^[82]

Human interactions

Agricultural and ecological impacts

Magicicada cassini females cause plant damage primarily through oviposition, where they use their ovipositor to make V-shaped slits in small twigs and branches (typically 3-11 mm in diameter) to deposit eggs, leading to twig dieback known as flagging.^[83] This damage is most severe in young trees and saplings, where multiple slits can weaken branches, resulting in 10-12% canopy flagging on average across native and exotic woody plants.^[84] In orchards, such oviposition can lead to localized branch loss, with heavy attacks potentially affecting up to 20% of branches in vulnerable fruit trees like apples and cherries.^[85] Nymphal root-feeding by M. cassini has minor effects on mature trees but can stress saplings by reducing water and nutrient uptake over their 17-year development cycle.^[49] Ecologically, M. cassini emergences provide benefits through the decomposition of adult carcasses, which enrich forest soils with nutrients; post-emergence sites show elevated soil nitrogen levels, with inputs estimated at up to 7 kg N/ha in forested areas.^[86] This nutrient pulse temporarily boosts plant growth and supports detritivores, contributing to soil fertility without long-term disruption.^[7] Additionally, the mass availability of cicadas as prey enhances bird populations during emergence years, with 63% of monitored species showing abundance increases averaging 10.1%, leading to higher reproductive success in insectivorous birds.^[87] Agriculturally, M. cassini impacts are rare in field crops due to their preference for woody plants, but young orchards face risks from oviposition scarring.^[88] Mitigation focuses on physical barriers like netting over saplings (1/4-inch mesh) rather than chemical controls, as the adult phase lasts only 4-6 weeks and pesticides are unnecessary and ecologically harmful.^[89] During the 2021 Brood X emergence, which included M. cassini in the Midwest, localized damage occurred in orchards with visible branch dieback, but affected trees recovered within 1-2 years with no mortality observed.^[90]^[91]

Cultural significance and research

Magicicada cassini, known as Cassini's periodical cicada, holds a place in North American folklore as a harbinger of summer, with its mass emergences signaling the arrival of warm weather and evoking tales of natural cycles and renewal. In various cultural narratives, periodical cicadas like M. cassini symbolize rebirth and immortality, drawing from broader insect lore that portrays them as carefree symbols of seasonal transformation.^[92] The 2021 emergence of Brood X, which prominently featured M. cassini, garnered extensive media attention across outlets like CNN, highlighting the event as a rare "once-in-a-lifetime" spectacle involving billions of insects across 14 states and the District of Columbia.^[93]^[94] A notable aspect of human fascination with M. cassini involves rare color variants, particularly blue-eyed individuals resulting from a genetic mutation that alters eye pigmentation from the typical red to blue-gray.^[33] In 2008, entomologist Roy Troutman offered a $1,000 reward for live blue-eyed specimens to support scientific study, but the offer went unclaimed due to their extreme rarity, estimated at one in a million.^[95]^[96] As of 2025, no active rewards for such variants have been announced, though sightings continue to captivate enthusiasts during emergences.^[96] Research on M. cassini has advanced evolutionary developmental biology, particularly through studies on life-cycle plasticity; for instance, a 2011 investigation by Marshall et al. demonstrated how environmental factors influence cycle length in closely related periodical cicadas, informing models of M. cassini's 17-year periodicity.^[97] More recent work includes 2022 metagenomic analyses using 16S rRNA sequencing to explore gut microbiomes and endosymbionts in 17-year broods, revealing diverse bacterial communities that support nutrient acquisition during long subterranean phases.^[18] The species' prime-numbered cycle has also inspired mathematical models of predator avoidance and synchronization.^[98] Although not currently threatened, M. cassini has no formal global conservation status rank (GNR) from NatureServe, yet populations are monitored for potential desynchronization due to climate change effects on soil temperatures and emergence timing.^[99] Early emergences observed in 2017 have raised concerns about warming trends disrupting brood cohesion.^[100] Citizen science initiatives, such as the Cicada Safari app developed by Mount St. Joseph University, engage the public in tracking distributions and variants, contributing over 120,000 downloads as of 2021 and vital data during events like Brood X.^[101]^[102]

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[14]
Multiple origins of interdependent endosymbiotic complexes in a ...
Dec 26, 2017 · In contrast, the genome of the endosymbiont Hodgkinia cicadicola has fractured into multiple distinct lineages in some species of the cicada ...
[15]
Gut microbiome insights from 16S rRNA analysis of 17-year ... - Nature
Oct 10, 2022 · This study is the first to use metagenomic 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to identify microbiome components of Magicicada spp. nymphs, adults, and ...
[16]
Magicicada spp.) Broods II, VI, and X - PubMed - NIH
Oct 10, 2022 · Gut microbiome insights from 16S rRNA analysis of 17-year periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Magicicada spp.) Broods II, VI, and X. Sci Rep. 2022 ...
[17]
Independent divergence of 13- and 17-y life cycles among three ...
Here we show that the divergence leading to the present 13- and 17-y populations differs considerably among the species groups.
[18]
and 17-y life cycles among three periodical cicada lineages - NIH
Populations with Ce and Cm show 17-y cycles only (Magicicada cassini), whereas those of Cw show both 17- and 13-y cycles (M. cassini and Magicicada ...
[19]
Genus Magicicada - Periodical Cicadas - BugGuide.Net
There are three sets of sibling species within this genus, indicated by the species name suffixes: -decim, -cassini, and -decula. Each group has both 17 ...
[20]
The Evolutionary Relationships of 17-year and 13-year Cicadas ...
Magicicada cassini (Fisher)—Cassin's 17-Year Cicada. Cicada cassinii Fisher, 1851, p. 272. “♂ total length of body, 9-10ths of an inch; of the wings, 1 2 ...
[21]
Periodical Cicada - Penn State Extension
Mar 21, 2021 · Magicicada septendecim are the largest species. They have wide orange bands on the abdomen that are equal to or wider than the black bands and ...
[22]
Geographic body size variation in the periodical cicadas Magicicada
Within species, body size was larger in females than males and decreased with increasing latitude (and decreasing habitat AMT), following the converse ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[23]
Feeding ecology and evidence for amino acid synthesis in the ...
While living underground, cicadas feed on low nutrient (i.e., low amino acid content) root xylem fluids and likely incorporate the remaining required amino ...
[24]
Gut microbiome insights from 16S rRNA analysis of 17-year ... - NIH
Oct 10, 2022 · Like other cicadas, Magicicada feed on xylem fluid of roots, stems, and branches, which is a nutrient-poor food source, providing ...
[25]
Do adult Magicicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) feed? Historical ...
Oct 18, 2023 · Gut microbiome insights from 16S rRNA analysis of 17-year periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Magicicada spp.) Broods II, VI, and X . Sci Rep . 2022.
[26]
Ecophysiological responses to climate change in cicadas
Feb 20, 2019 · ... cicadas possess an inherent system for keeping low developmental rates, which can be speculated to involve enzymes optimized for slow metabolism ...
[27]
Periodical cicada: mechanism of sound production - PubMed
The 17-year cicada produce sound by sequentially buckling a series of stiff ribs embedded in a flexible tymbal. Each such collapse excites a damped oscillation ...Missing: organs frequency 1.2-1.8 kHz chorus calls
[28]
Acoustic Behavior of Three Sympatric Species of 17‐Yr Cicadas
Jan 1, 1971 · The males produce sounds (bursts of 1.0–1.5 kHz for septendecim and 4.0–6.0 kHz for cassini and septendecula) when congregating and when ...
[29]
Pure-tone songs in cicadas with special reference to the ...
The calling song ofMagicicada cassini consists of complex pulses of sound, each pulse being subdivided into about 9 sub-pulses, and is broadly tuned (Q 3 dB ...
[30]
One in a million” blue-eyed cicada joins the Field Museum's ...
May 22, 2024 · This specimen, a female Magicicada cassini, is the first blue-eyed cicada ever added to the Field Museum's collections of cicadas dating back more than a ...Missing: ommochrome pigments
[31]
https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/49/1A_Supplement/93/719038/Acoustic-Behavior-of-Three-Sympatric-Species-of-17
[32]
Magicicada cassini (Fisher, 1852) - GBIF
The species was first reported to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by Margaretta Morris in 1846. In 1852, the species was formally described ...
[33]
Biogeography of the Cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) of North ...
We describe and illustrate the biogeography of the cicadas inhabiting continental North America, north of Mexico.
[34]
Brood X | Periodical Cicada Information Pages
Even so, Brood X is among the largest (by geographic extent) broods of 17- year cicadas. A disjunct population exists on Long Island (Simon and Lloyd 1982).
[35]
Brood XIII | Periodical Cicada Information Pages
The Northern Illinois Brood This brood includes the species Magicicada cassini, Magicicada septendecim, and Magicicada septendecula. Brood XIII also has one of ...Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
[36]
Multigenerational emergence trends of Brood X Magicicada spp ...
Aug 26, 2025 · We observed differences in Magicicada cassini emergence phenology across habitat types, sexes, and generations (Figure 3, Figure 4). In both ...
[37]
Cicada as a food for mammals: a global review and implications for ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Furthermore, cicadas appear to be tolerant to habitat fragmentation, which is one of the major factors driving recent insect decline (Cooley et ...
[38]
The Habitats of 17-Year Periodical Cicadas (Homoptera - jstor
Nov 30, 1973 · An ovipositing female 17-yr cicada (Magici- cada cassini). The egg slits have already been made in the lower side of the same twig. The ...Missing: metabolic | Show results with:metabolic<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
A Quantitative Study of the Periodical Cicada - jstor
The number of emergence holes of Magicicada septendecim is correlated with the number of nymph cases per square meter quadrat; the number of nymph cases per ...
[40]
Urban soil compaction reduces cicada diversity | Zoological Letters
Aug 1, 2015 · These findings identify soil compaction due to urbanization as a possible cause of cicada diversity loss, as it impedes the passage of nymphs to underground ...
[41]
THE ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND EVOLUTION OF PERIODICAL ...
Records indicate that populations of periodical cicadas have been annihi lated by habitat disturbance and destruction. Populations have disappeared from ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Use of tree species by three species of Magicicada (Hemiptera
May 4, 2023 · Periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) are endemic to deciduous forests in the eastern United States. In successional forests, they must ...Missing: vegetation | Show results with:vegetation
[43]
Periodical cicadas use light for oviposition site selection - PMC - NIH
In periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.), oviposition site selection represents a very long-term habitat choice.
[44]
Life‐cycle control of 13‐ and 17‐year periodical cicadas
Aug 18, 2022 · This implies that 13- and 17-year cicadas genetically have the same body size to be attained under the same climatic conditions and that 13-year ...
[45]
Urbanization disrupts latitude‐size rule in 17‐year cicadas - PMC
Urban conditions—particularly warmer temperatures and fragmented landscapes—may impose stresses on development that could disrupt these body size patterns. To ...Missing: woodlots | Show results with:woodlots
[46]
Periodical Cicadas in Ohio - Ohioline
Mar 18, 2025 · Periodical cicadas in Ohio emerge as adults in the spring, 13 or 17 years after underground development. Ohio has six species, with 17-year and ...
[47]
[PDF] Periodical Cicadas in Ohio - Ohioline
Aug 13, 2025 · Periodical cicada nymphs molt and develop through five instars. Last instar nymphs develop vertical burrows in the spring to provide them with ...
[48]
Cicadas in Maryland | University of Maryland Extension
May 6, 2025 · Several weeks before emergence, some nymphs construct mud chimneys over the emergence hole. These mounds may be 2-3 inches high and 1-2 ...Appearance And Life Cycle Of... · Damage · Common Questions About...Missing: instars | Show results with:instars
[49]
Growth Rates of 17 and 13-year Periodical Cicadas - jstor
The results show clearly that 13- year nymphs grow up much faster than 17-year nymphs do-in sharp disagreement with Marlatt's earlier interpretation of Barlow' ...
[50]
How 17‐year cicadas keep track of time - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Cicadas accomplish a consistently accurate 17-year preadult development time by counting host seasonal cycles and not either by the passage of real time or by ...
[51]
Long‐Term Habitat Selection and Chronic Root Herbivory
Aug 10, 2025 · For example, several studies indicate that cicada oviposition density is a poor predictor of cicada nymph densities, perhaps because of strong ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Cicadas: The World Awaits the Emergence of Brood X | Bug Squad
May 11, 2021 · "Brood X includes all three of the 17-year-cycle species--Magicicada septendecim, M. cassini, and M. septendecula—that arise together every 17th ...
[53]
Stragglers | Periodical Cicada Information Pages
Straggling—or some related phenomenon—lies at the heart of the complex spatial and temporal arrangement of periodical cicada broods. Broods give rise to other ...
[54]
Periodical Cicada | VCE Publications - Virginia Tech
Jul 7, 2021 · Figure 2, An adult periodical cicada rests on a twig after laying her eggs under ... Adult cicadas live for only 2-4 weeks. Male cicadas ...
[55]
Periodical Cicadas - Wisconsin Horticulture
Feb 19, 2024 · Adult cicadas only live for a period of roughly four weeks, and during this time they feed very little. A few days after emerging, male cicadas ...Missing: mortality | Show results with:mortality
[56]
Magicicada septendecim (Linnaeus' 17-year cicada) | INFORMATION
A single female can lay up to 500 eggs, and after this process, the female drops to the ground and dies. Neither the male nor the female lives past early July.
[57]
Flight and dispersal of periodical cicadas | Oecologia
Periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) rarely flew distances greater than 50 m across an open field or along a forest edge. Most cicadas caught after flying.
[58]
Periodical Cicada
### Summary of Adult Periodical Cicadas
[59]
Do adult Magicicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) feed? Historical ... - NIH
Oct 18, 2023 · He concluded that adults feed little if at all and hypothesized that the guts of adults are converted into an “organ of absorption” to ...
[60]
Periodical Cicadas - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
Periodical cicadas live underground as nymphs, feeding on tree roots, and emerge every 13 or 17 years to mate. Adult males "sing" and females lay eggs.Missing: Magicicada | Show results with:Magicicada
[61]
Activity responses of a mammal community to a 17-year cicada ...
Jun 28, 2024 · In 2021, 17-year cicadas represented a large pulse of easily accessible food. We tested whether mammal activity shifted in response to ...Abstract · Materials And Methods · Results
[62]
(PDF) THE PERIODICAL CICADAS - ResearchGate
Jul 28, 2024 · Magicicada cassini is a species of floodplain woods, and characteristically can be seen to replace septendecim and septendecula as one moves ...
[63]
[PDF] The Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution of Periodical Cicadas
The three species of 17-year cicadas are Magicicada septendecim, M. cassini, and M. septendecula (2). These species have distinctive color patterns, sizes,.Missing: external | Show results with:external
[64]
Periodical (17-year) Brood X Cicadas
Oct 23, 2024 · This nutrient-poor diet and avoidance of predators are potential reasons the periodical cicada develops for 17 years before emerging.
[65]
A specialized fungal parasite (Massospora cicadina) hijacks ... - NIH
Jan 23, 2018 · A specialized fungal parasite (Massospora cicadina) hijacks the sexual signals of periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada).
[66]
[PDF] The Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution of Periodical Cicadas
The evolution of a long life cycle combined with perfect synchronicity allows. Magicicada spp. to escape the build-up of predators (12, 39, 64, 65, 84).
[67]
Predation-driven geographical isolation of broods in periodical ...
Nov 7, 2024 · In 17-year periodical cicadas, past studies have revealed that four-year accelerated stragglers are most common, while one-year accelerated ones ...
[68]
Periodical Cicada -- Magicicada -- &quot
Jan 8, 2016 · Usually smaller than M. septendecim and similar to M. cassini in size, with narrow, well-defined orange stripes on the underside of the abdomen ...
[69]
Periodical cicadas disrupt trophic dynamics through ... - Science
Oct 19, 2023 · Periodical cicadas emerge en masse every 13 or 17 years, bringing not just a continuous drone of noise but also an influx of food for birds and other predators.Missing: glacial colonization
[70]
Demise of Finger Lakes cicadas is indicator of how urbanization is ...
May 12, 2004 · "Emergence densities are so vast that all predators in the region become satiated for a short time, and enough cicadas survive to breed and ...Missing: reduced | Show results with:reduced
[71]
Behavior | Periodical Cicada Information Pages
These signals include acoustical calling songs that attract males and females to the chorus, and one or more acoustical courtship calls when approaching and ...
[72]
Tuning the drum: the mechanical basis for frequency discrimination ...
Oct 15, 2006 · More accurately, ascending neurons recorded in Magicicada cassini ... Top: for a 10 kHz driving frequency (calling song dominant frequency) ...
[73]
Buzz, Chirp, Wee-Oo: Listen to the Cicadas Sing
May 17, 2024 · In general, the songs of the Magicicada tredecula species are rhythmic frequency sweeps, while the songs of the Magicicada tredecassini ...
[74]
Brood X, the great cicada swarm, is coming. And D.C. is ground zero.
Mar 9, 2021 · “It's going to be pretty remarkable, come the latter half of May,” Raupp said. “The densities of these things is going be phenomenal, about 1.5 ...
[75]
Periodical Cicada Page - University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
May 6, 2011 · Magicicada population densities are so high that predators apparently eat their fill without significantly reducing the population (a phenomenon ...
[76]
Induced responses of cherry trees to periodical cicada oviposition
Induced responses of cherry trees to periodical cicada oviposition ... Article PDF. Download to read the full article text. Similar content being viewed by others ...
[77]
Transient habitats limit development time for periodical cicadas
Jan 1, 2014 · Adult periodical cicadas prefer rapidly growing sunlit trees for oviposition (Yang 2006). ... Emergence of periodical cicadas (Magicicada cassini) ...
[78]
Periodical Cicada : Landscape : Center for Agriculture, Food, and ...
Feb 3, 2025 · Broods of periodical cicada adults have synchronized emergence events every 13 or 17 years. These events can be loud and very noticeable to the ...<|separator|>
[79]
Effects of Periodical Cicada Ovipositional Injury on Woody Plants
Both native and exotic plants had a mean of 4 wounds per branch and a percent canopy flagging of 10% to 12%. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) ...
[80]
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00378841
[81]
Periodical cicada emergence resource pulse tracks forest expansion ...
Jul 12, 2019 · Effects of periodical cicada emergences are generally considered confined to the vicinity of the emergence, as adults rarely disperse more than ...Missing: flight | Show results with:flight
[82]
EFFECTS OF PERIODICAL CICADA EMERGENCES ON ...
Jul 1, 2005 · Fifteen (63%) of the bird species exhibited numerical changes in abundance apparently associated with emergences of the local periodical cicada ...Missing: enhances | Show results with:enhances
[83]
Are Periodical Cicadas a Threat to Field Crops?
Because of the way that orchard trees are pruned and managed, this could cause serious damage and crop loss. The eggs hatch a short time after they are laid ...
[84]
Management recommendations of periodical cicadas for commercial ...
Apr 29, 2024 · Periodical cicadas damage trees when they lay their eggs in small branches and twigs, ½ to 1 inch in diameter. They really only do harm to very ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss
[85]
Brood X Cicadas Left Their Mark on Local Orchards - CBS 21
Jul 16, 2021 · The cicadas are long gone but you may have seen an oddly high number of dead branches in some of the tree line in recent days. That's from the ...
[86]
[PDF] Effects of oviposition by periodical cicadas on tree growth
These data suggest cicada oviposition has little effect on the radial growth of trees, particularly in comparison to other factors. Résumé : Les cigales 17 ans ...
[87]
Cicadas are the buzzing harbingers of summer - Arizona Daily Star
Jun 16, 2017 · Cicadas, those large and loud-buzzing harbingers of summer, are piercing the silence in parks and back yards across the Tucson area this month.
[88]
Cicada Mania - Yesterdays Island, Todays Nantucket
Sep 3, 2015 · Often heard but rarely seen, these harbingers of late summer warm weather days remind us that fall is around the corner. According to folk ...
[89]
Folklore of Cicadas | Folklife Magazine
May 17, 2021 · The earliest documented examples of cicada folklore come from China, where stone carvings of the bug date to 1500 BCE.
[90]
Cicadas 2021: Billions of Brood X bugs set to emerge in eastern US
and the unofficial dean of Brood X cicadas — expects to see them in 14 states plus the District of Columbia.
[91]
The 2021 Brood X Cicada Emergence: A Recap - Entomology Today
Aug 12, 2021 · The world's largest emergence of periodical cicadas occurred this spring in the mid-Atlantic and eastern Midwest regions of the United States.
[92]
Blue-eyed cicadas: They're rare, but not worth reward money
Jun 7, 2021 · Cicada Mania also linked the rumor to 2008 when researcher Roy Troutman offered rewards for living blue-eyed cicadas for scientific research.Missing: Magicicada cassini tyrosinase
[93]
Did Someone Offer a Reward for White or Blue-eyed Cicadas?
Jul 5, 2015 · This was false and an urban legend until in 2008 when Roy Troutman began to offer rewards for living blue-eyed cicadas for scientific research.Missing: cassini tyrosinase
[94]
Developmental Plasticity of Life-Cycle Length in Thirteen-Year ...
Feb 2, 2018 · PDF | On Jan 1, 2011, David C. Marshall and others published Developmental Plasticity of Life-Cycle Length in Thirteen-Year Periodical ...Missing: molting | Show results with:molting
[95]
Evolutionary Hysteresis and Ratchets in the Evolution of Periodical ...
The perfectly synchronized mass emergence of periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) evolved as a result of a switch from size-based to age-based emergence.
[96]
Magicicada cassini | NatureServe Explorer
Classification. Scientific Name: Magicicada cassini (Fisher, 1852). Kingdom: Animalia. Phylum: Arthropoda. Class: Insecta. Order: Hemiptera. Family: Cicadidae.Missing: JC John<|control11|><|separator|>
[97]
Getting up close with cicadas to find climate change clues
Jul 19, 2021 · Scientists witnessed large numbers of 17-year cicadas surface years ahead of schedule in 2017, which entomologists suspect could be related to global warming.
[98]
Cicada Safari App Reaches 125,000 Downloads as Citizen ...
May 17, 2021 · Cicada Safari users will contribute to vital scientific research by determining the distribution of the emerging cicadas, enabling scientists to ...
[99]
Cicada Safari
Brood XXII will emerge in four states, Ohio Kentucky, Mississippi and Louisiana. The northern population was first recognized in 2001. We ask your help in ...