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Magnetic reluctance

Magnetic reluctance, also known as magnetic resistance, is a measure of the opposition that a magnetic circuit offers to the flow of magnetic flux, analogous to electrical resistance in an electric circuit.^[1] It quantifies how difficult it is for magnetic flux to pass through a material or path, depending on the material's properties and geometry.^[2] The concept was first termed "reluctance" by Oliver Heaviside in 1888, building on earlier notions of magnetic resistance introduced by James Joule in 1840.^[3] In magnetic circuit analysis, reluctance \mathcal{R} is defined by the relation \mathcal{R} = \frac{\mathcal{F}}{\Phi}, where \mathcal{F} is the magnetomotive force (measured in ampere-turns) and \Phi is the magnetic flux (measured in webers).^[1] For a uniform magnetic path, the formula is \mathcal{R} = \frac{l}{\mu A}, where l is the mean length of the magnetic path (in meters), \mu is the magnetic permeability of the material (in henries per meter), and A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flux (in square meters).^[2] Permeability \mu = \mu_r \mu_0, with \mu_r as the relative permeability (dimensionless) and \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m as the permeability of free space; materials with high \mu_r, such as ferromagnetic substances like iron, exhibit low reluctance, facilitating flux flow.^[3] The SI unit of reluctance is the ampere-turn per weber (A·t/Wb), equivalent to 1/H (inverse henry).^[1] Reluctance plays a crucial role in the design and analysis of electromagnetic devices, where magnetic circuits are modeled using analogies to electric circuits, applying laws similar to Kirchhoff's rules: the total magnetomotive force around a closed loop equals the sum of the \mathcal{R} \Phi drops, and flux is conserved at junctions.^[1] In practice, air gaps or non-magnetic regions introduce high reluctance due to low permeability, often dominating the total reluctance in devices like transformers, inductors, and electric motors to control flux and prevent saturation.^[2] For instance, in transformer cores, minimizing reluctance ensures efficient flux linkage between windings, while in reluctance motors, variable reluctance drives torque production.^[3] Nonlinear effects, such as magnetic saturation in ferromagnetic materials, complicate reluctance calculations, requiring B-H curve data for accurate modeling.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Basic Concept

Magnetic reluctance, also known as magnetic resistance, is a measure of the opposition that a magnetic circuit presents to the flow of magnetic flux, analogous to electrical resistance in an electric circuit which opposes the flow of electric current.^[4] In magnetostatics, it quantifies how much magnetomotive force (MMF) is required to establish a given magnetic flux through a material or path, where MMF arises from the ampere-turns (NI) produced by a current-carrying coil.^[5] This opposition arises because magnetic flux lines prefer paths of least reluctance, similar to how electric current seeks paths of least resistance.^[1] At its core, magnetic reluctance relates magnetic flux—the total number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface—to the driving MMF, following an Ohm's law-like analogy where flux is proportional to MMF divided by reluctance.^[5] Magnetic flux represents the strength and extent of the magnetic field, while MMF provides the "pressure" to drive it, much like voltage drives current.^[4] This foundational relationship enables the analysis of magnetic systems by treating them as circuits composed of reluctances in series or parallel.^[1] The value of reluctance in a magnetic path is influenced by both geometric and material factors. Geometrically, it increases with the length of the magnetic path, as longer paths offer more opposition to flux, and decreases with larger cross-sectional areas, which allow more flux to pass.^[5] Material-wise, reluctance depends on the magnetic permeability, a property that indicates how easily a material can support magnetic flux; materials with high permeability, such as ferromagnetic substances, exhibit lower reluctance compared to air or non-magnetic materials.^[4] Reluctance differs from permeability in that it describes the total opposition to flux in a specific segment of a magnetic circuit, incorporating both the material's intrinsic properties and the path's geometry, whereas permeability is solely a material characteristic that measures the material's ability to enhance the magnetic field relative to the free space value.^[1] This distinction allows reluctance to serve as a circuit-level parameter, while permeability informs material selection for minimizing overall opposition.^[4]

Units and Measurement

The SI unit of magnetic reluctance is the ampere-turn per weber (At/Wb), derived dimensionally from the definition of reluctance as the ratio of magnetomotive force (MMF, measured in ampere-turns) to magnetic flux (measured in webers). This unit is equivalent to the inverse henry (H⁻¹), since the henry is defined as one weber per ampere, making reluctance the reciprocal in a magnetic circuit analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.^[6]^[7] In the centimeter-gram-second (cgs) electromagnetic unit system, reluctance is expressed in gilberts per maxwell (Gb/Mx), where the gilbert is the cgs unit of MMF and the maxwell is the unit of flux. Conversion between the systems accounts for the differences in base units: 1 At = (4π/10) Gb and 1 Wb = 10⁸ Mx, yielding a factor such that the numerical value of reluctance in cgs units is the SI value multiplied by approximately 1.257 × 10⁻⁸.^[8]^[9] Reluctance is measured experimentally by applying a known MMF to a magnetic circuit and quantifying the resulting flux, often using specialized instruments like permeameters for soft magnetic materials. A permeameter typically encircles a test sample with excitation and sensing windings, applies a controlled current to generate MMF, and measures flux via induced voltage or deflection in a connected meter, allowing computation of reluctance as MMF divided by flux. For toroidal cores, which minimize fringing due to their closed geometry, the setup involves a primary winding to produce MMF (NI, where N is turns and I is current) and a secondary search coil linked to a ballistic galvanometer.^[10]^[11] The galvanometer detects the charge impulse from a sudden flux change (e.g., by reversing the primary current), proportional to twice the flux linkage, which is calibrated to yield the total flux Φ; reluctance is then R = NI / Φ./10%3A_Electromagnetic_Induction/10.04%3A_Ballistic_Galvanometer_and_the_Measurement_of_Magnetic_Field) Measurement accuracy is influenced by temperature variations, which affect the permeability of the core material and thereby alter reluctance, often requiring temperature-controlled environments or corrections based on material data sheets. In non-uniform fields or gapped cores, fringing effects cause flux to spread beyond the intended path, increasing effective permeance and underestimating reluctance unless modeled with correction factors like empirical fringing coefficients.^[12]^[5]

Mathematical Formulation

Reluctance in Magnetic Circuits

In magnetic circuit analysis, reluctance quantifies the opposition to magnetic flux in a given path, analogous to resistance in electric circuits. The magnetomotive force (MMF), denoted as \mathcal{F} = NI where N is the number of turns and I is the current, drives the magnetic flux \Phi. Reluctance \mathcal{R} is defined as \mathcal{R} = \mathcal{F} / \Phi.^[13] To derive the standard formula for reluctance in a simple magnetic path, consider Ampere's circuital law, which states \oint \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = NI, where \mathbf{H} is the magnetic field intensity. For a uniform path of mean length l, this simplifies to H l = NI, so H = \mathcal{F} / l. The magnetic flux density B relates to H via B = \mu H, where \mu = \mu_0 \mu_r is the permeability, with \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m as the permeability of free space and \mu_r as the relative permeability. The total flux is then \Phi = B A = \mu H A = \mu (\mathcal{F} / l) A, yielding \Phi = (\mu A / l) \mathcal{F}. Thus, \mathcal{R} = \mathcal{F} / \Phi = l / (\mu A), where A is the cross-sectional area.^[13]^[14] This derivation assumes a uniform cross-section along the path, linear and isotropic magnetic materials (constant \mu), and negligible flux leakage outside the intended path. These conditions hold for idealized toroidal or closed-loop cores where fringing effects are minimal.^[13]^[14] The role of permeability is evident in practical examples, such as comparing an air gap to a ferromagnetic core segment, both with length l = 1 mm and area A = 1 cm². For the air gap (\mu_r = 1, \mu = \mu_0), \mathcal{R}_\text{air} \approx 7,960,000 A·t/Wb. For a typical silicon steel core (\mu_r = 4000), \mathcal{R}_\text{core} \approx 1,990 A·t/Wb, demonstrating how high \mu_r reduces reluctance by orders of magnitude and concentrates flux in the core. For complex magnetic circuits, reluctances combine like resistances. In series, the total reluctance is the sum \mathcal{R}_\text{total} = \sum \mathcal{R}_i, as MMF drops add along the path while flux remains constant. In parallel paths, the reciprocal sums as $1 / \mathcal{R}_\text{total} = \sum 1 / \mathcal{R}_i, since flux divides while MMF is shared. These rules enable network analysis of multi-branch circuits, such as those in electromagnets or relays.^[13]^[14] Permeance, denoted as P, is defined as the reciprocal of magnetic reluctance R, such that P = 1/R.^[13] This quantity represents the ease with which magnetic flux passes through a given path in a magnetic circuit, contrasting with reluctance's measure of opposition to flux.^[15] In SI units, permeance is expressed in webers per ampere-turn (Wb/(A·turn)), equivalent to henries per turn squared (H/turn²) when considering multi-turn windings.^[13] The basic formula for permeance of a uniform magnetic path is P = \mu A / l, where \mu is the magnetic permeability of the material, A is the cross-sectional area, and l is the mean length of the magnetic path.^[13] This permeance facilitates the calculation of magnetic flux \Phi = P \cdot \mathcal{F}, where \mathcal{F} = N I is the magnetomotive force in ampere-turns, with N as the number of turns and I as the current.^[15] In terms of flux linkage \lambda = N \Phi, permeance relates directly to inductance, as self-inductance L = N^2 P for a single coil, linking \lambda = L I.^[13] For coupled circuits, mutual permeance P_m accounts for flux shared between windings, yielding mutual inductance M = N_1 N_2 P_m.^[13] In saturated materials, where permeability varies nonlinearly along the magnetization curve, effective permeance is determined by integrating the permeability over the path length, though this requires numerical methods for precision.^[13] Reluctance networks, which model magnetic circuits as interconnected permeances and reluctances, are often employed within finite element methods to approximate complex field distributions in devices.^[16] Unlike reluctance, which quantifies flux opposition akin to resistance, permeance specifically measures a path's capacity to conduct magnetic flux, analogous to electrical conductance in circuit theory.^[15]

Historical Development

Early Concepts and Analogies

The foundational ideas underlying magnetic reluctance originated in the early 19th-century discoveries linking electricity and magnetism. In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted observed that an electric current deflects a compass needle, demonstrating that electricity generates magnetic fields and establishing the basis for treating currents as sources of magnetic force.^[17] This breakthrough prompted André-Marie Ampère to develop a mathematical framework in the 1820s, quantifying the magnetic interactions between currents and conceptualizing magnetomotive force (MMF) as the analogous driving agent to electromotive force in electric phenomena, which paved the way for circuit-like models of magnetism by the 1840s.^[17] Michael Faraday's 1831 discovery of electromagnetic induction further inspired these analogies, showing that a varying magnetic field induces an electric current, thereby suggesting that magnetic flux could be opposed in a manner akin to how resistance impedes electric current flow. This led to early conceptualizations of magnetic flux as a "flow" encountering opposition, with James Prescott Joule introducing the term "magnetic resistance" in 1840 to describe the reluctance of materials to magnetic induction in his studies of electromagnetic devices.^[18] Henry Augustus Rowland's experiments in 1873 marked a key advancement, as he explicitly linked magnetic and electric circuits through measurements of magnetic permeability in iron, steel, and nickel, formulating a law analogous to Ohm's for magnetic flux, MMF, and reluctance-like opposition. These efforts culminated in the late 1880s with the evolution of terminology, as Oliver Heaviside coined "reluctance" in May 1888 to precisely denote the magnetic circuit's resistance to flux, solidifying the analogy in engineering analyses.^[19]

Key Milestones and Contributors

In the early 20th century, John Ambrose Fleming contributed significantly to the formalization of magnetic circuit theory through his 1902 textbook Magnets and Electric Currents, where he explored the opposition to magnetic flux in circuits analogous to electrical resistance, incorporating the concept of reluctance as a key parameter in analyzing magnetic paths and currents.^[20] Fleming's work built on earlier analogies, providing practical guidance for engineers and educators on applying reluctance in device design.^[21] Oliver Heaviside's operational calculus, developed in the late 19th century, found applications in transient analysis of electrical systems by the early 20th century, providing a foundation for analogous modeling in electromagnetic problems. This approach, rooted in Heaviside's earlier coining of the term "reluctance" in 1888, supported more rigorous treatments of dynamic phenomena in electrical and magnetic machinery.^[22] The mid-20th century saw advancements in reluctance motor technologies, including the development of synchronous reluctance motors, with early theoretical work by J.K. Kostko in 1923 laying groundwork for practical designs optimizing reluctance variation for torque production.^[23] Standardization efforts culminated in the 1960s when the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) adopted SI units for electromagnetic quantities, defining reluctance as the reciprocal henry (H⁻¹) within the MKSA system ratified by the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960.^[24] A notable milestone in the 1980s was the integration of finite element analysis (FEA) for reluctance modeling, with software like ANSYS incorporating electromagnetic solvers to simulate complex magnetic circuits, enhancing accuracy in nonlinear reluctance predictions.^[25] This computational advance revolutionized design optimization by enabling detailed flux distribution analysis.^[26]

Practical Applications

In Transformers and Inductors

In transformer and inductor design, magnetic reluctance plays a crucial role in optimizing the magnetic flux path through the core, ensuring efficient energy transfer by minimizing unwanted magnetomotive force (MMF) drops and enhancing overall performance. Laminated cores, typically constructed from high-permeability materials such as grain-oriented silicon steel, are employed to achieve low reluctance, which reduces the MMF required to establish a given flux density and thereby minimizes core losses. The lamination process, involving thin sheets insulated from one another, primarily targets eddy current losses while preserving the high relative permeability (μ_r) of the core material, allowing for a reluctance path that confines flux effectively within the core. This design approach is particularly vital in power transformers operating at 50/60 Hz, where low reluctance contributes to reduced no-load losses and improved efficiency under nominal loads.^[27]^[28]^[29] Intentional air gaps are sometimes introduced in transformer and inductor cores to deliberately increase reluctance, thereby controlling magnetic saturation by distributing the flux more evenly and raising the current threshold before the core material reaches its saturation flux density (B_sat). This elevation in effective reluctance prevents excessive core heating and distortion, which could otherwise degrade transformer efficiency by increasing core losses.^[30]^[31] For instance, consider a typical core with a mean magnetic path length of 0.1 m, cross-sectional area of 10^{-4} m², relative permeability μ_r = 2000, and an air gap of 0.1 mm; the reluctance of the iron portion is approximately 398,000 A/Wb, while the air gap reluctance dominates at about 796,000 A/Wb, resulting in a total reluctance of roughly 1,194,000 A/Wb that shifts the saturation point, enabling higher power handling. Leakage reluctance refers to the higher-reluctance paths taken by flux that does not fully link both primary and secondary windings, leading to unintended flux leakage outside the core and reducing the magnetic coupling between coils. This leakage flux, governed by the geometry of the windings and core, directly impacts the coupling coefficient k, defined as k = M / √(L_1 L_2), where M is the mutual inductance and L_1, L_2 are the self-inductances; higher leakage reluctance lowers k (typically 0.95-0.99 in well-designed transformers), increasing equivalent series inductance and voltage drops under load. Designers mitigate this by interleaving windings or using shielding to shorten leakage paths, thereby enhancing k and minimizing reactive power losses.^[32]^[33]^[28] A key design trade-off in selecting core materials involves balancing high μ_r, which lowers overall reluctance for efficient flux conduction, against increased hysteresis losses inherent in such materials; for example, grain-oriented silicon steel with μ_r around 1500-8000 provides low reluctance in 50/60 Hz power transformers but exhibits hysteresis losses of approximately 0.8-1.5 W/kg at 1.5 T due to domain wall motion during cyclic magnetization. While higher μ_r reduces MMF requirements and core size, the associated hysteresis—proportional to the area of the B-H loop—necessitates careful flux density limits (below 1.7 T) to avoid excessive no-load losses, often compromising on material thickness or alloy composition for optimal efficiency in high-power applications.^[29]^[34]

In Electric Motors and Generators

In electric motors and generators, magnetic reluctance plays a pivotal role in devices that exploit variations in reluctance to produce torque or electrical power, particularly through position-dependent changes in the magnetic circuit. Switched reluctance motors (SRMs) operate on this principle, where torque is generated by the tendency of the rotor to align with the stator's magnetic field to minimize reluctance. The torque T in an SRM is proportional to \frac{1}{2} i^2 \frac{dL}{d\theta}, where i is the phase current, L is the phase inductance, and \theta is the rotor position angle, reflecting how reluctance variation with rotor position drives motion without permanent magnets or rotor windings. This mechanism allows SRMs to achieve high torque density and robustness, making them suitable for applications requiring wide speed ranges and fault tolerance, including electric vehicles where rare-earth magnet shortages have increased their adoption as of 2025.^[35]^[36] Synchronous reluctance motors (SynRMs) further leverage anisotropic reluctance through salient pole rotor designs, where the rotor's magnetic permeability differs along direct and quadrature axes, enhancing torque via the reluctance difference. These motors typically feature a rotor with projecting salient poles that create a non-uniform air gap, promoting efficient flux paths and enabling operation at synchronous speeds. SynRMs can attain efficiencies exceeding 90%, attributed to their simple construction, reduced losses from the absence of rotor excitation, and optimized saliency ratios that maximize power factor and output.^[37]^[38] In generator applications, reluctance-based machines facilitate variable speed operation, crucial for renewable energy systems like wind turbines, where rotor speed fluctuates with wind conditions. Reluctance synchronous generators produce torque through similar alignment principles, allowing control strategies to maintain optimal power extraction across speed variations without mechanical gearboxes in some designs. For instance, assisted reluctance synchronous generators in small-scale wind turbines enable efficient energy capture by adjusting excitation to match variable inputs, supporting grid integration and maximum power point tracking.^[39]^[40] A key challenge in reluctance motors and generators is torque ripple, arising from discrete changes in reluctance as poles align, which can cause vibrations and noise. Mitigation often involves pole shaping techniques, such as optimizing stator or rotor pole contours to create smoother inductance profiles and gradual reluctance transitions. These modifications, including non-uniform air gaps or pole tip adjustments, can reduce ripple by up to 50% while preserving average torque, improving overall performance in dynamic applications.^[41]^[42]

In Magnetic Sensors and Shielding

Reluctance-based sensors, such as linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), operate by modulating the magnetic reluctance of a circuit through the linear displacement of a ferromagnetic core within a coil assembly. The core's position alters the effective reluctance by changing the magnetic flux path's geometry, which in turn varies the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary windings, producing a differential output voltage proportional to the displacement. This principle enables high-precision, contactless measurement of linear positions, with linearity errors as low as 0.15% under compensated conditions.^[43] In magnetic shielding applications, materials like mu-metal are employed to create enclosures that provide a low-reluctance path for external magnetic flux, effectively diverting it around sensitive regions to minimize interference in low-flux environments. High-permeability alloys such as mu-metal, with relative permeabilities exceeding 20,000, channel flux lines through the shield material rather than allowing penetration into the protected volume, achieving attenuation levels up to 100 dB for DC and low-frequency fields. Design considerations often target shielding effectiveness by optimizing the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, where enclosures are engineered to ensure the shielded region's reluctance remains significantly higher than the shield's path, typically aiming for overall circuit reluctances that support flux diversion efficiencies in precision setups.^[44]^[45] Reluctance paths play a critical role in Hall effect sensors integrated with flux concentrators, where high-permeability ferromagnetic cores focus and amplify weak magnetic fields by offering a low-reluctance route that guides flux toward the Hall element, enhancing sensitivity without increasing noise. This configuration can boost effective field detection by factors of up to 10, enabling sub-microtesla resolutions in applications requiring amplified field measurement. The concentrator's design minimizes leakage flux, concentrating it at the sensor gap to produce a measurable Hall voltage proportional to the intensified flux density.^[46]^[47] In the 2020s, reluctance-modulated inductive sensors have seen increased adoption in electric vehicles (EVs) for position feedback in components like rotor angle detection and suspension monitoring, providing robust, non-contact operation in harsh environments. For instance, variable reluctance principles are integral to crankshaft and camshaft position sensors adapted for EV equivalents, ensuring accurate timing and efficiency in electric powertrains.^[48]

Comparisons and Extensions

Analogy to Electrical Resistance

Magnetic reluctance bears a direct analogy to electrical resistance, facilitating the analysis of magnetic circuits using principles familiar from electrical engineering. In an electrical circuit, resistance R quantifies the opposition to current flow and is calculated as R = \frac{\rho l}{A}, where \rho is the material's resistivity, l is the conductor length, and A is the cross-sectional area. Correspondingly, magnetic reluctance \mathcal{R} measures opposition to magnetic flux \Phi and is given by \mathcal{R} = \frac{l}{\mu A}, with \mu denoting the magnetic permeability, l the path length, and A the cross-sectional area. The driving force in magnetic circuits, magnetomotive force (MMF) \mathcal{F} = NI (where N is the number of turns and I is the current), parallels voltage V, while flux \Phi is analogous to current I. This correspondence yields an Ohm's law equivalent: \Phi = \frac{\mathcal{F}}{\mathcal{R}}.^[49]^[3] The analogy further extends to Kirchhoff's laws, enabling systematic circuit analysis. Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) finds its magnetic counterpart in the loop rule for MMF: the algebraic sum of MMFs around a closed path equals the total ampere-turns enclosed, derived from Ampère's law \oint \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = NI. Similarly, Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) corresponds to flux conservation at nodes: the net flux into a junction is zero, reflecting the solenoidal nature of magnetic fields as per Gauss's law for magnetism \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0. These parallels allow application of techniques like mesh analysis or Thevenin's theorem to magnetic networks.^[49]^[50] Despite its utility, the analogy encounters limitations that distinguish magnetic from electrical circuits. Electrical circuits can employ insulators to confine current paths, but magnetic fields lack equivalent "magnetic insulators," resulting in unavoidable flux leakage outside intended paths. Moreover, permeability \mu often varies with field intensity and material saturation, unlike the typically constant resistivity \rho, which introduces nonlinearity and complicates linear circuit assumptions. These issues necessitate approximations, such as neglecting fringing fields in air gaps, for practical calculations.^[49]^[3] This conceptual bridge holds significant educational value, particularly in elucidating hybrid electro-magnetic devices like relays, where electrical inputs produce magnetic effects. By mapping magnetic behaviors onto electrical frameworks, the analogy aids learners in intuitively grasping flux distribution and MMF drops without delving into full electromagnetic field theory from the outset.^[50]

Reluctance in Nonlinear Materials

In ferromagnetic materials, the reluctance of a magnetic circuit deviates from linearity due to the nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density B and magnetic field strength H, as characterized by the B-H curve. This curve illustrates how B increases rapidly at low H values due to high initial permeability but eventually saturates, where further increases in H yield diminishing returns in B, effectively raising the reluctance as the material's response flattens.^[15] Saturation limits the maximum flux in the circuit, causing reluctance to increase nonlinearly with applied magnetomotive force.^[51] Hysteresis further complicates reluctance in these materials, as the magnetization process forms closed loops on the B-H plane, where the path of magnetization depends on the history of the applied field. These loops represent energy dissipation and a lag in the material's response, which manifests as an effective increase in reluctance because the average permeability over a cycle is reduced compared to the peak value.^[52] The width and area of hysteresis loops quantify this effect, with broader loops indicating greater reluctance variation and associated losses.^[53] To model reluctance in such nonlinear regimes, an incremental approach is employed, defining the differential reluctance as d\mathcal{R} = \frac{dl}{\mu_{\text{inc}} A}, where dl is an elemental length along the magnetic path, A is the cross-sectional area, and \mu_{\text{inc}} = \frac{dB}{dH} is the incremental permeability derived from the slope of the B-H curve at the operating point. This allows the total reluctance to be computed by integrating along the path, accounting for local variations in permeability. For total flux calculation, graphical or numerical integration of the B-H curve is used, summing incremental flux contributions d\Phi = B \, dA over the circuit to capture the nonlinear flux distribution.^[52]^[54] In high-power devices like transformers, these nonlinearities lead to harmonic distortions in the current and voltage waveforms, as the varying reluctance causes the magnetizing current to deviate from sinusoidality, injecting odd harmonics into the system. This distortion exacerbates losses and reduces efficiency, particularly under heavy loads where saturation is pronounced. To mitigate these effects, air gaps are introduced into the magnetic circuit, which possess constant high reluctance and dominate the total path reluctance, thereby linearizing the overall response and preventing deep saturation in the ferromagnetic core.^[55]^[56] For low-field applications, the Rayleigh loop describes the initial minor hysteresis behavior, where the magnetization follows a parabolic law, with the loop area proportional to the cube of the field amplitude, providing a simple approximation for reversible and weakly irreversible processes. In modern simulations of complex hysteresis, the Preisach model—developed in the 1930s and extended thereafter—represents the material as a superposition of elementary hysterons, enabling accurate prediction of reluctance variations under dynamic conditions through numerical distribution functions.^[57]^[58]^[59]

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Jul 24, 2024 · The air gap increases the effective reluctance, and hence the saturation current, of the core. The Air Gap Increases the Stored Energy. We know ...
[34]
The Effects of an Air Gap in Magnetics | CET Technology
Apr 21, 2021 · The effect of an air gap is to require a larger magnetic field intensity for the same flux density as without the gap.
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Effect of magnetic properties of liquid dielectric on the leakage flux of ...
The magnetic flux chooses the path of lowest reluctance. In general, the transformers are designed such that most of the flux flows through the core. The ...
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[PDF] an1679-d.pdf - onsemi
Reference [1] paper also demonstrated how the leakage elements stay practically independent of the air−gap length: the coupling coefficient diminishes as the ...<|separator|>
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https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/joe.2018.8210
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Comparative analysis of salient pole and flux barrier rotor for ...
Apr 30, 2019 · Salient pole (SP) machines provide the reluctance by a non-cylindrical rotor shape and a variable magnetic and mechanical air gap. Flux barrier ...Introduction · Salient pole rotor · Comparison · Salient pole machine...
[39]
(PDF) Design and Validation of a High-Efficiency Synchronous ...
Aug 27, 2025 · In this paper, the conventional methods for enhancing the efficiency of synchronous reluctance motors (SynRMs) are overviewed, and then, ...
[40]
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/13/4743
[41]
Integration of Switched Reluctance Generator in a Wind Energy ...
This paper presents a technical overview for Switched Reluctance Generators (SRG) in Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) applications.
[42]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1633125
[43]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6983043/
[44]
https://users.wpi.edu/~mcneill/papers/Lecture_2_%28offering_2%29.pdf
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[PDF] EN390W Practical Aspects of Grounding, Power, and EMI Module 2
Figure 6-‐17: Magnetic material used as a shield by providing a low-‐reluctance path for the magnetic field, diverting it around the shielded region. Page ...Missing: mu- | Show results with:mu-
[46]
[PDF] Chapter 5. Magnetism
To be fair, the magnetic part of the Lorentz force was implicitly described in a much earlier (1865) paper by J. C. Maxwell and then spelled out by Oliver ...
[47]
[PDF] Isolated Open Loop Current Sensing Using Hall Effect ... - Educypedia
Jul 11, 2002 · Combining the Hall effect sensor, flux concentrator and primary conductor into a single assembly for PCB installation opens up applications.
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(PDF) High resolution Hall magnetic sensors - Academia.edu
The effective magnetic sensitivity can be increased by the application of a magnetic flux concentrator. The physical limit of magnetic sensitivity is estimated.Missing: path | Show results with:path
[49]
[PDF] 6.061 Class Notes, Chapter 6: Magnetic Circuit Analog to Electric ...
The analogies between electric and magnetic circuits are two: the electric circuit quantity of current is analogous to magnetic circuit quantity flux. (Both ...
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None
### Summary of Analogy Between Magnetic Reluctance and Electrical Resistance
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[PDF] Introduction to Magnetic Circuits - Florida Power Electronics Center
There are four segments (legs) in this core: the side segments, of the same reluctance , and the top/bottom segments, also of the same reluctance . The coil and ...
[52]
Transformer modelling considering power losses using an inverse ...
Note that according to (23), the incremental reluctance is time-dependent because the incremental permeability changes at each point in the hysteresis loop. 5.1 ...
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The Hysteresis Loop - Magnetism - NDE-Ed.org
Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an ...
[54]
(PDF) Transformer modeling based on incremental reluctances
The proposed circuit has the same topology with the nonlinear magnetic circuit ... incremental reluctance matrix loop. md. R. always can be inverted due to the ...
[55]
Harmonic distortion analysis in power system due to ...
This paper investigates the harmonic distortions of a small-scale system with different types of transformers in the Malaysian power grid under GIC events.
[56]
Decreasing the non-linearity of hybrid reluctance actuators by air ...
This paper presents an air gap design approach to improve the linearity of rotational Hybrid Reluctance Actuators (HRAs) used in fast steering mirrors.
[57]
Microscopic foundations of the Rayleigh law of hysteresis
The hysteresis properties of ferromagnetic materials at low fields are described by the Rayleigh law. We analyze the problem in the light of modern ...
[58]
[PDF] Parameter Identification for the Preisach Model of Hysteresis
Apr 24, 2001 · as a mathematical model for hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials. ... Although the Preisach model was originated in the 1930's, rigorous ...
[59]
Magnetic hysteresis modeling and simulation using the Preisach ...
This paper describes the Preisach theory of hysteresis models using a graphical approach. A new simple mathematical function which can relate the Preisach ...