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Mahound

Mahound is an archaic European rendering of the name Muhammad, the 7th-century Arab prophet regarded by Muslims as the final messenger of God, but employed in medieval Christian writings as a pejorative term to depict him as a false deity, idol, or demonic figure worshipped by Muslims.^[1]^[2] Deriving from Old French Mahum, a contraction of Mahomed, the name emerged amid Crusades-era hostilities and persisted in literature such as Dante Alighieri's Inferno, where Muhammad (as Mahomet) is consigned to Hell as a schismatic, and Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, reinforcing portrayals of Islam as idolatrous heresy.^[3] In regional dialects, particularly Scots and Irish English, mahound also denoted the Devil himself, underscoring the term's fusion of anti-Islamic polemic with broader satanic imagery.^[1] This usage highlights causal tensions between expanding Islamic polities and Christendom, where empirical encounters with Muslim conquests and theology fueled demonizing narratives rather than neutral historiography, a bias evident in primary medieval sources like chronicles and chansons de geste.^[3] The term's legacy extended into modern fiction, notably Salman Rushdie's 1988 novel The Satanic Verses, where a prophetic figure named Mahound provoked accusations of blasphemy from Muslim authorities.^[1]

Etymology and Origins

Linguistic Development

The term "Mahound" derives from the Latinized form Mahometus, a medieval European rendering of the Arabic name Muhammad, which entered Old French as Mahomet or Mahon through contractions common in vernacular adaptations of Latin ecclesiastical texts.^[4] This Old French variant, attested as Mahun or Mahom, shortened the fuller name by eliding syllables, a phonetic process influenced by Romance language patterns where unstressed vowels and consonants simplified in spoken forms.^[1] By the late 12th to early 13th century, such forms circulated in Anglo-Norman contexts, bridging Latin scholarly usage and emerging vernacular literature in England.^[4] In Middle English, "Mahound" or "Mahun" first appears around 1275, borrowed directly from the French Mahun, as evidenced in the poetic work of Laȝamon.^[4] The addition of the "-d" ending likely arose from phonetic assimilation to native English words like "hound," facilitating pronunciation and rhyme in alliterative verse, though this shift coincided with emerging connotations of disdain in Christian polemics rather than originating as a deliberate pejorative construction.^[5] Over time, the term evolved from a proper noun denoting the prophet to a generalized epithet for idols or false deities, reflecting semantic broadening in religious discourse while retaining its core phonological structure from Mahometus.^[4] This linguistic trajectory underscores how medieval European languages adapted Arabic onomastics through Latin intermediaries, prioritizing auditory familiarity over precise transliteration.^[1]

Early Medieval References

The earliest recorded appearances of "Mahound" in Middle English texts date to the late 13th and early 14th centuries, with the term deriving from Old French "Mahon," a shortened form of "Mahomet" used to denote Muhammad. In works like the Cursor Mundi (c. 1300), spelled as "Mahun," it refers to an idol purportedly venerated by Saracens, portraying Muslim forces as carrying golden images of Mahound into combat as a talisman.^[6]^[1] These depictions emerged amid Crusades-era interactions, where Christian chroniclers and poets, lacking direct access to the Quran, misinterpreted Islamic aniconism—the prohibition of images—as evidence of idol worship, with Muhammad reimagined as the central deity in a pagan pantheon. Empirical accounts from returning crusaders and merchants, such as observations of ritual prayers mistaken for invocations to statues, were filtered through hostile Byzantine polemics and oral traditions, causally transforming historical reports into symbolic narratives of false prophecy. For example, Saracen armies were described in chronicles as swearing oaths to Mahound before battles, equating Islamic monotheism with polytheistic idolatry despite some awareness of shared Abrahamic roots.^[7]^[8]^[3] This usage, spanning roughly 1150 to 1500 in broader European contexts but concentrated in English by 1300, marked an initial shift from viewing Muhammad as a mere heretic to a deified impostor, driven by informational asymmetries rather than theological nuance. Reliance on second-hand sources, including traveler narratives like those echoing Marco Polo's 13th-century descriptions of Muslim devotion without idols, nonetheless yielded distorted claims of corporeal worship to underscore Christian superiority.^[9]^[10]

Historical Perceptions in Christian Europe

Polemical Usage Against Islam

In 12th- to 15th-century Christian polemical writings, the term Mahound—a vernacular distortion of Muhammad's name derived from Old French Mahun—was deployed to depict the Islamic prophet not as a fellow Abrahamic figure but as a fabricated pagan idol, thereby recasting Muslim worship as polytheistic heresy antithetical to monotheism's core exclusivity. This framing drew on first-principles critiques of revelation's authenticity, demanding empirical alignment with biblical prophecy, and causal analysis of Islam's rapid militarized spread, which subjugated Christian territories including Syria (conquered 634–638 CE), Egypt (639–642 CE), and North Africa (647–709 CE), culminating in the 711 CE invasion of Visigothic Spain. Polemicists invoked these conquests' tangible threats—such as the Umayyad advance halted at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE—to argue that Islamic doctrine inherently promoted aggression, justifying reciprocal Christian mobilization like the Crusades as defensive restoration of prior imperial boundaries rather than unprovoked expansionism. Abbot Peter the Venerable of Cluny (c. 1092–1156), in his Contra sectam Saracenorum (c. 1142–1143), exemplifies this approach by commissioning a Latin Quran translation explicitly for refutation, portraying Muhammad (as Mahomet) as a successor to Arian heresy and Antichrist precursor whose teachings fused carnal indulgence with martial fanaticism, devoid of miraculous validation comparable to Christ's resurrection. Peter's analysis, grounded in direct Quranic scrutiny amid Cluny's scriptorial resources, rejected ecumenical overtures in favor of doctrinal confrontation, equating Saracen obeisance to Mahound with apostolic-era idolatry to rally clerical and lay support for Iberian Reconquista efforts, which reclaimed Toledo in 1085 CE and advanced southward by the 12th century. Later polemicists, including 13th-century Dominican Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in Contra legem Sarracenorum, echoed this by citing observed Muslim rituals as superstitious deviations, prioritizing theological purity over politically expedient alliances despite contemporaneous truces like the 1147 CE Wendish Crusade's pragmatic tolerances.^[11] European polemics also targeted venerated sites like Muhammad's Medina tomb (enshrined post-632 CE) as emblems of illicit relic cultism, contravening Exodus 20:4–5's image ban and mirroring condemned pagan mausolea. Accounts from returning pilgrims and writers like Embrico of Mainz (fl. 1100s) in his Hymni et versus described the tomb as artificially levitated via concealed magnets in a gilded sarcophagus, interpreting this not as pious honor but as mechanical deception revealing Islam's foundational fraudulence—a causal link to its prophet's purported epileptic visions and opportunistic power grabs. Such narratives, disseminated in Latin tracts and vernacular sermons, reinforced Islam's categorization as a diabolical simulacrum of Christianity, engineered to ensnare souls through mimicked monotheism while endorsing conquest and image-based devotion, thus excusing Christian iconoclasm against captured mosques repurposed as churches during the 1099 CE Jerusalem capture.

Demonization and Pagan Associations

In medieval Christian Europe, particularly by the 14th century, "Mahound" had evolved into a synonym for the Devil in regional folklore, especially in Scottish and Irish traditions, where it denoted a hound-like fiend or malevolent entity invoked in oaths by false gods.^[12] This usage reflected a broader demonization, portraying Mahound not merely as a historical figure but as a demonic idol worshipped by pagans and heretics, akin to classical deities repurposed as infernal powers in Christian demonology.^[13] Such oaths, like "by Mahound" sworn by biblical villains such as Herod in medieval mystery plays, underscored the perception of Mahound as a pagan false god emblematic of deception and idolatry.^[14] Theological interpretations further entrenched this demonic framing, identifying Muhammad—rendered as Mahound—with the Antichrist or his precursors, drawing on apocalyptic readings of Revelation and 1 John to explain Islam's doctrinal deviations, such as the denial of Christ's divinity, as Arian-influenced heresy orchestrated by satanic forces.^[15] Critics like Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471) argued that Muhammad's purported miracles, including the splitting of the moon, were demonic illusions rather than divine signs, forming a causal chain from false prophecy to the religion's deceptive appeal.^[16] This view rejected attributions of Islam's rapid 7th-8th century conquests to mundane factors like military strategy, instead applying a parsimonious logic consistent with contemporary accounts of exorcisms and hagiographies: the faith's success stemmed from pacts with infernal entities, enabling supernatural seduction of souls over mere geopolitical opportunism.^[16]^[15] Contemporary dismissals of these perceptions as mere cultural misunderstandings overlook the medieval commitment to empirical patterns in spiritual warfare, where demonic agency explained phenomena like mass conversions without requiring improbable coincidences of human ambition alone; this eschatological lens positioned Mahound as the embodiment of pagan resurgence under a Christian guise, distinct from earlier geopolitical polemics.^[16]

Literary Depictions

Medieval Drama and Poetry

In medieval English mystery cycles, such as the York Cycle dating to the 14th and 15th centuries, Mahound was invoked by villainous figures like Herod to underscore their moral corruption and association with false gods. In the Girdlers and Nailers' Play on the Slaughter of the Innocents, Herod proclaims "By almighty Mahound" while ordering the massacre of infants, positioning Mahound as a pagan deity rivaling the Christian God and symbolizing tyrannical error defeated by divine providence.^[17] Similarly, in the Chester Cycle's Herod play, soldiers swear "by Mahound" amid boasts of power, linking the term to idolatrous oaths that heightened dramatic contrast with pious Christian characters.^[18] These portrayals, performed during Corpus Christi festivals, served didactic aims by dramatizing the triumph of orthodoxy over "Saracen" falsehoods, though they relied on anachronistic demonization unsubstantiated by Islamic texts emphasizing monotheism. The Coventry Corpus Christi plays similarly featured Herod as a "tyrannical worshipper of Mahound," exaggerating his rage and blasphemy to embody exotic infidel threats, with stage directions noting his overblown fury to elicit audience revulsion.^[19] Such tropes unified medieval audiences amid frontier conflicts like the Iberian Reconquista, where Christian victories (e.g., the 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa) mirrored scriptural triumphs, fostering cultural cohesion against perceived Islamic expansionism. Yet these depictions oversimplified causal realities, conflating Muhammad with demonic idols despite the Quran's rejection of polytheism, prioritizing polemical resonance over empirical accuracy from contemporary sources like Arabic chronicles. In poetic works like Mandeville's Travels (c. 1356), Mahound (rendered as Mahomet) is critiqued through descriptions of Islamic paradise as a site of "sensuous pleasures" promised to followers, framed as a delusion appealing to base desires in contrast to Christianity's ascetic eternal rewards. The text attributes to Muslims a view of paradise centered on carnal delights, using this to highlight purported doctrinal flaws and reinforce traveler-narrator's Christian superiority.^[20] This narrative device, drawing on earlier pilgrimage accounts, aimed to edify readers by exposing "errors" via comparative eschatology, though it projected European biases onto Islamic theology without direct Quranic engagement, reflecting broader medieval anxieties over sensualist stereotypes amid Crusader-era encounters.

Early Modern and Later Literature

In the early 17th century, William Percy's play Mahomet and His Heaven (1601) portrayed Muhammad as a central figure in a satirical vision of the Islamic afterlife, emphasizing sensual indulgences with houris to caricature the prophet's teachings as driven by carnal desire rather than divine revelation.^[21] Drawing explicitly from Qur'anic descriptions of paradise—making it the first known English drama to cite the text directly—the work amplified medieval motifs of voluptuous excess while aligning with Protestant critiques of ritualistic "works" over sola fide, depicting Muhammad's realm as a false reward system lacking grace.^[22] This representation served polemical ends amid England's Reformation-era anxieties over Catholic "superstitions," repurposing Islamic imagery to underscore perceived errors in non-Christian soteriologies.^[23] By the 18th century, Enlightenment rationalism tempered such fantastical depictions, yet pejorative literary uses persisted in critiques of theocratic authority. Voltaire's tragedy Le Fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète (written 1736, premiered 1741) cast Muhammad as a cunning impostor who exploits religious fervor to seize power, ordering assassinations and fabricating miracles to enforce submission, thereby indicting fanaticism across faiths—including recent French religious wars.^[24] The play's portrayal drew immediate backlash, with performances halted after protests from Catholic authorities who recognized parallels to their own institutional power dynamics, leading to a ban in Paris by 1742.^[25] Though framed within Orientalist exoticism that romanticized Eastern despotism, Voltaire's work grounded its satire in documented historical expansions under early Islamic caliphates, where prophetic authority intertwined with military conquest and legal enforcement of doctrine.^[26] Into the 19th century, overt literary demonization declined amid empirical scholarship and colonial encounters that documented Islamic societies' complexities, yet "Mahound" retained folkloric potency as a dialectal epithet for the devil or falsehood, echoing medieval oaths like "by Mahound."^[27] Methodist hymnody, such as John Wesley's 18th-century missionary verses, invoked Muhammad as "that chief of liars" to contrast Christian truth claims, preserving the term's utility in evangelical rhetoric against perceived idolatrous prophethood.^[27] These usages exposed genuine tensions in theocratic governance—evidenced by Ottoman and Mughal codes mandating religious conformity and penalizing apostasy—but often perpetuated reductive caricatures, sidelining verifiable Islamic advancements in algebra and optics under Abbasid patronage from the 8th to 13th centuries.^[28] Satirical literature thus bridged confessional polemics and emerging historicism, prioritizing causal critiques of authority over balanced appraisal.

Modern Usage and Controversies

20th-Century Literary References

In Salman Rushdie's novel The Satanic Verses, published on September 26, 1988, the character Mahound serves as a fictionalized counterpart to Muhammad, appearing in dream sequences that reimagine early Islamic history in the city of Jahilia.^[29] Mahound, depicted as a merchant-prophet, receives revelations on a mountain, including verses permitting the worship of local goddesses that are later retracted as satanic interpolations, directly paralleling the "Satanic verses" incident documented in Ibn Ishaq's 8th-century biography Sirat Rasul Allah.^[30] This narrative device employs the archaic European term "Mahound"—historically a demonized epithet for Muhammad—to establish metafictional distance, enabling scrutiny of revelation's purported purity through textual ambiguities reported in pre-orthodox Islamic sources.^[31] The portrayal ignited global controversy, with Islamic authorities condemning it as blasphemous distortion of prophetic infallibility; Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini issued a fatwa on February 14, 1989, declaring the novel's author deserving of death for impugning divine scripture.^[32] Defenders, including literary critics, countered that Rushdie's invocation of Mahound facilitated causal examination of how early biographical accounts—such as those in Ibn Ishaq, transmitted via al-Tabari—raise empirical questions about the mechanics of inspiration without endorsing orthodoxy's rejection of such episodes as fabricated.^[33] The choice underscores a postmodern revival of the term to provoke reflection on revelation's human vulnerabilities, distinct from medieval polemics by prioritizing ironic narrative over outright demonization.^[34]

Theological and Cultural Debates

In contemporary theological discourse, Muslim scholars and commentators frequently characterize "Mahound" as an Orientalist slur engineered to caricature Muhammad as a demonic figure, equating it with medieval efforts to delegitimize Islam's foundational claims. This perspective frames the term's pejorative connotations as evidence of Western cultural imperialism rather than reflective of doctrinal critique.^[35]^[3] Christian historical apologists, conversely, defend the term's emergence within early medieval polemics as a proportionate rhetorical response to Islam's coercive expansions, which subjugated Christian-majority territories across the Levant, North Africa, and Anatolia following Muhammad's death in 632 CE. By 642 CE, Arab Muslim armies had captured Alexandria, Jerusalem in 638 CE, and Damascus in 635 CE, imposing jizya taxes and dhimmi status on non-Muslims amid chronicles documenting jihad as religiously sanctioned warfare against infidels. These conquests, spanning over six centuries of intermittent conflict including Umayyad and Abbasid incursions into Byzantine and Frankish domains, contextualize European demonization of "Mahound" not as baseless bigotry but as causal retaliation against proselytism enforced through military dominance, paralleling Islamic texts' own denigrations of Christian doctrines as shirk.^[36]^[37]^[38] Critiques of modern academic framings highlight a tendency, often attributed to institutional biases in Western historiography, to sanitize these rivalries by emphasizing Christian excesses while downplaying reciprocal aggressions, such as Ottoman devshirme levies and corsair slave raids that depopulated European coastal regions from the 14th to 19th centuries. Empirical analysis prioritizes the term's utility in reconstructing authentic interfaith hostilities over narratives that retroactively impose symmetry absent in primary sources.^[39] Today, "Mahound" appears infrequently outside specialized scholarship, where it serves to evoke unfiltered medieval perceptions without endorsing contemporary revivalism. Proponents argue it safeguards primary polemical records against revisionism, enabling causal understanding of religious conflict; detractors warn of its exploitation in identity-driven polemics that could inflame tensions without advancing historical fidelity.^[40]

References

[1]
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/mahound
[2]
What does mahound mean? - Definitions.net
Mahound is an archaic derogatory term used historically in English literature to refer to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was also used to refer generically ...
[3]
From Mahound to Muhammad: Evolution of Western Writings about ...
Jan 3, 2023 · In this book, he focuses on Mahomet (Prophet Muhammad ﷺ) as European men have portrayed him throughout history, putting aside the real Muhammad ...
[4]
Mahound, n. & adj. meanings, etymology and more
OED's earliest evidence for Mahound is from around 1275, in the writing of Laȝamon, poet. Mahound is a borrowing from French. Etymons: French Mahun.
[5]
Mahound - WordReference.com Dictionary of English
Mahound · Old French, short for Mahomet; -d by association with hound · Middle English Mahun, Mahum 1350–1400.
[6]
Mahown - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Noun · Mahound (Muhammad, believed to be worshipped as a god by Muslims) · idol (representation of a pagan god) ...
[7]
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In the Chanson de Roland, the Saracens destroy their own idols when they prove themselves powerless against the army of God. These idols of gold, inlaid with ...
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For the pre-1450 period, John Tolan's dual model through which Muslims and Islam were understood – as either idolatrous 'pagan Saracens', worshipping Mahomet ...
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(PDF) The 'Idol' of Prophet Muhammad in Greene's Alphonsus
Aug 6, 2025 · ... Saracens pay reverence to an idol called. Mahoun or Mahound, who is repeatedly part of a pagan. pantheon that contains Apollin, Termagant, and ...
[11]
Peter of Cluny on the “Diabolical Heresy of the Saracens”
35. Peter of Poitiers wrote a letter to Peter the Venerable in summer or autumn of 1155 in which he refers to Peter's polemics against Jews and Petrobrusians ...
[12]
bogie | British Fairies
Quite a few names for the devil have been excluded, too, such as mahound (a medieval derivation from Mohammed) and tantarrabob, and I've passed over a range ...
[13]
dragon, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
the god of this world: the Devil, regarded as controlling or holding sway over the temporal world. Mahoundc1400– ... As a name for the devil. View in Historical ...Missing: folklore | Show results with:folklore
[14]
[PDF] IMAGINING ISLAM: The Role of Images in Medieval Depictions of ...
The conflation of classical, biblical, and Muslim false gods is also evident when, for example, a biblical fig- ure such as Herod is found swearing ''by Mahound ...
[15]
[PDF] The Rhetoric of Antichrist in Western Lives of Muhammad - Albert
Moreover, particular. Muslim leaders were seen as precursors to the Antichrist, or even as individual. 'antichrists', anticipating the final manifestation of ...
[16]
AGAINST SATAN'S RELIGION A Late Medieval Monk's View of Islam
AGAINST SATAN'S RELIGION A Late Medieval Monk's View of Islam Denis the Carthusian AGAINST SATAN'S ... Part of his success included Mohammed becoming his ...
[17]
19. The Girdlers and Nailers Play: The Slaughter of the Innocents
MESSENGER: May Mahound without peer, My lord, save you and see. HEROD: Messenger, come near, And a blessing on you be. What news? Can you tell any? MESSENGER: ...Missing: mystery | Show results with:mystery
[18]
[PDF] The Chester mystery plays
" All ready, my lord, my Mahound 1. No tails tupp in all this towne. Shall ... The first play, the Adoration of the Magi, is really a. Herod play. Herod ...
[19]
https://www.history.org.uk/files/download/29483/1737550399/Coventry_Mystery_Plays_by_Pamela_King.pdf
[20]
[PDF] The Travelogues of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville - IRIS
Firstly, Mandeville puts words into the Muslims' mouths by stating that Paradise only means “sensuous pleasures” to them, when in fact, this is the preconceived ...
[21]
(PDF) The Distorted Image of Prophet Muhammad in Percy's ...
The article critiques the portrayal image of Prophet Muhammad in William Percy's Mahomet and His Heaven(1601) (Note: 1). The play is marked with anti-Mahomet ...
[22]
William Percy's 'Mahomet and His Heaven'
Not only is Mahomet and his Heaven (1601) the first English play to use the Qur'an as a source, it also boasts this fact in the prologue: 'A Text out of the ...
[23]
William Percy's Mahomet and His Heaven: A Critical EditionEdited ...
May 1, 2007 · William Percy's Mahomet and His Heaven, written initially in 1601, but augmented for the next thirty-five years (p. 6), is the first English ...<|separator|>
[24]
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Oct 1, 2010 · Mahomet the prophet; or, Fanaticism: a tragedy in five acts. by: Voltaire, 1694-1778. Publication date: 1964. Topics: Muhammad, Prophet, d. 632.Missing: Mahound | Show results with:Mahound
[25]
Voltaire's Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet
Voltaire's play Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet was controversial in its own day, and has stirred up controversy in recent decades as attempts to mount ...Missing: Mahound | Show results with:Mahound
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Voltaire's Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet: a new translation
Aug 26, 2021 · A preface on Voltaire and Islam by Malise Ruthven Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet, translated by Hanna Burton (Sacramento, 2013).Missing: Mahound | Show results with:Mahound
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[PDF] Demonology and devil-lore - Internet Archive
... Mahound, Maw- met, &c., became a general byword in the mediseval languages for an idol. In a missionary hymn of Wesley's. Mohammed is apostrophised as—. That ...
[28]
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Mahomet was well known in early modern England. Routinely rejected, reclaimed, defamed, defended and used as a polemical tool.
[29]
The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie | Goodreads
Rating 3.7 (71,121) First published September 26, 1988. Book details & editions. 10605 people are ... After his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses (1988), Rushdie became the ...
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The Satanic Verses - The Story of the Cranes - Reading, Authenticity ...
Jun 6, 2025 · This argument says that Satan does not have power to make a prophet behave this way, and so when the Satanic Verses account says that Muhammad ...Read one of the accounts. · Discuss the authenticity of the...
[31]
Chapter II: Mahound | Common Errors in English Usage and More
Feb 13, 2017 · A term used by Muslims to refer to the period of history preceding the revelation of the Qur'anto Muhammad, meaning “ignorance,” or “barbarism.” ...
[32]
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Oct 30, 2019 · Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini calls on Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie, author of “The Satanic Verses” · Timeline · Also on This Day in History.
[33]
Why Believers Are Outraged - Time Magazine
Feb 27, 1989 · There is a character in The Satanic Verses, a scribe named Salman, who commits an unthinkable sin ... Mahound, Rushdie's fictional prophet....
[34]
The Satanic Verses Summary and Analysis of Part II - "Mahound"
Feb 28, 2013 · As the images become clearer, we realize that the businessman is Mahound, the main character of the novel's second, parallel storyline. This ...
[35]
Polemics as Caricature: The False Portrayal of Prophet Muhammad ...
Dec 31, 2021 · At one point Muhammad was transformed into Mahound, the prince of darkness. By the eleventh century, the idea about Islam and Muslims ...
[36]
The rise of Islamic empires and states (article) - Khan Academy
The first Arab Muslim empire During the seventh century, after subduing rebellions in the Arabian peninsula, Arab Muslim armies began to swiftly conquer ...
[37]
Map of the Islamic Conquests in the 7th-9th Centuries
Jun 8, 2021 · Byzantine and Sassanian strongholds fell: Damascus (635), Jerusalem (638), Ctesiphon (636), and Alexandria (642), while new cities like Baghdad ...<|separator|>
[38]
Medieval Jihad - + Real Crusades History +
Jan 4, 2021 · Jihad is the theology that justified all Muslim conquest throughout the Middle Ages. Although Islamic scholars also recognize “internal” jihad.
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Christians in Islamic Lands (Part 1) | Catholic Answers Magazine
The first Arab conquests in the seventh and eighth centuries soon followed. Since that time, large numbers of Jews and Christians have been forced to live under ...
[40]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004423701/BP000007.pdf