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Infidel

Infidel denotes a person who lacks faith in a dominant religion, particularly an unbeliever or adherent of a rival creed, originating from the Latin infidelis, signifying "unfaithful" or "disloyal".^[1] Entering English usage by the mid-15th century, the term primarily targeted non-Christians, evolving from biblical translations of Greek apistos meaning "faithless" or "unbelieving", as in 2 Corinthians 6:15 where it contrasts believers with infidels.^[2]^[3] Historically, Christians applied "infidel" to Muslims during the Crusades, viewing them as faithless enemies refusing Christ's divinity, a designation that justified conquests and forced conversions.^[3] In parallel, Islamic doctrine employs the Arabic kafir—often rendered as "infidel" in English—for those who reject Allah's oneness and Muhammad's prophethood, encompassing polytheists, atheists, and sometimes Jews or Christians deemed to conceal truth, though distinctions exist for "People of the Book".^[4] The term's deployment in both traditions underscores causal drivers of religious conflict, where doctrinal exclusivity fosters perceptions of existential threat from outsiders, rather than mere semantic variance.^[5] In contemporary contexts, "infidel" retains pejorative force, applied by fundamentalists across faiths to denounce apostates or ideological opponents, while secular critiques highlight its role in perpetuating tribalism over empirical inquiry into beliefs.^[2] Its persistence reflects enduring human tendencies toward in-group loyalty, empirically observable in interreligious violence patterns uncorrelated with socioeconomic factors alone.^[6]

Etymology and Definition

Linguistic Origins

The English word infidel originates from the Latin adjective infidelis, formed by the negative prefix in- ("not") and fidelis ("faithful"), the latter deriving from fides, denoting "faith," "trust," or "loyalty."^[1]^[7] This construction literally conveys "unfaithful" or "untrustworthy," initially applicable to personal or contractual disloyalty before acquiring religious connotations of unbelief.^[1] The term passed into Old French as infidèle by the medieval period, preserving the core sense of faithlessness.^[8] From French, it was borrowed into Middle English around the mid-15th century, with the earliest recorded attestation in 1480 within chronicles describing non-Christians.^[8]^[1] Cognates appear in other Romance languages, such as Italian infedele and Spanish infiel, reflecting shared Latin roots and parallel semantic shifts toward denoting religious outsiders.^[1] Linguistically, infidel shares its Indo-European heritage with words like "faith" and "fidelity," tracing back to Proto-Indo-European bheidh- ("to trust" or "persuade"), which also underlies terms for confidence in Germanic and other branches.^[1] This etymological lineage underscores a conceptual pivot from secular reliability to doctrinal adherence, influenced by monotheistic contexts where fidelity equates to submission to revealed truth.^[1]

Core Meaning and Pejorative Connotations

The term infidel denotes a person who lacks faith in the dominant religion, particularly an unbeliever in Christianity or, by extension, Islam, deriving from the Latin infidelis, signifying "unfaithful" or "unbelieving."^[3]^[1] This core meaning emphasizes infidelity to divine revelation, positioning the infidel as one who rejects or opposes the true faith, rather than merely holding differing beliefs. In historical Christian usage, it applied to non-Christians such as Muslims during the Crusades or pagans in colonial encounters, framing disbelief as a fundamental betrayal of God's covenant.^[2] Similarly, in Islamic contexts, infidel serves as an English rendering of kafir, referring to those who deny Allah's oneness or prophets, though the Arabic term implies active concealment of truth.^[9] The pejorative connotations of infidel extend beyond neutral unbelief to imply moral unreliability, hostility, and existential threat, evoking untrustworthiness rooted in the etymological sense of faithlessness.^[8] In medieval Christian theology, it justified discriminatory measures like forced conversions or warfare, as seen in papal bulls authorizing crusades against "infidel" Saracens by the late 11th century.^[3] Islamic texts, such as certain Quranic verses interpreted as calling for struggle against infidels (e.g., Surah 9:5), reinforce this by associating disbelief with enmity toward the community of believers, historically enabling practices like the dhimmi subjugation.^[10] These connotations persist in derogatory applications, where the label dehumanizes opponents, as evidenced in Inquisition-era persecutions of Jews and heretics labeled infidels for doctrinal deviation.^[2] Modern dictionaries note its offensive tone, often equating it with skepticism or outright antagonism toward religion, underscoring a legacy of religious intolerance.^[3]

Usage in Christianity

Scriptural and Early References

In the New Testament, the Greek term apistos (ἄπιστος), meaning "unbeliever" or "faithless," is translated as "infidel" in the King James Version (KJV) in two key passages, reflecting early Christian distinctions between believers and those outside the faith. In 2 Corinthians 6:15, the Apostle Paul rhetorically asks, "And what concord hath Christ with Belial? or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel?" to underscore the incompatibility between Christian fellowship and association with unbelievers or forces of opposition to God.^[11] This verse forms part of a broader exhortation in 2 Corinthians 6:14–18 against unequal yoking with non-believers, emphasizing spiritual separation to maintain purity of faith.^[12] Similarly, 1 Timothy 5:8 states, "But if any provide not for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel," where the term critiques a professing Christian who fails basic familial duties, contrasting such neglect with the observed reliability of even non-believers in natural obligations.^[13] Here, apistos highlights a pragmatic acknowledgment that unbelievers often exceed lapsed believers in moral consistency, serving as a rebuke within pastoral instructions on church discipline and widows' care. Modern translations like the New International Version render apistos as "unbeliever" to convey the original sense without the archaic pejorative tone of "infidel."^[14] In early patristic Latin writings, infidelis—the direct etymological root of "infidel"—emerged to denote non-Christians, heretics, or those lacking faith in Christ, building on scriptural precedents. Tertullian (c. 155–220 AD), an early North African theologian, employed infidelis to distinguish unbelieving pagans from faithful ones, as in his contrast between a "paganus fidelis" (faithful pagan soldier) and a "paganus infidelis" (unbelieving pagan soldier) under Christ, illustrating the term's application to outsiders irrespective of cultural identity. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) similarly used infidelis in discussions of mixed marriages, referencing 1 Corinthians 7:14 to describe an "infidelis" spouse (unbelieving husband or wife) whose presence sanctified children through the believing partner, reflecting practical early church guidance on interactions with non-believers.^[15] These usages in second- and fourth-century texts underscore infidelis as a marker of exclusion from the Christian covenant, often in contexts of conversion, marriage, or evangelism, without the later Crusades-era connotations of active enmity.^[16]

Medieval Canon Law and Applications

In Gratian's Decretum (c. 1140), the foundational compilation of canon law, infidels—defined as unbaptized non-Christians including pagans, Jews, and Muslims—were recognized as possessing natural rights derived from divine and natural law, such as ownership of property (dominium) and legitimate rule over their territories, provided they did not actively impede the Christian faith. This framework prohibited the forcible conversion of infidels through violence, emphasizing persuasion over coercion, as martial means contradicted ecclesiastical prohibitions against unjust aggression. Subsequent glossators and decretalists, such as those commenting on Pope Innocent IV's Quod super nonnullis (1252), affirmed that infidels held temporal authority lawfully unless their governance violated natural law principles, like idolatry or tyranny that barred Christian evangelization; even then, intervention required papal authorization to avoid anarchy. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) reinforced distinctions between Christians and infidels in canon 68, mandating that Jews and Saracens wear identifying badges or clothing to prevent inadvertent social mingling and illicit unions, reflecting concerns over moral contamination and public order rather than outright segregation. This canon law evolution balanced tolerance of infidel autonomy with Christian supremacy, influencing papal diplomacy and crusading bulls, though applications varied by context, with peaceful infidel polities generally immune from dispossession absent provocation.

Governance, Rule, and Colonization

Medieval canonists, building on Gratian, debated infidel sovereignty under the dominium doctrine: Pope Innocent IV explicitly stated in 1243–1254 decretals that infidels could possess valid lordship (dominium iuris et proprietatis) over lands and subjects, as natural law granted such rights to all rational beings irrespective of baptism, barring only sinful obstructions to faith propagation. Hostiensis (d. 1271), a leading commentator, extended this by permitting Christian overlordship in cases where infidels denied access to preach the Gospel, justifying limited colonization or tutelage but not wholesale expropriation of functioning infidel realms. In practice, this underpinned selective crusades, such as against Muslim-held Jerusalem, deemed a violation of Christian res sancta (sacred things), yet prohibited conquests of remote pagan territories without evangelistic justification, as seen in 13th-century papal refusals to endorse blanket subjugation. These principles later informed early colonial bulls like Inter caetera (1493), adapting medieval norms to New World encounters by positing papal trusteeship over infidel lands for conversion, though core recognition of infidel dominium persisted absent papal revocation.^[17] Canon law strictly forbade valid marriages between baptized Christians and infidels, deeming such unions illicit and often invalid under sacramental theology, to safeguard faith integrity and prevent offspring raised outside the Church; Gratian drew on 1 Corinthians 7 to allow separations if the infidel partner obstructed Christian practice, without mandating dissolution of pre-conversion unions. Dispensations were rare and papal, typically denied for Muslims or pagans due to risks of apostasy, though Jews faced slightly more lenient glosses in some 12th-century commentaries treating them as semi-tolerated under old covenant terms. Socially, interactions were curtailed to essentials: commerce permitted if not aiding infidelity, but usury from infidels to Christians prohibited, and public office-holding by infidels under Christian rule barred to avoid subjection to non-believers, as articulated in 13th-century summae like that of Raymond of Peñafort. The Fourth Lateran Council's dress mandates explicitly aimed to curb "carnal intercourse" between Christians and infidels, prioritizing communal purity over egalitarian mingling.^[18]

Governance, Rule, and Colonization

Medieval canon law, as developed in the 13th century, recognized that infidels possessed dominium—encompassing both private property rights and public jurisdiction—lawfully and without inherent sin, provided they adhered to natural law.^[17] Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243–1254), in his commentary on Gratian's Decretum, argued that this dominion could not be seized arbitrarily but could be forfeited through just war if infidels impeded the preaching of the Christian faith or violated natural law principles, such as by denying access to missionaries or engaging in idolatry that contravened universal moral order.^[17] This framework established a conditional legitimacy for Christian governance over infidel territories, subordinating infidel rule to the higher authority of divine law as interpreted by the Church, while theoretically preserving infidel rights absent provocation.^[19] In practice, this doctrine facilitated Christian expansion during the Reconquista and Crusades, where conquests transferred sovereignty from infidel rulers to Christian monarchs under papal approval. For instance, canonists like Hostiensis (Henry of Segusia, d. 1271) extended Innocent IV's views by asserting that the advent of Christ implicitly diminished infidel dominion, justifying Christian intervention to restore "natural" order, though they stopped short of denying all pre-conquest rights.^[20] Once under Christian rule, infidels were often governed as subjects with obligations to obey secular authorities, pay tribute, and tolerate Christian institutions, but without full political participation unless converted; canon law prohibited infidels from holding public office in Christian realms to prevent idolatry's influence on governance.^[21] Colonization efforts received explicit papal endorsement in the 15th century through bulls targeting African and Asian infidel lands. The bull Dum Diversas (18 June 1452), issued by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal, granted perpetual authority to invade, conquer, and subdue Saracens, pagans, and other non-Christians, authorizing the perpetual enslavement of captives and seizure of their goods to propagate the faith and combat Islam.^[22] This was reinforced by Romanus Pontifex (8 January 1455), which affirmed Portugal's exclusive rights to navigate and claim infidel territories south of Cape Bojador, explicitly permitting the reduction of infidels to servitude and the exploitation of their resources as spoils of holy war, framing such rule as a divine mandate against "enemies of the Cross."^[23] These documents shifted canon law application from defensive reconquest to proactive colonization, enabling Portuguese and later Spanish dominion over vast non-Christian regions by positing Christian sovereignty as superior and evangelically imperative.^[24] Medieval canon law deemed marriages between Christians and infidels invalid, establishing disparitas cultus (disparity of worship) as a diriment impediment that nullified such unions absent papal dispensation.^[25] Gratian's Decretum (ca. 1140), in Causa 28, Questio 1, compiled earlier papal and conciliar decrees to affirm this, drawing on rulings like those from the Council of Elvira (306 AD, canon 16), which explicitly forbade Christians from marrying Jews, heretics, or pagans to preserve the sacramental integrity of marriage and prevent the spiritual peril to the Christian party.^[25] The impediment extended to all non-Christians, including Muslims and pagans, with the rationale centered on ensuring offspring's Catholic upbringing and avoiding the risk of apostasy through unequal yoking, as articulated in commentaries emphasizing natural law's subordination to divine order.^[25] Dispensations were exceptional and conditional, typically requiring promises of non-cohabitation until conversion or guarantees against infidel influence, though enforcement varied by region and era.^[25] If an infidel spouse converted to Christianity, the marriage could persist if both parties consented, but the convert faced obligations to separate if the infidel refused baptism, reflecting canon law's prioritization of faith over contractual bonds.^[26] Social interactions with infidels were regulated to minimize opportunities for doctrinal contamination or scandal, with canonists prohibiting or severely restricting commensality—sharing meals—as a primary vector of undue influence.^[27] Twelfth-century commentators like Rufinus permitted eating with pagans for evangelistic purposes, citing apostolic precedent, but prohibited it with Jews due to their dietary laws, interpreted as contempt for Christian sacraments and potential subversion via scriptural disputes (Gratian, Decretum C. 28 q. 1 cc. 13-14).^[27] By the late twelfth century, Huguccio extended bans to Muslims as "judaizing pagans" sharing similar food taboos, a view solidified in thirteenth-century glosses by Johannes Teutonicus and others, which generalized restrictions across non-Christians to uphold communal boundaries and faith purity, allowing exceptions only for necessity (e.g., famine) or missionary necessity under papal license.^[27] These rules complemented broader efforts to segregate communities, as seen in conciliar mandates for distinctive attire to avert unwitting associations.^[28]

Reformation and Later Developments

During the Protestant Reformation, reformers such as Martin Luther retained the medieval Christian application of "infidel" primarily to non-Christians, particularly Muslims and pagans, while emphasizing scriptural authority over sacramental conversion rituals that had dominated Catholic approaches to infidelity. In his commentary on Galatians, published between 1523 and 1525, Luther described infidels as those lacking justifying faith despite potential excellence in civil righteousness, arguing that "otherwise the infidels would be nearer heaven than the Christians."^[29] This reflected a theological shift toward sola fide, distinguishing Protestant views from Catholic practices that had linked conversion of infidels to priestly mediation and coercion.^[30] Luther's Table Talk, recorded in the 1530s, further illustrated this continuity, where he lamented Christian divisions that weakened potential military efforts against "infidels" like the Ottoman Turks, stating, "We are far less strong in our bodies, and are divided out among different masters... yet we might conquer these infidels."^[31] Catholic critics, in turn, accused Luther of endangering Christians by his reforms, likening his stance to surrendering to infidels.^[32] Polemical rhetoric during the era occasionally extended "infidel" intra-Christianly, with Protestants and Catholics invoking Muslim imagery to demonize each other as faithless betrayers akin to historical infidels.^[33] Post-Reformation, the term persisted in Protestant contexts like Puritan England and colonial America, applied to Native Americans viewed as heathens requiring evangelization or subjugation, echoing earlier canon law but framed through covenant theology and millennial expectations.^[34] In early modern English literature, the motif of infidel conversion—prevalent in Catholic romances—waned under Protestant deemphasis on clerical power, prioritizing personal faith and scripture over coerced baptisms.^[30] By the Enlightenment and early American republic, "infidel" increasingly targeted deists and freethinkers within Christendom, as seen in reactions to Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason (1794), which prompted widespread clerical condemnation of its author as an arch-infidel promoting scriptural infidelity.^[35] In the 19th century, amid missionary expansions and antebellum revivals, Puritans' legacy influenced rhetoric portraying non-Christians or skeptics as infidels, linking infidelity to moral contagion and justifying persecution, as in Frederick Douglass's critiques of religious intolerance rooted in such views.^[34] The term's pejorative force declined in the 20th century with rising religious pluralism, ecumenism, and secularism, shifting Christian discourse toward terms like "unbeliever" or "non-Christian" to avoid connotations of medieval othering, though it lingered in fundamentalist critiques of atheism or modernism.^[2] This evolution aligned with broader Protestant adaptations to democratic societies, where theological categories of infidelity yielded to evangelistic appeals emphasizing individual choice over categorical exclusion.^[36]

Usage in Islam

Scriptural Foundations

The Arabic term kāfir (plural kuffār), commonly rendered in English as "infidel" or "disbeliever," originates from the triliteral root k-f-r, denoting "to cover" or "to conceal," as in covering seeds in soil or metaphorically hiding the truth of revelation from oneself.^[37] In Quranic usage, it primarily refers to those who actively reject or deny Allah's oneness (tawhīd), the prophethood of Muhammad, and the divine origin of the Quran after receiving clear proof (bayyinah), distinguishing them from mere ignorance or jahiliyyah.^[38] This rejection is portrayed not as passive unbelief but as willful ingratitude (kufr as antonym to shukr, gratitude), rendering the kāfir an adversary to truth and divine order.^[39] The word kāfir and its forms occur over 150 times across the Quran, often in contrast to mu'minūn (believers), emphasizing a binary worldview where disbelief invites divine displeasure and eschatological punishment.^[37] For instance, Surah Al-Baqarah (2:6) states: "Indeed, those who disbelieve (kafarū)—it is the same to them whether you warn them or do not warn them; they will not believe," highlighting the futility of guidance for hardened rejectors whose hearts Allah has sealed. Similarly, Surah Al-Kafirun (109:1-6), a Meccan surah revealed amid early opposition, instructs Muhammad to declare separation from disbelievers: "Say, 'O disbelievers (yā ayyuhā l-kāfirūn), I do not worship what you worship... To you be your religion (dīn), and to me mine (dīnī)," underscoring mutual non-interference but firm theological demarcation without immediate coercion. Medinan surahs, revealed post-Hijrah amid conflict, expand on kāfir to include active enmity, categorizing polytheists (mushrikūn, a subset of kuffār) and even some People of the Book for doctrinal deviations. Surah At-Tawbah (9:5), known as the "Sword Verse," commands after the sacred months: "Then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush," targeted at treaty-breakers from Mecca's pagans who waged war, though verse 9:6 offers asylum to those seeking it.^[40] Surah At-Tawbah (9:29) further directs fighting "those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day... from those who were given the Scripture [Jews and Christians], until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled," linking disbelief to combat unless subdued via poll tax, reflecting a framework where non-submission equates to belligerence. These verses, per traditional exegesis like Ibn Kathir, abrogate earlier tolerant Meccan rulings under the principle of naskh (abrogation), prioritizing later revelations for governance. Quranic typology of kāfir includes kāfir harbi (belligerent disbelievers at war with Muslims) versus protected non-combatants, but the foundational stigma frames all kuffār as destined for Hellfire absent repentance, as in Surah Al-Bayyinah (98:6): "Indeed, those who disbelieve from the People of the Scripture and the polytheists will be in the fire of Hell, abiding eternally therein. Those are the worst of creatures." This scriptural ontology underpins Islamic views of non-believers as existentially opposed, with implications for social, legal, and martial relations derived directly from these texts rather than later jurisprudence alone.^[38]

Historical Treatment of Non-Believers

In the formative period of Islamic expansion following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, non-believers encountered varied treatments contingent on submission or resistance during the Ridda Wars and subsequent conquests. Abu Bakr's campaigns against apostate tribes enforced re-conversion or execution, consolidating Arab Peninsula adherence to Islam, while surrendered non-Arab populations in Syria, Egypt, and Persia were granted dhimmi status—protected but subordinate—under treaties stipulating jizya payment and military exemption, as evidenced in the 639 CE capitulation of Jerusalem to Caliph Umar, where Christians retained property rights absent conversion.^[41]^[42] Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), the Pact of Umar codified dhimmi restrictions, prohibiting non-Muslims from constructing new places of worship, proselytizing, holding public office, or displaying symbols of equality such as saddled horses or weapons, with the explicit aim of preserving Muslim dominance through visible subordination and occasional ritual humiliations during tax assessments.^[43]^[44] Enforcement varied, but ninth-century jurists like those in the Hanafi school advised governors to impose distinctive clothing (ghiyar) and invalidate dhimmi testimony against Muslims in court, institutionalizing legal inferiority that incentivized conversions amid economic pressures.^[45] Polytheists, lacking Quranic "People of the Book" designation, faced narrower options: conversion, enslavement, or death, as during the 712 CE conquest of Sindh by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, where Hindu temples were repurposed and resisters executed en masse, though pragmatic rulers later extended tentative dhimmi protections to Zoroastrians and Hindus under elevated jizya rates.^[46] Abbasid-era (750–1258 CE) chronicles record periodic forced conversions and pogroms, such as the 1321 Baghdad riots against Jews, underscoring that while nominal protections existed, systemic discrimination— including bans on church bells and higher taxation—fostered long-term demographic shifts, with non-Muslim proportions in core Islamic territories declining from majorities to minorities by the tenth century.^[41]^[47] In regions like North Africa post-642 CE, Berber populations experienced initial tolerance via tribute but subsequent Arabization through intermarriage incentives and cultural suppression.^[48]

Dhimmi System and Taxation

The dhimmi system established a contractual status for non-Muslim "People of the Book" (primarily Jews and Christians) in Islamic polities, granting them protection from forced conversion and external aggression in exchange for political subordination, adherence to specific restrictions, and payment of the jizya tax. This framework originated in the early Islamic conquests, with foundational elements traced to Qur'an 9:29, which mandates fighting against those who do not believe in Allah until they pay the jizya "with willing hand, while they are humbled."^[49] The dhimma pact formalized communal autonomy under Muslim sovereignty, but imposed inferiority, including bans on proselytizing, building new places of worship, and public displays of religion, as codified in documents like the attributed Pact of 'Umar, whose authenticity is debated by scholars but whose conditions reflected widespread historical practices of regulating non-Muslim visibility and authority.^[50] Central to the system was the jizya, a per capita poll tax levied annually on free adult non-Muslim males capable of working, exempting women, children, the elderly, the indigent, monks, and the disabled, in lieu of zakat (obligatory alms paid by Muslims) and exemption from military conscription.^[51] The tax symbolized submission and funded state protection, with collection methods varying from negotiated lump sums by community leaders in early periods to direct assessments under later empires like the Ottomans, where it was often graded by wealth—typically 12 to 48 silver dirhams in Abbasid times, adjusted for economic conditions.^[52] While proponents framed jizya as reciprocal for security, historical records indicate enforcement sometimes involved humiliation, such as payments while seated and Muslims standing, reinforcing dhimmi subordination, though rates and rigor fluctuated with rulers' policies and fiscal needs.^[53] Implementation differed across eras and regions: under the Umayyads and Abbasids (7th–13th centuries), jizya integrated into broader land taxes (kharaj) for conquered territories, pressuring conversions through economic disparity, as non-Muslims bore the brunt without military reciprocity.^[54] In the Ottoman Empire (14th–20th centuries), the devshirme system occasionally levied additional head taxes, but jizya exemptions expanded for some Christian and Jewish communities via the millet system, though systemic restrictions persisted, contributing to demographic shifts via emigration or conversion amid periodic tax hikes during fiscal crises.^[51] Scholarly analyses note that while the system enabled minority survival compared to total subjugation alternatives, it institutionalized fiscal extraction that incentivized Islamization, with jizya revenues comprising up to 10–20% of state income in some medieval caliphates, per fiscal records.^[47]

Warfare, Jihad, and Conquest

In classical Islamic jurisprudence, jihad encompassed both defensive and offensive dimensions, with the latter—known as jihad al-talab—permitting military campaigns to expand the domain of Islam (dar al-Islam) and subjugate non-believers until they submitted, converted, or paid tribute. ^[55] This offensive jihad was justified by Quranic injunctions such as Surah 9:29, which commands fighting against those who do not believe in Allah among the People of the Book until they pay the jizya tax "with willing submission and feel themselves subdued," establishing a framework for conquest and humiliation of infidels.^[56] Similarly, Surah 9:5, the "Sword Verse," directed the killing of polytheists after the sacred months unless they repented and adopted Islamic worship, interpreted by early scholars like al-Tabari as authorizing broad warfare against unbelievers. These verses, revealed in the Medinan period amid conflicts with Meccan pagans and Jewish tribes, were codified in fiqh schools (e.g., Hanafi, Maliki) as obligating rulers to wage jihad annually against non-Muslim lands capable of being invaded, prioritizing the extension of Islamic rule over mere defense.^[57] Historically, this doctrine manifested in the rapid conquests following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, under the Rashidun Caliphs (632–661 CE), who transformed a fragmented Arabian tribal society into an empire spanning over 2.2 million square miles by 651 CE.^[42] Abu Bakr initiated campaigns against apostate tribes (Ridda Wars, 632–633 CE), enforcing Islamic unity through force, while Umar ibn al-Khattab oversaw invasions of the weakened Sasanian Empire (conquering Mesopotamia by 636–640 CE and Persia by 651 CE) and Byzantine territories (Syria by 636 CE, Egypt by 642 CE).^[58] ^[59] These offensives, led by commanders like Khalid ibn al-Walid with armies numbering 18,000–40,000, exploited imperial exhaustion from prior wars and plagues but were explicitly framed as jihad to propagate Islam, with victories attributed to divine favor in hadith collections.^[57] Conquered populations faced stark choices: conversion to avoid subjugation, acceptance of dhimmi status entailing jizya payments (often 1–4 dinars annually per adult male, scaled by wealth) and discriminatory restrictions like distinctive clothing and bans on proselytizing, or continued resistance met with enslavement, execution, or expulsion. ^[60] The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) extended this pattern, conquering North Africa (by 709 CE), Iberia (711 CE), and reaching the Indus Valley (by 713 CE), incorporating diverse infidels—Zoroastrians, Christians, Hindus—into the dhimmi system while funding further jihad through tribute revenues estimated at millions of dirhams yearly.^[61] Empirical records from chronicles like al-Baladhuri's Futuh al-Buldan document massacres, such as the 30,000 reportedly killed in Persia for refusing submission, underscoring that while conversion incentives reduced bloodshed over time, initial conquests prioritized military dominance to enforce Islamic supremacy, with non-compliance treated as belligerence warranting total war.^[62] This expansionist ethos, rooted in the caliphs' role as successors to Muhammad's campaigns, contrasted with later defensive interpretations, reflecting the causal reality of jihad as a tool for territorial and ideological hegemony rather than solely reactive violence.^[63] ^[64]

Modern Islamist Rhetoric and Practices

In Salafi-jihadist ideologies, which influence groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS, non-Muslims are routinely labeled kuffar (infidels), invoking doctrines such as al-wala wa al-bara (loyalty to believers and disavowal of disbelievers) to justify social separation, hostility, and violence as defensive or offensive measures to preserve Islamic purity.^[65]^[66] This rhetoric frames interaction with infidels as inherently corrupting, prohibiting alliances or residence in dar al-kufr (lands of unbelief) without necessity, and elevating jihad against them as a religious imperative.^[67]^[68] Al-Qaeda's foundational statements exemplify this, with Osama bin Laden's 1996 declaration urging attacks on American "infidels" for occupying holy lands, extended in his 1998 fatwa to mandate killing civilians among "Crusaders and Jews" as aggressors against Islam.^[69] ISIS propagated similar views through media, issuing fatwas that branded opponents—including Shia Muslims and Westerners—as kuffar deserving death, slavery, or subjugation, as seen in their 2014 enslavement of over 6,000 Yazidi women justified as spoils from infidel combatants.^[70]^[71] Takfir (declaring Muslims as infidels) amplified this, enabling intra-Muslim violence while targeting external non-believers, with ISIS publications in 2015-2017 routinely depicting kuffar as existential threats warranting global lone-actor attacks to incite chaos (fitna).^[72] In practice, Islamist-governed entities enforce these views through sharia-based penalties. From 2014 to 2019, ISIS in Iraq and Syria imposed jizya taxes on Christians (up to 500 grams of gold per adult male) or demanded conversion or exodus, executing non-compliant infidels, including 1,700 Shia recruits in Camp Speicher in June 2014 labeled as apostates.^[70] In state contexts, apostasy—leaving Islam for infidelity—carries the death penalty under hudud laws in countries like Saudi Arabia (where executions occurred in 2015 for a man recanting after blasphemy charges) and Afghanistan under Taliban rule reinstated in 2021, with public floggings and killings reported for perceived unbelief.^[73] Blasphemy statutes, conflated with infidelity, facilitate mob executions; in Pakistan, over 1,500 cases since 1987 have targeted non-Muslims like Christians, with 62 killed extrajudicially by 2023 per official data.^[74] The Muslim Brotherhood, while eschewing overt jihadism, embeds supremacist rhetoric viewing non-Muslims as subordinate under Islamic governance, as articulated in foundational texts prioritizing da'wa (proselytization) over equality and critiquing secular alliances with infidels as betrayal.^[75] This informs practices like Egypt's 2012-2013 Brotherhood era, where Coptic Christians faced heightened attacks (over 40 churches burned in 2013 riots) amid calls for sharia implementation subordinating dhimmis.^[76] Such patterns persist in hybrid Islamist states, where fatwas against "infidel" influences—like Iran's 1989 Rushdie edict for apostasy—underscore causal links between rhetoric and suppression, often unmitigated by reformist interpretations despite international pressure.^[77]

Usage in Judaism and Other Abrahamic Contexts

Biblical and Rabbinic Terms

In the Hebrew Bible, non-Israelites are primarily designated as goyim (גּוֹיִם), a term meaning "nations" that encompasses peoples outside the Israelite covenant, often in contexts emphasizing separation or conflict, such as Deuteronomy 7:1 listing seven nations to be driven out.^[78] Another key term, nokhri (נָכְרִי), refers to foreigners or aliens, typically implying those engaged in idolatrous practices prohibited for Israelites, as in Exodus 12:48 restricting Passover participation to circumcised non-natives.^[79] These designations underscore a theological distinction between covenant adherents and others, without a direct equivalent to the later Latin-derived "infidel," but rooted in monotheistic exclusivity against polytheism.^[80] Rabbinic literature, including the Talmud and Midrash, refines these Biblical categories, retaining goy as the standard Hebrew or Yiddish term for any non-Jew, neutral in origin but sometimes carrying pejorative connotations in polemical texts due to associations with idolatry or opposition to Jewish law.^[81] For idolaters specifically—viewed as violators of the Noahide prohibition against avodah zarah—terms like akum (acronym for ovdei kokhavim u-mazalot, "worshippers of stars and constellations") appear in post-Talmudic codes such as the Shulchan Aruch, denoting pagans or those practicing shituf (associating partners with God), which disqualifies them from certain protections or interactions under Jewish civil law.^[82] Rabbinic attitudes toward non-Jews evolved with historical contexts, balancing universalist elements (e.g., righteous gentiles earning eschatological reward via Noahide observance) against particularist restrictions to preserve Jewish purity, as articulated in tractates like Avodah Zarah.^[80] In the New Testament, part of the Christian Biblical canon, the Greek apistos (ἄπιστος)—translated as "infidel" in the King James Version—explicitly denotes unbelievers, as in 2 Corinthians 6:15 questioning fellowship between believers and unbelievers, and 1 Timothy 5:8 deeming neglectful kin "worse than an infidel."^[5] This usage parallels Rabbinic concerns with fidelity to divine revelation but shifts focus to faith in Christ, influencing later ecclesiastical applications of "infidel" to non-Christians.^[83]

Historical Applications

In ancient Israelite kingdoms, the concept of non-believers or idolaters (akin to infidels in Abrahamic usage) manifested in prescriptive biblical commands for conquest and eradication to preserve monotheism. Deuteronomy 20:16-18 mandated the complete destruction (herem) of Canaanite populations in the Promised Land to prevent adoption of their idolatrous practices, a policy reflected in accounts of Joshua's campaigns, such as the fall of Jericho around 1400 BCE (per traditional chronology) and the subjugation of other city-states.^[84] Archaeological evidence suggests partial implementation, with cultural continuity in some areas, but the intent underscored causal links between idolatry and national apostasy, as seen in prophetic rebukes of Israelite lapses.^[85] During the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE), following the Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid idolatry, Jewish rulers applied coercive measures against neighboring non-adherents. John Hyrcanus I (r. 134–104 BCE) conquered Idumea (Edom) circa 125 BCE, compelling its inhabitants—descendants of Edomites with polytheistic roots—to undergo circumcision and adopt Jewish law or face expulsion, integrating them into the polity while eliminating overt "infidelity."^[86] ^[87] This policy, reported by Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews (13.9.1), marked a rare instance of proselytizing expansionism, though rabbinic sources later critiqued forced conversions as invalidating sincerity. Subsequent expansions under Alexander Jannaeus (r. 103–76 BCE) imposed similar requirements on Transjordanian and Galilean peoples, prioritizing territorial security and religious purity over tolerance.^[88] In Christian contexts, "infidel" (from Latin infidelis, "unfaithful") historically denoted unbaptized non-believers, justifying evangelization and conflict beyond Islamic encounters. Early Church fathers like Tertullian (c. 200 CE) used it for pagans rejecting Christ, framing refusal as willful infidelity meriting exclusion.^[16] Medieval applications included the Northern Crusades (1147–1410), where Popes like Eugene III authorized wars against Baltic and Slavic pagans, such as the Wendish Crusade against Polabian tribes, portraying their polytheism as infernal opposition to divine order and permitting enslavement or forced baptism.^[89] Against Jews, the term appeared in canon law (e.g., Gratian's Decretum, 1140 CE), classifying them as infidels for denying Christ's divinity, which rationalized restrictions like the Fourth Lateran Council's (1215) segregation mandates, though outright violence often invoked separate "deicide" charges.^[16] These usages prioritized empirical threats from persistent unbelief, with source biases in ecclesiastical records favoring triumphant narratives over pagan or Jewish perspectives.

Analogous Concepts in Non-Abrahamic Religions

In Polytheistic and Eastern Traditions

In ancient Greek polytheism, the nearest analog to an infidel was the charge of asebeia (impiety), a civic offense against the gods and public cult that threatened communal harmony and could warrant death by hemlock or exile. Prosecutions under the graphe asebeias—a public indictment—targeted perceived disruptions like introducing novel deities or neglecting state rituals, as seen in the 399 BCE trial of Socrates for denying Athenian gods and corrupting youth through skeptical inquiry.^[90] Roman polytheism similarly emphasized sacrilegium, the violation of sacred objects, rites, or temples, punishable by execution, confiscation, or exile under laws like the Lex Julia Majestatis, though outright atheism was rarer and often subsumed under treasonous neglect of ancestral worship; tolerance prevailed for foreign cults via syncretism, provided they did not undermine imperial piety.^[91] Hindu traditions, blending polytheistic devotion with philosophical pluralism, distinguished mlecchas—foreigners or barbarians deemed ritually impure and outside the varna system—for their linguistic and cultural deviance from Vedic norms, as codified in texts like the Manusmriti (ca. 200 BCE–200 CE), which barred intermarriage or dining but allowed purification (shuddhi) for integration.^[92] Nastikas, or Veda-rejectors like the materialist Charvakas or early Buddhists and Jains, faced philosophical rebuttals in orthodox works such as the Nyaya Sutras (ca. 2nd century BCE), branding their denial of Vedic authority and afterlife as erroneous, yet without institutionalized persecution, enabling coexistence and debate amid Hinduism's orthopraxic focus on ritual over rigid creed.^[93] Eastern non-theistic systems lack a direct "infidel" equivalent, prioritizing praxis and insight over exclusive faith. In Buddhism, miccha ditthi (wrong view) denotes delusions like eternalism or nihilism obstructing enlightenment, with non-Buddhist ascetics (titthiyas) critiqued as heretics in suttas like the Brahmajala Sutta (ca. 4th–3rd century BCE), but responses favored dialectical refutation over violence, as schisms (sanghabheda) merited expulsion at most.^[94] Taoism, as articulated in the Daodejing (ca. 6th–4th century BCE), eschews theistic dogma for alignment with the Dao, rendering "unbelief" irrelevant amid its amoral flux and rejection of institutional orthodoxy. Shinto, rooted in kami veneration, stresses purity rites over doctrinal adherence, historically absorbing Buddhism and tolerating atheists through syncretic practice without condemnation of non-participants.^[95]

Philosophical and Secular Interpretations

Infidelity as Intellectual Dissent

In philosophical contexts, the term infidelity has historically denoted intellectual dissent from established religious doctrines, framing skepticism or rational inquiry as a form of unfaithfulness to orthodoxy. This extension of the religious concept equates adherence to empirical evidence or first principles with betrayal of revealed truth, often labeling dissenting philosophies as "infidel philosophy." In late 18th-century New England, Yale College president Timothy Dwight warned in his 1797 baccalaureate addresses that such philosophy—encompassing deism, materialism, and critiques of miracles—posed a grave threat by eroding belief in Scripture's divine origin, urging students to resist its seductive rationalism. Dwight argued that infidel thinkers failed to produce lasting intellectual achievements comparable to orthodox scholars like Isaac Newton, attributing their influence to moral corruption rather than evidentiary merit. Enlightenment figures exemplified this application, with David Hume (1711–1776) dubbed "the Great Infidel" by contemporaries for his philosophical works challenging religious foundations. Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) and essays on miracles employed probabilistic reasoning to question supernatural claims, asserting that testimony for extraordinary events must outweigh uniform human experience—a standard unmet by religious narratives.^[96] His skepticism prioritized causal inference from observed regularities over dogmatic assertions, influencing subsequent secular thought but provoking backlash as infidelity to Christian epistemology.^[96] Similarly, 19th-century freethinkers in America, amid rising Unitarianism and transcendentalism, faced accusations of infidelity for denying Trinitarian orthodoxy, virgin birth, and miracles, with the term capturing their rational rejection of supernaturalism.^[97] This framing persisted in critiques of emerging scientific paradigms, where dissent from biblical literalism was cast as intellectual apostasy. Early 19th-century American religious leaders decried evolutionary precursors and geological uniformitarianism as "infidel philosophy," fearing they fostered atheism by privileging natural causes over divine intervention.^[98] Figures like Robert Green Ingersoll (1833–1899), a prominent agnostic orator, countered by embracing "infidelity" as emblematic of intellectual liberty, arguing in lectures such as "Infidelity Versus Orthodoxy" (1884) that orthodoxy stifled inquiry while freethought aligned with advancing knowledge.^[99] Such usages highlight how intellectual dissent, grounded in verifiable observation, has been pathologized as disloyalty, mirroring religious infidelity but rooted in evidential challenges to untestable claims.

Historical Freethinkers and Enlightenment Figures

David Hume (1711–1776), a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, earned the epithet "the Great Infidel" from contemporaries due to his skeptical inquiries into religion, particularly in works like Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (published posthumously in 1779), where he critiqued arguments for God's existence and miracles based on empirical improbability.^[96] Hume's philosophy emphasized that religious beliefs often arise from human passions rather than rational evidence, challenging orthodox Christianity without advocating outright atheism; he maintained a mitigated skepticism toward metaphysical claims.^[100] His composed death in 1776, facing mortality without religious remorse or recantation, defied expectations that infidels would succumb to fear, as documented by biographer James Boswell and others who anticipated a dramatic conversion.^[101] Thomas Paine (1737–1809), in The Age of Reason (1794–1795), explicitly defended deism while denouncing revealed religion as superstitious, arguing that infidelity lies not in disbelief but in professing unheld doctrines, which provoked widespread accusations of infidelity from American and British clergy.^[102] Paine asserted that the Bible's inconsistencies and moral flaws rendered it unworthy of divine origin, prioritizing reason and natural religion over scriptural authority; this led to his ostracism, with Federalist critics like those in New England labeling him a dangerous infidel whose ideas undermined societal order.^[103] Despite his role in the American Revolution, Paine's later works positioned him as a freethinker who viewed organized religion as a tool of priestly tyranny, influencing secular dissent but alienating orthodox audiences.^[104] François-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire (1694–1778), critiqued religious fanaticism in essays like Philosophical Dictionary (1764), advocating tolerance and reason while mocking dogmatic excesses, though he professed deism and belief in a supreme being; critics posthumously styled him an incomparable infidel for undermining ecclesiastical authority.^[105] Voltaire's campaigns against intolerance, such as his defense of Jean Calas (executed in 1762 on false religious charges), highlighted how religious orthodoxy branded rational inquiry as infidelity, yet he avoided outright rejection of providence, using wit to expose causal absurdities in miracles and prophecies.^[106] Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), excommunicated by Amsterdam's Jewish community in 1656 for "abominable heresies," prefigured Enlightenment freethought by equating God with nature in Ethics (1677), rejecting anthropomorphic deity and scriptural literalism, which rendered him an infidel in both Jewish and Christian eyes.^[107] Spinoza's pantheism posited a deterministic universe governed by necessity, not divine whim, influencing later skeptics by demonstrating that intellectual dissent from orthodoxy could yield coherent metaphysics without supernaturalism; his banishment underscored religious institutions' intolerance for causal realism over faith-based interpretations.^[108] These figures collectively advanced empirical scrutiny of religious claims, often at personal cost, establishing infidelity as a marker of principled opposition to unverified dogma.

Legal and Civil Ramifications

Medieval European Contexts

In medieval European Christianity, the term infidelis, derived from Latin meaning "unfaithful," denoted individuals lacking Christian faith, encompassing pagans, Muslims, Jews, and occasionally heretics who rejected core doctrines.^[109] This usage permeated theological, legal, and military discourses, reflecting a worldview where fidelity to Christ defined membership in the respublica christiana. Canon law, as codified in Gratian's Decretum around 1140, addressed infidels' status, distinguishing them from the fideles while regulating interactions such as trade and governance.^[17] Theologians like Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologiae (c. 1265–1274), examined unbelief (infidelitas) as a grave sin meriting punishment, arguing that while infidels retained natural rights to dominion if their rule did not directly threaten Christian salvation, subjection to infidel authority inherently endangered the faithful's spiritual welfare.^[110]^[111] Militarily, the term gained prominence during the Crusades, where Pope Urban II, in his sermon at the Council of Clermont on November 27, 1095, exhorted knights to redirect their violence from intra-Christian feuds toward "infidels" occupying the Holy Land, promising plenary indulgences for participants.^[112] This rhetoric framed Muslims—initially termed Saracens—as existential threats to Christendom, culminating in the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem in 1099, after which "infidel" became a standard epithet for Islamic forces in chroniclers' accounts.^[113] Similarly, in the Iberian Reconquista, Christian rulers invoked the term against Muslim taifas, with papal bulls like Gregory VII's support for Alfonso VI of León-Castile in 1073–1074 justifying campaigns to reclaim territories from "infidel" dominion, extending through victories like the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212.^[114] Legally, medieval canonists debated infidels' capacities, prohibiting Christians from selling arms or aiding non-Christians in warfare per decrees like the Fourth Lateran Council's canon 71 (1215), which restricted commerce to prevent empowering "infidels" against the faithful.^[115] Yet, pragmatic exceptions emerged; for instance, 13th-century jurists permitted trade with Muslim merchants in frontier zones, provided it did not fund hostility, as seen in Venetian pacts with Levantine ports post-1204.^[115] Theologians maintained that infidels possessed valid titles to property absent Christian conquest, influencing papal policies like Innocent IV's bull Ad extirpanda (1252), which permitted coercion only for evangelization, not forced conversion. These views balanced doctrinal exclusivity with ius gentium principles, acknowledging infidels' humanity while subordinating them to Christian supremacy.^[17]

Implications for Contracts and Society

In Islamic jurisprudence, non-Muslims classified as dhimmis—protected peoples under a covenant (dhimma)—were granted security of life, property, and the right to conduct contracts within limits defined by Sharia, in exchange for payment of the jizya poll tax and adherence to restrictions such as subordination to Muslim authority.^[116] This contractual framework ensured enforceability of agreements among dhimmis themselves or with Muslims for commercial purposes, as the Quran mandates fulfilling pacts with non-Muslims (Quran 5:1), but imposed asymmetries: dhimmis lacked judicial authority over Muslims, their testimony was often inadmissible against Muslims in mixed disputes, and certain contracts, like those involving military aid or proselytizing, were void.^[117] Societally, this system institutionalized a hierarchical order, confining dhimmis to secondary economic roles—such as trade or crafts—while barring them from public office or equal social integration, fostering long-term patterns of segregation and periodic vulnerability to revocation of protections during political instability.^[118] Medieval Christian canon law similarly scrutinized contracts involving infidels, debating their validity under natural law while often deeming infidel dominion provisional or revocable by papal authority, as articulated by Pope Innocent IV in the 13th century, who argued that unbelief did not inherently nullify property rights but justified intervention if infidels impeded Christian propagation.^[119] Trade contracts with infidels were progressively permitted after initial prohibitions, as in the 12th-16th century evolution traced in Gratian's Decretum and papal bulls, but subject to safeguards against arming enemies or exporting strategic goods, with enforceability hinging on good faith absent deceit.^[115] Infidel oaths held diminished weight in ecclesiastical courts due to presumed unreliability, complicating debt recovery or alliances, as seen in English common law precedents from the 17th century onward, where infidel status influenced slavery and commerce justifications.^[120] These doctrines permeated society by legitimizing differential treatment, such as Jewish moneylending in Europe—enabled by usury bans on Christians but rooted in infidel exclusion from guilds and landownership—or dhimmi sumptuary laws enforcing visible inferiority, which sustained economic interdependence amid mutual distrust and recurrent expulsions, as in the 1492 Alhambra Decree affecting Spanish Jews and Muslims.^[54] Overall, infidel status eroded reciprocal trust in contractual relations, reinforcing communal boundaries and justifying coercive measures like conquest or tribute, with lasting effects on interfaith commerce until secular legal reforms diminished religious criteria for validity.^[121]

Modern Usage and Controversies

In Contemporary Conflicts and Extremism

In Islamist extremist groups, the term kafir (Arabic for "infidel," denoting nonbelievers or those rejecting strict interpretations of Islam) has been invoked to rationalize violence against perceived enemies in ongoing conflicts. For instance, the Islamic State (ISIS) employed kafir in its propaganda to label Western forces, Shia Muslims, and other opponents as legitimate targets for jihad, framing attacks during its 2014–2019 caliphate in Iraq and Syria as defensive warfare against an infidel world order.^[122]^[123] Similarly, Boko Haram in Nigeria has targeted Christians and government supporters as infidels, justifying abductions, bombings, and executions; a 2024 incident involved the beheading of four Christians explicitly labeled as infidels by the group.^[124]^[125] Post-2021 Taliban rule in Afghanistan has seen the term kafir applied to religious minorities, including Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians, amid policies restricting their practices and enabling targeted violence, as documented in reports on escalating persecution. This usage aligns with broader Salafi-jihadi ideology, where takfir—declaring Muslims as infidels—extends the label to internal dissenters, fueling intra-Muslim conflicts in regions like Yemen and Somalia.^[122] Such rhetoric dehumanizes adversaries, portraying them as existential threats warranting unrestricted warfare, distinct from secular insurgencies by rooting justification in theological mandates for global Islamic dominance.^[126] While less prevalent, analogous infidel framing appears in non-jihadist extremism; for example, some Hindu nationalist groups in India have echoed historical usages by decrying Muslim "infidels" amid communal clashes, though this draws more from indigenous revivalism than Abrahamic precedents.^[127] In Western contexts, the term occasionally surfaces in anti-Islamist counter-rhetoric, but extremist applications remain predominantly tied to jihadist motivations in asymmetric warfare, where empirical patterns show higher casualty rates in attacks motivated by religious supremacism over purely political grievances.^[128]^[129]

Debates on the Term's Relevance and Reform

In contemporary religious and secular discourse, the term "infidel" faces scrutiny for its potential to exacerbate divisions, with advocates of reform arguing that it carries inherent pejorative connotations that hinder interfaith dialogue and modern pluralism. Critics of the term, often from academic and progressive circles, contend that its historical baggage—rooted in crusades, jihads, and colonial encounters—renders it inflammatory, equating it to derogatory labels like the Arabic "kafir" which can imply moral inferiority or warrant hostility.^[130]^[131] Such views prioritize linguistic neutrality to foster coexistence, proposing alternatives like "non-believer" or "outsider" to avoid evoking violence, as evidenced by discomfort among Christian minorities in Muslim-majority countries who associate "infidel" with persecution narratives. Proponents of retaining the term emphasize its precise theological utility, arguing that diluting it obscures fundamental doctrinal distinctions between believers and non-adherents in Abrahamic faiths, where "infidel" denotes unfaithfulness to revealed truth rather than mere difference.^[2] In analyzing Islamist extremism, for instance, the term accurately reflects rhetoric employed by groups like ISIS, which explicitly target "infidels" in propaganda and attacks, as seen in their 2014 declarations justifying violence against non-Muslims; reforming it here would euphemize causal realities of ideological conflict. Figures like Ayaan Hirsi Ali have reclaimed "infidel" in her 2007 memoir to signify intellectual defiance against oppressive orthodoxy, transforming a slur into a badge of rational autonomy without conceding to calls for sanitization.^[132] Notable reform efforts include the 2019 declaration by Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia's influential Muslim organization representing over 90 million adherents, which abolished the legal category of "infidel" (kafir) within Islamic jurisprudence for modern nation-states, asserting that constitutional pluralism negates such classifications to prevent discrimination.^[133] This move, endorsed at a global Islamic conference, reflects pragmatic adaptation to secular governance, prioritizing civic equality over traditional sharia binaries, though it has drawn criticism from salafists for undermining scriptural authority. Conversely, in Western philosophical debates, the term's relevance persists in discussions of freethought, as in analyses distinguishing "infidel" from atheism or agnosticism, where it captures active rejection of faith-based epistemologies amid ongoing tensions between reason and revelation.^[134] These positions highlight a broader tension: while reform appeals to empirical outcomes like reduced conflict, retention aligns with causal fidelity to doctrinal intents, unfiltered by egalitarian imperatives.

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Aug 16, 2017 · The Pact of Umar is one of those strange leftovers from history. For many it bespeaks Islamic mistreatment of Christians and Christianity in the past.
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(DOC) Dhimmitude and the Ottoman Empire ǂ - Academia.edu
Jizya was a per capita yearly tax on adult male dhimmis, exempting certain groups. Legal status restricted dhimmis from high positions, reinforcing social ...
[52]
Jizya - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - Stanford Web Archive Portal
Sep 22, 2014 · In Khurasan, the local aristocracy lowered the jizya, and increased taxation of the Muslim subjects, in order to prevent the non-Muslim ...
[53]
A Critique of Robert Spencer's Views Regarding Dhimmis and Jizya
Sep 14, 2019 · According to Robert Spencer, dhimmis are treated like 'guilty' people and subjected to biased and stringent conditions. Furthermore, he believes ...
[54]
What Do You Know? Dhimmi, Jewish Legal Status under Muslim Rule
Nov 30, 2018 · In exchange for the protection of the Islamic state, dhimmis were expected to pay a special tax, called the jizya. A document known as the ...Missing: Quran 9:29
[55]
[PDF] Mairaj-Syed-Chapter-7-Jihad-in-Classical-Islamic-Legal-and-Moral ...
Put simply, the context in which. Sunni religious scholars undertook the systematic elaboration of jihad as a legal doctrine was substantially different from ...
[56]
Various Perspectives on Qur'an 9:29 by Muslim Theologians
Fighting the Unbelievers: Various Perspectives on Qur'an 9:29 by Muslim Theologians. ... Al-Tabari starts his Book of Jihad with a justification of Jihad based on ...
[57]
[PDF] Islamic Rulings on Warfare - USAWC Press
The primary purpose of jihad was to fight for Islam against unbelievers. Conflict between Muslims, such as the feuds of the pre-Islamic Arabs, was to be ...<|separator|>
[58]
The rise of Islamic empires and states (article) - Khan Academy
Islam spread through military conquest, trade, pilgrimage, and missionaries. Arab Muslim forces conquered vast territories and built imperial structures ...
[59]
11.2 The Arab-Islamic Conquests and the First Islamic States
Apr 19, 2023 · As long as they paid taxes to their new Muslim government, the conquered could live in the Islamic state and still practice their religion ...
[60]
Jizya: The Return of Muslim Extortion - Middle East Forum
Mar 11, 2024 · The second “righteous caliph,” Omar al-Khattab, reportedly said that any conquered “infidel” who refuses to convert to Islam “must pay the jizya ...Missing: treatment | Show results with:treatment
[61]
Arab-Muslim Conquests (A.D. 632-700) - Middle East And North Africa
The first wave of conquests by Muslim Arabs, completed at the beginning of the eighth century AD, included the Fertile Crescent, Iran, Egypt, North Africa, ...
[62]
[PDF] Jihad: Holy or Unholy War - UNAOC
They. Page 5. place themselves under the mantle of the Prophet, linking their militant jihadist worldviews to famous earlier interpretations of jihad such as ...
[63]
[PDF] Islamist Terrorism and the Classical Islamic Law of War
Dec 3, 2021 · See Mohamed Abdel Dayem & Fatima Ayub, In the Path of Allah: Evolving Interpreta- tions of Jihad and its Modern Challenges, 7 UCLA JOURNAL OF ...
[64]
Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice
Jihad is the essence of radical Islamist ideology, a synonym for terrorism, and even proof of Islam's innate violence.
[65]
[PDF] A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIST EXTREMISM
un-Islamic and must be fought to preserve Islam: kuffar (infidels); tawaghit (apostate ... Vocabulary. The religious vocabulary used by Salafi-jihadists is both ...
[66]
[PDF] framing the "threat to islam": al- wala ' wa al-bara > in salafi discourse
he tries to make is clear: Muslims should leave the "infidels" of the dar al-kufr ... Muslim leaders infidels, see Joas Wagemakers, "A Purist Jihadi-Salafi.
[67]
When Legal Conservatism Renders Salafi-Jihadis Lenient
Nov 28, 2023 · ... infidel countries, Salafi-taqlidis prohibit Muslims from doing so. ... contemporary Muslim countries as an abode of kufr. Abū Hammām al ...
[68]
A Purist Jihadi-Salafi: The Ideology of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi
In what follows, three major tenets of his ideology (al-wala wa-l-bara, kufr and jihad) are discussed. ... a certain movement an infidel, or calling Muslims ...
[69]
[PDF] HUDSON - Executive Services Directorate
Jan 5, 2006 · By waging Jihad against the infidels, the Islamists reconstruct the past ... jihad raises the questions regarding support of the kuffar by ...
[70]
The Case of Takfiri Approach in Daesh's Media - Sage Journals
May 18, 2020 · ... kuffar (unbelievers) in its view and defined as incidental disbelievers. ... ISIS · kafir · Media · Muslims · Takfir. Rights and permissions. © ...
[71]
[PDF] The Al-Qaeda Organization and the Islamic State ... - USAWC Press
Feb 6, 2017 · It is to be guilty of disloyalty, infidel- ity (Kufr). For al-Wahhab ... Extreme Salafi-Wahhabism Jihadism Applied to. Fight Against Nearest ...
[72]
ISIS 'Pursuing Big Policy' Aimed at Sparking U.S. Civil War Through ...
Sep 27, 2022 · ... Kafir soldiers on the battlefield. By killing an old woman in Dar al-Kufr, ISIS can ignite the fire of Fitna (heretical uprising) among ...
[73]
The Issue of Apostasy in Islam | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research
Jul 5, 2017 · Apostasy differed from other serious crimes, such as fornication and murder, because on its own it did not transgress the rights of others. As a ...
[74]
Introduction | Silenced: How Apostasy and Blasphemy Codes are ...
First, we provide an overview of the actual practice and the consequent dire effects of current blasphemy and apostasy restrictions in some major contemporary ...<|separator|>
[75]
10 Things to Know About the Muslim Brotherhood - FDD
Jun 9, 2025 · Brotherhood rhetoric on religious minorities emanates from its theological supremacism, with non-Muslims regarded as, at best, second-class ...
[76]
Viewpoint: Muslim Brotherhood Stance In Relation To Non-Muslims
The Muslim Brotherhood do not pass Judgment on those around them, such as denouncing other Muslims infidels (Kuffar), on the contrary they judge individuals on ...
[77]
Theological discourse of jihad operations of terrorism actions in ...
... Muslims who did not participate in jihad and associate with infidels should be killed. ... Some mean delicious kufr, implying ungrateful people are regarded as an ...<|separator|>
[78]
Gentiles / Torah 101 / Mechon Mamre
Terms Used for Gentiles The most commonly used Hebrew or Yiddish word for a non-Jew is goy. The word "goy" means nation, and refers to the fact that goyim are ...
[79]
The Non-Jew in Jewish Law
Jewish law tries to separate Jews from gentiles, in order to prevent Jews from adopting idolatrous behaviors. Extensions of the dietary laws limited social ...
[80]
Biblical and Rabbinic Attitudes Toward Non-Jews
Biblical and rabbinic attitudes towards non-Jews were shaped by the tension between two central concepts in Jewish thought.
[81]
Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews - Judaism 101 (JewFAQ)
The most commonly used word for a non-Jew is goy. The word "goy" means "nation," and refers to the fact that goyim are members of other nations, that is, ...
[82]
The Law of Idolatry B'Shituf for Non-Jews - Yeshivat Har Bracha
Apr 5, 2024 · According to the stringent opinions, idolatry b'shituf is prohibited for non-Jews, just as it is for Jews, for if non-Jews are permitted to ...
[83]
100 Bible Verses about Non Believers - OpenBible.info
100 Bible Verses about Non Believers · 2 Corinthians 6:14 ESV / 3,579 helpful votes. Helpful Not Helpful · 1 Corinthians 15:33 ESV / 3,304 helpful votes. HelpfulMissing: terms infidels
[84]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+20&version=NIV
[85]
The Extermination of the Canaanites - Knowing the Bible
The Canaanite people were an extremely violent people involved in and promoting idolatry, gang rape, bestiality, child sacrifice, and many other evil and ...
[86]
Forced Conversions - Rabbi Jeremy Rosen
Dec 2, 2021 · It was John Hyrcanus, of the next generation who it was claimed initiated forced conversion on the Idumean enemy as an alternative to ...
[87]
The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism - MDPI
This paper also discusses the outcome of the Hasmonean conquest of Idumea and the incorporation of its inhabitants into the Jewish nation.
[88]
[PDF] idumea and the idumeans in josephus' story of hellenistic-early roman
Sep 6, 2023 · Hasmonean state speak of forcible conversion, the overall message of Josephus' references to. Idumea leave room for speculation that the ...<|separator|>
[89]
Infidels | Encyclopedia.com
Christian and Muslim notions of infidelity are assumed to be the cultural context for crusades and holy wars. In the twenty-first century, religious ...
[90]
[PDF] 22 Impiety Introduction - University of Warwick
Mar 7, 2016 · Most evidence for impiety in ancient Greece comes from Athens, and relates to trials under the graphe asebeias (a public prosecution for ...
[91]
Sacrilege | Desecration, Blasphemy, Punishment - Britannica
Sep 27, 2025 · Sacrilege, originally, the theft of something sacred; as early as the 1st century bc, however, the Latin term for sacrilege came to mean any injury, violation, ...
[92]
Mlechchha | Foreigners, Invaders, Outcasts - Britannica
As a mlechchha, any foreigner stood completely outside the caste system and the ritual ambience. Thus, historically, contact with them was viewed by the caste ...
[93]
Nastika: Significance and symbolism
Jul 16, 2025 · Nastika in Hinduism denotes atheists or non-believers who reject scriptures, Vedic teachings, and the existence of God, characterized by a ...
[94]
Heresy - Guide To Buddhism A To Z
... wrong views (micchà diññhi). However, it has always allowed for a very ... heresy and the hunting down and killing of heretics has been rare. This ...
[95]
The Tao of Shinto (The Way of the Kami)
Sep 17, 2011 · Taoism and Shinto developed in different directions. Taoism took off into individual transformation, the search for immortality and the aligning qi energy.
[96]
Hume, David: Religion | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
David Hume (1711-1776) was called “Saint David” and “The Good David” by his friends, but his adversaries knew him as “The Great Infidel.” His contributions ...
[97]
The twilight of orthodoxy in New England - ScholarWorks
Oct 26, 2020 · Infidelity is used as a term describing the offense of those men who denied the Trinity, the virgin birth and miracles. It does not necessarily ...
[98]
“Science Falsely So-Called”—The Infidelity of Natural History in the ...
Jun 10, 2015 · ... infidel philosophy.” One finds “in every age 'profane and vain babblings, and oppositions of science falsely so called'.” This phrase from ...
[99]
Infidelity Versus Orthodoxy - Dabhar.org
INFIDELITY VERSUS ORTHODOXY. We make the following extracts from Mr. Robert Ingersoll's lecture delivered in Boston, Mass., May 11th, 1884, as published in ...
[100]
https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691192284/the-infidel-and-the-professor
[101]
He died as he lived: David Hume, philosopher and infidel | Aeon Ideas
Oct 23, 2017 · How does an infidel face his end? The philosopher David Hume died as he lived – with good humour and without religion.
[102]
Thomas Paine Age Of Reason Part1 - Internet Infidels
Infidelity does not consist in believing, or in disbelieving; it consists in professing to believe what he does not believe. It is impossible to calculate the ...
[103]
How Thomas Paine Betrayed America - Christian Heritage Fellowship
Jan 7, 2025 · ... Paine by publishing his own response in 1801 titled, The Age of Revelation, or The Age Of Reason Shown to Be an Age of Infidelity. In his ...
[104]
Thomas Paine | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello
Upon Paine's arrival in Baltimore in October 1802, political opponents once again linked Jefferson and Paine, whom they had labeled “the Infidel.” To the ...
[105]
https://www.thriftbooks.com/w/voltaire--the-incomparable-infidel/12353256/
[106]
Robert Ingersoll On Voltaire - Internet Infidels
It has been claimed by the Christian critics that Voltaire was irreverent ... infidel. Every good Christian was expected to, and generally did, believe ...
[107]
Spinoza: Hero, Infidel, Celebrity - The Forward
Jun 30, 2006 · Spinoza: Hero, Infidel, Celebrity. Copy to clipboard · Share on ... Spinoza was excommunicated at the age of 23. It was a divorce that ...
[108]
Infidel Death-Beds
When “infidels” are few, and their relatives are orthodox, what could be more natural than what is called “a death-bed recantation?” Their minds are enfeebled ...
[109]
The Status of the 'Infidel' in Premodern Canon Law
In a second step the legal status of the infidel will be studied in detail and focus on a single aspect: marriages between Christians and non-Christians. 1.Missing: marriage | Show results with:marriage
[110]
SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: Unbelief in general (Secunda ... - New Advent
" Now a greater punishment is due to believers than to unbelievers ... Thomas Aquinas Second and Revised Edition, 1920. Literally translated by Fathers of ...
[111]
the ambivalence of st. thomas aquinas - jstor
it is quite evident that it is because subjection to infidel dominion endangers salvation that he says here that infidels "deserve to lose their power over ...
[112]
Against the Infidels - Pope Urban II 1095 - Emerson Kent
Let those who have been accustomed unjustly to wage private warfare against the faithful now go against the infidels and end with victory this war.
[113]
Did Crusaders refer to Muslims as infidels? - Homework.Study.com
In the Middle Ages, Muslims were known as "Saracens." After the first Crusade, they were also commonly referred to as infidels. The word "infidel" stems from ...<|separator|>
[114]
What is an infidel? - The Handy History Answer Book - Papertrell
What is an infidel? Derived from the Latin infidelis, meaning “unbelieving” or “unfaithful,” the term was used by the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages ...
[115]
Formation and Refiguration of the Canon Law on Trade with Infidels ...
May 17, 2021 · Consequently, the canon law on trade with infidels could not feed directly into a system predicated upon the equality of its constituent parts.Missing: governance | Show results with:governance
[116]
Status of the dhimmi in Islamic law - ERA
This study concerns mainly with the status and position of dhimmi in various aspects of Islamic law. It is an attempt to survey the legal status of dhimmi ...
[117]
Modern approaches to address the concept of territorial division in ...
Jul 18, 2022 · Islam asks Muslims to fulfill all contracts that have been decided upon, despite being the contract signed with Muslims or Non-Muslims (The ...<|separator|>
[118]
(PDF) The Rights of Dhimmis in Islam - Academia.edu
Dhimmis, or 'contract people', are protected under Islamic law through the Dhimma contract. ... Rights of non-Muslims in Islamic countries; Riyadh and Ashbilia. ( ...
[119]
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004431539/BP000019.xml?language=en
[120]
INFIDELS IN ENGLISH LEGAL THOUGHT: CONQUEST ...
Nov 23, 2017 · INFIDELS IN ENGLISH LEGAL THOUGHT: CONQUEST, COMMERCE AND SLAVERY IN THE COMMON LAW FROM COKE TO MANSFIELD, 1603–1793 - Volume 16 Issue 2.
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https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004349155/BP000003.xml
[122]
Contextualizing Jihad and Takfir in the Sunni Conceptual Framework
Aug 31, 2018 · The concepts of jihad and the charge of unbelief on a Muslim or non-Muslim known as takfir have evoked mixed and dreaded reactions among many in Western ...
[123]
Kafir - Counter Extremism Project
Glossary: Extremist and Terrorist Terms · Far-Left Extremist Groups in the ... Kafir is an Arabic word meaning “nonbeliever” or “infidel” (plural: kuffar).Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[124]
Four beheaded on camera by Boko Haram militants - Open Doors
Oct 24, 2024 · Christians considered 'infidels' · 35,000 civilians killed in the region · Stop the violence and start the healing.
[125]
2.1. Individuals targeted by Boko Haram
persons perceived as government supporters · persons considered as 'infidels', including those rejecting the insurgents' strict interpretation of Sharia.
[126]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311886.2025.2538719
[127]
The Global Spread of Wahhabi Islam: How Great a Threat?
May 3, 2005 · Is Wahhabism indeed the major source of global extremism? If ... infidel “jahiliyya” against whom militant jihad should be waged. And ...
[128]
'ISIS is not Islam': Epistemic Injustice, Everyday Religion, and Young ...
May 23, 2020 · ... kuffar (infidels) and al-Qiyāmah (the Day of Reckoning). Authorities ... jihad, shahid, Sharia, Caliphate, kuffar and al-Qiyāmah. In ...
[129]
[PDF] The Religious Sources Of Islamic Terrorism - ACLU
jihad against the infidel world at large and the apoc- alyptical war between Islam and heresy which will innovation result in the rule of Islam in the world ...
[130]
Why do Muslim extremists call us infidels? - Quora
May 7, 2017 · The reason people equate “infidel” to the word “Kaafir” is, more times than not, to spread fear and promote their own religious (and other) ...What is the difference between an infidel, a heretic, and an atheist?What's the difference between a heretic, infidel, pagan, and heathen?More results from www.quora.comMissing: pejorative | Show results with:pejorative
[131]
https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-420
[132]
Review: Infidel, Ayaan Hirsi Ali - The Bosphorus Review Of Books
More than a decade after its publication, Infidel remains relevant precisely due to the steady popularity of its author and the ideas she puts forth in the book ...
[133]
[PDF] 2019_10_16_NU Rejects the Relevance of “Infidel” as a Legal ...
The documents decreed that the modern nation state is theologically legitimate; that there is no legal category of infidel (kafir) within a modern nation state, ...
[134]
On Being an Infidel | Sophia
Jul 6, 2021 · In the usage which I prefer, being an infidel is different from being an atheist. According to infidels, atheists share too much with ...<|separator|>

Infidel

Etymology and Definition

Linguistic Origins

Core Meaning and Pejorative Connotations

Usage in Christianity

Scriptural and Early References

Medieval Canon Law and Applications

Governance, Rule, and Colonization

Marriage and Social Interactions

Governance, Rule, and Colonization

Marriage and Social Interactions

Reformation and Later Developments

Usage in Islam

Scriptural Foundations

Historical Treatment of Non-Believers

Dhimmi System and Taxation

Warfare, Jihad, and Conquest

Modern Islamist Rhetoric and Practices

Usage in Judaism and Other Abrahamic Contexts

Biblical and Rabbinic Terms

Historical Applications

Analogous Concepts in Non-Abrahamic Religions

In Polytheistic and Eastern Traditions

Philosophical and Secular Interpretations

Infidelity as Intellectual Dissent

Historical Freethinkers and Enlightenment Figures

Legal and Civil Ramifications

Medieval European Contexts

Implications for Contracts and Society

Modern Usage and Controversies

In Contemporary Conflicts and Extremism

Debates on the Term's Relevance and Reform

References