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Reward system

The reward system, also known as the mesolimbic dopamine system, is a network of interconnected brain structures and neural pathways that processes rewards, motivates behavior, and reinforces learning by associating environmental stimuli with pleasurable outcomes, primarily through the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine.^[1] This system evolved to promote survival-enhancing actions, such as seeking food, water, and social bonds, by generating feelings of pleasure and anticipation in response to natural reinforcers.^[2] Central to its function is the modulation of goal-directed behavior, where dopamine signals not only the receipt of rewards but also their prediction, enabling adaptive decision-making and habit formation.^[3] Key components of the reward system include the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain, which serves as the primary source of dopamine-producing neurons, and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in the ventral striatum, a major target region where dopamine release culminates in the subjective experience of reward.^[4] The system encompasses two primary pathways: the mesolimbic pathway, connecting the VTA to the NAc and facilitating immediate reward processing and motivation, and the mesocortical pathway, linking the VTA to the prefrontal cortex to support executive functions like planning and impulse control.^[5] Additional structures, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, basolateral amygdala, and hippocampus, integrate sensory information, emotional context, and memory to refine reward valuation and prediction error signaling.^[6] Beyond natural rewards, the system plays a critical role in psychopathology when dysregulated; for instance, addictive substances hijack these pathways by inducing excessive dopamine surges, leading to compulsive behaviors and tolerance.^[7] Conversely, underactivation contributes to conditions like depression and anhedonia, impairing motivation, while optimal functioning enhances stress resilience and overall well-being by buffering negative emotional states.^[8] Research highlights the system's plasticity, influenced by genetics, environment, and experience, underscoring its importance in both therapeutic interventions and understanding human behavior.^[9]

Introduction

Definition

The reward system is a group of interconnected brain structures and neural pathways responsible for detecting and processing rewarding stimuli, which in turn reinforce behaviors essential for survival and reproduction by eliciting sensations of motivation and pleasure.^[1] This system evolved to prioritize actions that promote adaptive outcomes, such as seeking food or social bonds, by associating them with positive affective states.^[10] At a high level, the system involves the mesolimbic pathway as a primary circuit, where dopamine acts as the key neuromodulator signaling the salience and incentive value of rewards.^[1] Dopamine release in this pathway enhances the drive to pursue rewarding experiences without directly encoding the hedonic pleasure itself.^[4] The psychological foundations of rewards as reinforcers originated in behavioral psychology during the mid-20th century, rooted in operant conditioning theories.^[11] Pioneering work by B.F. Skinner in the 1930s and 1940s formalized the idea that positive reinforcers, or rewards, increase the likelihood of repeated actions, laying the groundwork for later neuroscientific explorations of underlying brain mechanisms.^[11] This framework intersected with neuroscience in the 1950s, notably through experiments by James Olds and Peter Milner demonstrating that rats would avidly self-administer electrical stimulation to specific brain sites, such as the septal area, revealing a centralized reward architecture.^[12]^[13]

Functions and significance

The reward system plays a fundamental biological role in promoting essential survival behaviors through reinforcement mechanisms. It drives individuals to seek out and repeat actions associated with positive outcomes, such as consuming nutritious food, engaging in reproductive activities, and forming social bonds, thereby enhancing fitness and perpetuating species survival. For instance, activation of this system reinforces feeding behaviors by associating nutrient intake with pleasurable sensations, motivating foraging and energy acquisition in resource-scarce environments. Similarly, it facilitates mating by linking sexual interactions to rewarding experiences, increasing the likelihood of reproductive success, while social bonding rewards, such as those from affiliation and cooperation, support group cohesion and protection against threats.^[1]^[2]^[14] Psychologically, the reward system underpins hedonic experiences, goal-directed behavior, and emotional regulation, shaping how individuals perceive pleasure and pursue objectives. It generates feelings of satisfaction from rewarding stimuli, which in turn fuels motivation to anticipate and achieve future goals, as seen in the system's role in encoding reward predictions that guide adaptive decision-making. This process also aids emotional regulation by modulating responses to stressors, promoting resilience through positive reinforcement that buffers against negative affect. For example, neural responses to rewards can predict reductions in depressive symptoms over time, highlighting its significance in maintaining psychological well-being.^[15]^[6]^[16]^[17] From an evolutionary perspective, the reward system evolved to provide adaptive value in ancestral environments, particularly in foraging and mating contexts, but can lead to maladaptive outcomes in modern settings. In foraging, it incentivizes efficient resource acquisition by rewarding successful hunts or gatherings, optimizing energy balance and survival in variable habitats. For mating, it reinforces mate selection and pair bonding, ensuring genetic propagation through pleasurable associations with reproductive cues. However, in contemporary environments abundant with artificial rewards, this system can extend beyond adaptive limits, contributing to overconsumption and dependency.^[14]^[18]^[19] Societally, the reward system's influence manifests in consumerism, technology engagement, and public health issues like obesity, often amplifying maladaptive behaviors through engineered stimuli. In consumerism, marketing exploits reward pathways to foster compulsive purchasing, akin to addiction models where dopamine surges from acquisitions drive repeated engagement, as evidenced in compulsive shopping disorders. Technology, particularly social media, creates dopamine loops via unpredictable notifications and likes, promoting excessive use and dependency that mirrors substance reward patterns. These dynamics contribute to obesity epidemics by heightening the appeal of hyper-palatable foods, leading to overeating despite satiety signals and posing significant public health challenges.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]

Neuroanatomy

Core structures

The core structures of the brain's reward system include the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAc), prefrontal cortex (PFC), amygdala, and hippocampus, which form an interconnected network primarily within the limbic system and basal forebrain.^[1] The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is situated in the midbrain, dorsomedial to the substantia nigra and near the midline on the floor of the midbrain.^[26] It comprises a heterogeneous population of dopamine, GABA, and glutamate neurons.^[26] The nucleus accumbens (NAc) occupies the ventral striatum in the basal forebrain, positioned anterior to the anterior commissure and ventromedial to the caudate-putamen.^[27] It is divided into a core and shell subregion, with the core featuring more structured neuronal layering.^[28] The prefrontal cortex (PFC), particularly its orbital and medial divisions, lies at the anterior portion of the frontal lobe, encompassing Brodmann areas 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 32, and 47.^[29] These regions integrate sensory and reward-related inputs for higher-order processing.^[29] The amygdala is an almond-shaped complex embedded in the medial temporal lobe, forming part of the limbic system with basolateral, central, and medial nuclei.^[30] It resides ventral to the putamen and lateral to the hippocampus.^[30] The hippocampus is a curved structure within the medial temporal lobe, extending from the septal nuclei to the parahippocampal gyrus, and includes the dentate gyrus, cornu ammonis fields, and subiculum.^[1] It lies adjacent to the amygdala and fimbria.^[1] These structures exhibit basic connectivity, such as dense projections from the VTA to the NAc shell and core, as well as to the PFC, amygdala, and hippocampus, forming the foundational mesolimbic and mesocortical links.^[29] The NAc receives inputs from the PFC and amygdala, while the hippocampus sends efferents to the NAc and VTA.^[29]

Major pathways

The mesolimbic pathway constitutes a core neural circuit in the reward system, originating from dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projecting primarily to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in the ventral striatum. This pathway facilitates the transmission of reward signals, particularly in the anticipation of pleasurable stimuli, by modulating activity in limbic structures that integrate sensory and motivational inputs. Dopamine serves as the primary neurotransmitter carrier along this route, enabling phasic bursts that encode predictive reward value. Connectivity between the VTA and NAc involves dense axonal projections that synapse onto medium spiny neurons, allowing for rapid signal propagation essential to goal-directed behaviors. The mesocortical pathway extends from the VTA to various regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), including the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortices, forming a circuit that links reward processing with higher-order cognitive functions. This pathway supports executive control over reward evaluation, such as assessing long-term outcomes and inhibiting impulsive responses, through reciprocal connections that allow feedback from cortical areas to modulate VTA activity. Signal flow in this circuit emphasizes top-down regulation, where PFC neurons influence dopamine release to refine decision-making based on contextual reward information. The nigrostriatal pathway arises from dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and targets the dorsal striatum, comprising the caudate nucleus and putamen, to coordinate motor and associative aspects of reward-guided actions. This circuit plays a key role in habit formation by strengthening stimulus-response associations that become automated over repeated reward experiences, with projections forming loops that integrate sensory cues from the cortex and thalamus. Unlike the mesolimbic route, its connectivity prioritizes basal ganglia circuitry, enabling the consolidation of rewarded behaviors into efficient routines. Dynamics within these major pathways are governed by synaptic plasticity mechanisms, such as long-term potentiation (LTP), which enhance connectivity and signal efficacy in response to reward-related activity. LTP in the mesolimbic pathway, for instance, occurs at glutamatergic synapses onto NAc neurons, driven by coincident dopamine and glutamate release to strengthen reward prediction errors. Similar plasticity in the mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways supports adaptive modifications, allowing circuits to recalibrate based on experience without altering core anatomical projections.

Neurotransmitters involved

Dopamine serves as the primary neurotransmitter in the brain's reward circuitry, synthesized in dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) from the amino acid tyrosine via the rate-limiting enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, followed by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase.^[31] These VTA neurons release dopamine into key reward-related regions such as the nucleus accumbens through the mesolimbic pathway. Dopamine signaling occurs via two main receptor families: D1-like receptors (D1 and D5), which are Gs-coupled and excitatory, and D2-like receptors (D2, D3, and D4), which are Gi-coupled and inhibitory.^[32] Dopamine release patterns include tonic release, which maintains baseline extracellular levels for sustained modulation, and phasic release, characterized by brief bursts in response to salient stimuli, enabling rapid signaling for reward prediction errors.^[33] D2 autoreceptors, located on dopamine neuron somata, dendrites, and terminals, provide negative feedback by inhibiting further dopamine synthesis and release upon activation, thereby regulating overall dopaminergic tone in reward processing.^[34] Endogenous opioids, such as enkephalins, contribute to the hedonic aspect of reward by binding to mu- and delta-opioid receptors, primarily in the nucleus accumbens, to enhance pleasure sensations during reward consumption.^[35] Serotonin modulates reward valuation by influencing the perceived value of rewards, with serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus projecting to reward areas to adjust motivational responses through 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors.^[36] Glutamate acts as the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in reward circuits, driving dopamine neuron activity in the VTA via ionotropic receptors (AMPA and NMDA) that facilitate synaptic potentiation and reinforcement learning signals.^[37] In contrast, GABA maintains inhibitory balance within the reward system, with GABAergic interneurons in the VTA and nucleus accumbens suppressing excessive excitation to prevent overactivation during reward processing.^[1] Recent studies highlight the role of endocannabinoids, such as 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide, in fine-tuning reward signals through CB1 receptors on presynaptic terminals, where they modulate dopamine release in the VTA to refine encoding of reward prediction and social motivation.^[38]^[39]

Mechanisms of reward processing

Wanting and liking distinction

The distinction between "wanting" and "liking" represents a core dissociation in reward processing, where "wanting" refers to the incentive motivation or desire to approach and pursue a reward, primarily driven by dopamine signaling in the mesolimbic pathway. In contrast, "liking" denotes the hedonic pleasure or sensory enjoyment derived from consuming the reward itself, mediated mainly by opioid systems within specific brain hotspots. This framework, developed by Kent Berridge and colleagues, underscores that while wanting and liking often co-occur for natural rewards like food, they can be neurologically and behaviorally separated.^[40] Neurologically, wanting is attributed to the attribution of incentive salience via the mesolimbic dopamine system, originating from the ventral tegmental area and projecting to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and beyond, which amplifies the motivational pull of reward cues without necessarily enhancing pleasure. Liking, however, arises from a more restricted set of opioid-sensitive hedonic hotspots, including the medial shell of the NAc and the posterior ventral pallidum, where mu-opioid receptor stimulation—such as by drugs like morphine—dramatically increases affective reactions to sweetness, elevating hedonic impact by up to 1000% in localized sites. These hotspots form a functional circuit, with reciprocal interactions between the NAc and ventral pallidum required to generate and sustain liking responses.^[41] Experimental evidence for this dissociation comes prominently from animal studies using taste reactivity tests in rodents, which measure innate facial expressions of pleasure (e.g., tongue protrusions for liking) versus aversion to sucrose or quinine. In rats depleted of nearly all dopamine via 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions in the NAc and neostriatum, hedonic liking reactions to sucrose remain intact and even normal in intensity, demonstrating preserved sensory pleasure despite the absence of dopamine. However, these same dopamine-depleted rats exhibit profound deficits in wanting, such as aphagia (refusal to eat) and lack of approach behavior toward food rewards, even when hungry, highlighting that dopamine is essential for motivational pursuit but not for hedonic experience.^[42] In humans, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies corroborate this dissociation, showing distinct neural patterns for wanting (craving or anticipation) versus liking (enjoyment during consumption) in contexts like food reward. For instance, exposure to food odors activates wanting-related regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex and ventral striatum for motivational craving, while actual tasting engages liking-specific areas like the insula and anterior cingulate for hedonic pleasure, with minimal overlap. A 2022 meta-analysis of fMRI data further supports this by distinguishing "wanting" activations in cue-driven incentive networks from homeostatic "needing" signals, aligning with Berridge's model where hedonic liking remains separable from dopaminergic wanting.^[43] Recent 2024 fMRI research on chocolate preferences demonstrates that self-reported craving (wanting) correlates with ventral striatum activity, whereas explicit liking ratings activate distinct hedonic regions like the mid-insula, reinforcing the cross-species validity of the framework.^[44]

Anti-reward system

The anti-reward system comprises neural and hormonal mechanisms that counteract excessive activation of the brain's reward circuitry, promoting homeostasis by inducing aversive states during prolonged or intense reward exposure.^[45] Key components include the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which orchestrates stress responses through glucocorticoid release; the kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) system, activated by endogenous ligands like dynorphin; and the lateral habenula (LHb), a diencephalic structure that signals negative reward prediction errors.^[45]^[46] The extended amygdala, encompassing the central nucleus of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, further integrates these elements to amplify stress-induced aversion.^[47] These components function primarily to generate dysphoria, an unpleasant emotional state that discourages overindulgence in rewarding stimuli and restores behavioral balance.^[48] For instance, during stress, dynorphin is released from neurons in the central amygdala and hypothalamus, binding to KORs distributed across limbic and brainstem regions, thereby evoking aversive responses that limit reward pursuit.^[49] The LHb contributes by inhibiting midbrain dopamine neurons upon detection of unfavorable outcomes, enhancing the salience of potential harms over benefits.^[50] This system thus serves as an inhibitory counterweight to the facilitatory processes of wanting and liking in reward processing.^[51] Interactions between the anti-reward system and dopaminergic pathways involve negative feedback loops that dampen reward signaling to foster tolerance. Activation of KORs in the ventral tegmental area suppresses dopamine release in target regions like the nucleus accumbens, reducing the motivational impact of rewards and promoting habituation.^[52] Similarly, HPA axis-mediated glucocorticoid surges enhance KOR expression and LHb excitability, further attenuating dopamine transmission and contributing to diminished reward sensitivity over time.^[53] These mechanisms ensure that repeated reward exposure leads to adaptive downregulation, preventing unchecked escalation.^[45] Recent studies from 2022 to 2025 have elucidated the anti-reward system's role in chronic pain and withdrawal states, emphasizing neuroplastic changes in the extended amygdala. For example, persistent opioid exposure upregulates KOR signaling in the central amygdala, intensifying dynorphin-mediated aversion during withdrawal and altering circuit connectivity to heighten negative affective states.^[47] In chronic pain models, LHb hyperactivity, driven by HPA axis hyperactivity, amplifies anti-reward signals via projections to the extended amygdala, sustaining dysphoric responses that interfere with pain modulation.^[54] These findings highlight the extended amygdala's integration of stress and anti-reward pathways, offering insights into therapeutic targets for balancing homeostasis.

Role in learning and behavior

Reinforcement and learning

The reward system facilitates associative learning by reinforcing behaviors that lead to positive outcomes or the avoidance of negative ones, primarily through classical and operant conditioning mechanisms. In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement occurs when the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, such as food or social approval, increases the likelihood of a preceding behavior, as demonstrated in foundational experiments with animals where lever-pressing was strengthened by food delivery.^[55] Negative reinforcement, conversely, strengthens behavior by removing or preventing an aversive stimulus, like terminating an electric shock upon a specific action, thereby associating the behavior with relief and promoting its repetition.^[55] These processes underpin how the reward system shapes adaptive behaviors by linking actions or cues to their hedonic consequences. A core principle of reward-driven learning is the prediction error hypothesis, which posits that midbrain dopamine neurons signal discrepancies between anticipated and actual rewards, guiding updates to behavioral expectations. This mechanism adapts the Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning, where learning depends on the difference between predicted and received outcomes, originally formulated to explain how associations form between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned rewards. In neurophysiological terms, unexpected rewards elicit phasic dopamine bursts, while better-than-expected outcomes at predicted times suppress activity, and omitted rewards produce dips, thereby encoding positive and negative prediction errors to refine future predictions. This dopamine-mediated signal propagates through the reward circuitry to facilitate plasticity in downstream regions, enabling organisms to adjust strategies based on environmental feedback. At the neural level, these prediction errors induce synaptic changes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) through Hebbian learning principles, where correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity strengthens connections. In the NAc, dopamine modulates long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression (LTD) at glutamatergic synapses from the PFC, allowing reward-associated cues to enhance behavioral responses over time.^[56] Hebbian plasticity in these circuits integrates temporal contiguity between stimuli and rewards, as dopamine timing aligns presynaptic inputs with postsynaptic depolarization to tag eligible synapses for modification.^[31] Such adaptations support the consolidation of reward contingencies, transforming transient experiences into enduring behavioral habits. Human studies using electroencephalography (EEG) and computational modeling provide evidence for these processes in reward prediction during gambling tasks. In the Iowa Gambling Task, event-related potentials (ERPs) like the reward positivity component reflect prediction errors, with larger amplitudes for unexpected gains versus predicted ones, aligning with Rescorla-Wagner model fits to participant choices.^[57] Recent EEG investigations of slot machine simulations (2023) reveal dynamic sub-second shifts in frontal theta and delta oscillations tied to evolving reward expectations, where mismatches amplify learning signals and influence subsequent bets.^[58] Computational models incorporating these EEG-derived errors accurately predict individual learning rates, underscoring the reward system's role in human associative plasticity up to 2025.^[57]

Motivation and decision-making

The reward system plays a pivotal role in distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, where intrinsic motivation arises from the inherent satisfaction of an activity, while extrinsic motivation stems from external incentives like monetary rewards.^[59] Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation by altering striatal activity, reducing voluntary engagement in tasks once incentives are removed.^[60] In sustaining effort toward delayed rewards, the reward system facilitates persistence through dopamine-mediated signaling that enhances the perceived value of future outcomes, countering the tendency to devalue them over time.^[61] This process is evident in tasks requiring cognitive effort, where repeated exposure to rewarding outcomes increases the intrinsic valuation of demanding activities, independent of external payoffs.^[62] Decision-making models integrate reward system dynamics with economic theories, such as prospect theory, which posits that individuals weigh potential gains and losses asymmetrically, with losses looming larger than equivalent gains.^[63] Dopamine neurons in the reward circuitry encode these valuations by signaling prediction errors that adjust subjective value functions, aligning neural responses with prospect theory's reference-dependent evaluations.^[64] Temporal discounting further shapes these choices, as dopamine modulates the preference for immediate smaller rewards over larger delayed ones, reflecting a hyperbolic decline in future value perception.^[65] For instance, ventral striatal activity diminishes with increasing delays, prioritizing short-term gratification in value-based selections.^[66] Neural integration between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) underpins cost-benefit analysis in motivation and decision-making, forming bidirectional loops that evaluate effort, risks, and rewards.^[67] Dopamine efflux in these circuits dynamically fluctuates to represent the net value of options, with PFC-NAc interactions enabling the suppression of impulsive choices in favor of adaptive, goal-directed behaviors. This circuitry supports effort-related decisions by integrating sensory cues with motivational salience, ensuring actions align with long-term benefits despite immediate costs.^[68] Recent research from 2023 to 2025 highlights the reward system's involvement in social rewards during decision-making, particularly in economic games assessing fairness.^[69] Functional MRI studies show that social reward processing, such as equitable distributions in ultimatum games, activates NAc and PFC regions, influencing choices toward fairness over self-interest.^[70] These findings underscore how social contexts enhance reward valuation, promoting prosocial decisions through integrated neural reward mechanisms.^[71]

Clinical and pathological aspects

Addiction

Addiction arises from the dysregulation of the brain's reward system, where repeated exposure to substances or behaviors hijacks the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, leading to compulsive use despite adverse consequences. This process transforms natural reward processing into a pathological cycle characterized by three main stages: binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation. In the binge/intoxication stage, drugs or addictive behaviors trigger a surge in dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens (NAc), producing intense euphoria and reinforcing the behavior through enhanced incentive salience.^[72] The withdrawal/negative affect stage involves activation of the anti-reward system, primarily in the extended amygdala, resulting in dysphoria, anxiety, and aversion that drives further consumption to alleviate discomfort.^[72] Finally, the preoccupation/anticipation stage is marked by intense craving, mediated by the "wanting" mechanism in prefrontal cortex and striatal circuits, where cues associated with the reward elicit persistent anticipation and relapse vulnerability.^[72] Chronic addiction induces profound neuroadaptations in reward circuitry, altering sensitivity to both natural and drug-induced rewards. A key change is the downregulation of dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum, including the NAc, which reduces the brain's responsiveness to non-drug rewards and perpetuates reliance on the addictive stimulus to achieve pleasure.^[73] Concurrently, repeated drug exposure leads to sensitization of glutamatergic transmission in the NAc, particularly involving AMPA receptor trafficking and synaptic strengthening, which enhances cue-induced craving and compulsive seeking behaviors.^[74] These adaptations shift the reward system from homeostatic balance to a hypodopaminergic state, where tolerance develops and the threshold for reward activation rises, contributing to the persistence of addiction. Behavioral addictions, such as pathological gambling and internet gaming disorder, exhibit neurobiological parallels to substance use disorders, involving similar dysregulation of dopamine-mediated reward anticipation and habit formation in the ventral striatum.^[75] In the DSM-5-TR, gambling disorder is classified as the sole formal behavioral addiction, reflecting its alignment with substance addiction criteria through shared features like tolerance, withdrawal, and loss of control, while internet gaming disorder remains a condition for further study pending additional validation.^[76] Recent 2024 reviews highlight ongoing refinements in diagnostic criteria, emphasizing functional impairments and cue-reactivity in reward circuits for these non-substance conditions.^[77] Treatment strategies targeting reward system dysregulation offer promising interventions, particularly pharmacotherapies that modulate key circuits to restore balance. For opioid addiction, naltrexone, an opioid receptor antagonist, blocks the rewarding effects of opioids by inhibiting mu-opioid receptor signaling in the NAc, thereby reducing craving and relapse rates without producing euphoria itself.^[78] Similar approaches, including dopamine modulators and glutamate stabilizers, aim to counteract neuroadaptations across addiction types, though efficacy varies by stage and individual factors.^[79]

Mood and anxiety disorders

Anhedonia, defined as the diminished capacity for experiencing pleasure and motivation toward rewards, represents a central feature of major depressive disorder (MDD) and is closely tied to dysfunction in the brain's reward circuitry. In MDD, this manifests as reduced "liking" (the hedonic impact of rewards) and "wanting" (the incentive salience driving pursuit of rewards), primarily due to blunted dopamine release from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and its projections to limbic structures like the nucleus accumbens.^[80] Neuroimaging studies, including functional MRI, have consistently shown hypoactivation in the VTA-striatal pathway during reward anticipation and consumption tasks in individuals with MDD, correlating with anhedonia severity and overall depressive symptoms. This dopaminergic hypofunction contributes to impaired reinforcement learning, where patients exhibit slower acquisition of reward-associated behaviors compared to healthy controls. In bipolar disorder, reward system alterations display state-dependent patterns, contrasting the more uniform hypoactivity seen in unipolar MDD. During manic or hypomanic phases, individuals often exhibit reward hypersensitivity, characterized by exaggerated dopamine signaling in the VTA-nucleus accumbens pathway, which drives heightened motivation, risk-taking, and goal-directed activity.^[81] This hypersensitivity aligns with the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) dysregulation model, where over-responsivity to reward cues precipitates manic episodes.^[82] Conversely, during depressive episodes in bipolar disorder, reward processing mirrors MDD with VTA hypoactivity and reduced striatal responses to positive stimuli, leading to anhedonia and motivational deficits that exacerbate mood lows.^[83] These bipolar-specific dynamics highlight the reward system's role in mood polarity, with dopamine fluctuations underpinning the disorder's cyclical nature. Anxiety disorders involve an imbalance where the anti-reward system dominates, suppressing positive reward signals and amplifying aversive learning. Structures such as the lateral habenula and extended amygdala activate in response to negative outcomes, inhibiting VTA dopamine neurons and promoting avoidance behaviors over reward-seeking.^[54] This leads to enhanced conditioning to aversive stimuli, as seen in generalized anxiety disorder, where patients show heightened sensitivity to punishment cues and reduced differentiation between rewards and threats in reinforcement tasks.^[84] Consequently, the overpowering anti-reward mechanisms contribute to persistent worry and behavioral inhibition, with neuroimaging revealing reduced ventral striatal activation during mixed reward-aversion paradigms.^[85] Longitudinal neuroimaging studies from 2021 to 2025 using positron emission tomography (PET) have provided evidence that reward blunting serves as a biomarker for relapse risk in mood disorders.

Neurodevelopmental disorders

In attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dysregulation of the dopamine transporter contributes to reduced dopaminergic activity in brain reward centers, leading to a reward deficiency syndrome that manifests as intolerance to delayed rewards.^[86] This altered sensitivity to reward timing impairs sustained attention and motivation, as children with ADHD exhibit abnormal responses to delayed reinforcement compared to neurotypical peers, linked to disruptions in dopamine signaling dynamics.^[87] Stimulant medications, such as methylphenidate and amphetamines, address this by inhibiting dopamine reuptake and enhancing release in reward pathways, thereby improving behavioral symptoms and reward processing efficiency in affected individuals.^[88] In autism spectrum disorder (ASD), reward system alterations particularly affect social processing, with diminished activation in circuits connecting the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) to the nucleus accumbens (NAc), resulting in impaired valuation of social stimuli like faces or voices.^[89] The TPJ, a key node in social cognition, fails to integrate social cues with NAc-mediated reward signals, leading to reduced motivational drive for interpersonal interactions and contributing to core social deficits.^[90] Functional imaging studies confirm hypoactivation in these pathways during social reward tasks, distinguishing ASD from other conditions by its specificity to human-related rewards rather than general anhedonia.^[91] Although schizophrenia is typically adult-onset, early neurodevelopmental disruptions in reward prediction error (RPE) signaling serve as risk factors, with aberrant midbrain dopamine responses to unexpected rewards evident in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis.^[92] These early RPE abnormalities, detectable in adolescence, reflect immature wiring in meso-cortico-striatal circuits that heighten vulnerability to later psychotic symptoms by misassigning salience to neutral stimuli.^[93] Prenatal and perinatal factors exacerbating these prediction errors during critical developmental windows further link them to schizophrenia's neurodevelopmental origins.^[94] Recent genetic research, including 2025 studies, has identified variants in reward-related genes like DRD4 as shared risk factors across ADHD, ASD, and schizophrenia, influencing dopamine receptor function and early brain reward circuitry development.^[95] For instance, the DRD4 7-repeat allele correlates with heightened susceptibility to autistic traits in ADHD populations and broader neuropsychiatric overlaps, underscoring polygenic influences on reward hypersensitivity or deficiency.^[96] These findings highlight how common genetic variants disrupt reward gene expression during neurodevelopment, increasing disorder comorbidity.^[97]

Historical development

Early discoveries

The foundational behavioral investigations into the brain's reward mechanisms began in the mid-20th century with experiments demonstrating that direct electrical stimulation of specific brain regions could serve as a powerful reinforcer for voluntary actions. In 1954, psychologists James Olds and Peter Milner at McGill University implanted electrodes in the brains of rats and observed that animals with placements in the septal area would repeatedly press a lever to self-administer brief pulses of electrical stimulation, often thousands of times per hour, forgoing food, water, or rest.^[12] This serendipitous finding, initially encountered during studies of avoidance learning, revealed discrete "pleasure centers" where stimulation elicited approach behaviors and reinforced learning, contrasting sharply with non-rewarding or aversive sites elsewhere in the brain. Subsequent mapping experiments confirmed that self-stimulation thresholds were lowest in the septal region, establishing it as a core substrate for positive reinforcement and laying the groundwork for understanding intrinsic reward pathways. Building on these behavioral observations, early anatomical studies in the 1950s and 1960s delineated the neural structures involved in reward processing, focusing on subcortical regions prior to the identification of dopamine's central role. Olds extended his work to systematically explore the hypothalamus, finding that electrical stimulation of its lateral portions not only sustained self-stimulation but also elicited consummatory behaviors such as eating and drinking, suggesting an integration of drive and reinforcement functions. The septal area and hypothalamus emerged as key nodes, with lesions in these regions disrupting reward-seeking without broadly impairing motor function, as shown in maze-learning tasks where animals failed to pursue rewarded goals. These pre-dopamine-era findings highlighted the hypothalamus's role in mediating the motivational salience of rewards, influencing later conceptualizations of distributed reward circuits. Pharmacological probes in the 1960s further illuminated the neurochemical underpinnings of reward by linking catecholamines, particularly norepinephrine, to motivational enhancement. Researchers demonstrated that amphetamines, which increase catecholamine release, potently facilitated intracranial self-stimulation rates in rats, with effects most pronounced at low doses that selectively boosted hypothalamic and septal responding.^[98] Studies by Larry Stein and others showed that amphetamine's rewarding properties mimicked electrical stimulation, suggesting catecholaminergic systems as excitatory modulators of the brain's reinforcement circuitry, independent of peripheral arousal. This work shifted attention from purely electrical to biochemical mechanisms, establishing amphetamines as tools to dissect motivation and foreshadowing the involvement of monoamines in reward processing. In the late 1960s and 1970s, pivotal research identified dopamine as the primary neurotransmitter mediating reward. Early pharmacological evidence showed that dopamine agonists enhanced self-stimulation while antagonists reduced it, challenging the initial emphasis on norepinephrine. Key lesion studies using 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to selectively deplete dopamine neurons, such as those by Ulf Ungerstedt in 1971, demonstrated that damage to mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways abolished intracranial self-stimulation and impaired reward-seeking behaviors, without equivalent effects from noradrenergic depletion.^[99] This established the mesolimbic dopamine system—originating in the ventral tegmental area and projecting to the nucleus accumbens—as the core neural substrate for reinforcement, integrating prior behavioral findings into a neurochemical framework. A pivotal milestone in the 1970s came with the discovery of endorphins, endogenous opioid peptides that provided a biochemical basis for natural reward and analgesia. In 1975, John Hughes and Hans Kosterlitz isolated enkephalins from porcine brain tissue, identifying them as pentapeptides that bound opiate receptors and produced morphine-like effects in behavioral assays, including antinociception and reward facilitation. Concurrently, Choh Hao Li's group purified beta-endorphin from pituitary extracts, revealing its potent activity in modulating pain and pleasure responses, as evidenced by its ability to substitute for exogenous opioids in self-administration paradigms. These findings integrated opioid signaling into the reward system, explaining phenomena like the euphoric effects of stress or exercise and expanding the framework beyond catecholamines to include peptidergic mechanisms.

Key theoretical advancements

In the 1990s, a pivotal advancement came from Wolfram Schultz's work, which proposed that dopamine neurons function as a "teaching signal" by encoding reward prediction errors—the difference between expected and actual rewards—to guide learning and adaptation.^[100] This theory, rooted in temporal difference learning principles, demonstrated that phasic dopamine bursts occur at unexpected rewards, while dips signal negative prediction errors, thereby updating value representations in downstream circuits like the striatum.^[100] Empirical evidence from primate recordings showed dopamine responses shifting from reward delivery to predictive cues over learning trials, establishing this as a core mechanism for associative reinforcement beyond mere hedonic signaling.^[100] Building on this, Kent Berridge and colleagues introduced the wanting/liking framework in the mid-1990s, dissociating incentive motivation ("wanting") from sensory pleasure ("liking") in reward processing.^[101] Dopamine was implicated primarily in "wanting," driving pursuit of rewards through attribution of incentive salience, while opioids mediated "liking" via hedonic hotspots in the nucleus accumbens.^[101] This dissociation was supported by lesion and pharmacological studies showing that dopamine depletion impairs motivation without abolishing pleasure reactions, such as affective facial expressions in rodents, thus refining the understanding of reward as multifaceted rather than unitary.^[101] Computational models further advanced the field by integrating these neurobiological insights with reinforcement learning algorithms, notably Q-learning, to simulate reward circuit dynamics.^[102] In Q-learning, agents update action-value functions based on prediction errors, mirroring dopamine's role in basal ganglia loops to optimize decision-making under uncertainty.^[102] Neuroscience applications, from the 2000s onward, fitted these models to electrophysiological data, revealing how ventral tegmental area dopamine modulates striatal learning rates; recent 2020s integrations with deep reinforcement learning have extended this to hierarchical and model-based control, enhancing predictions of complex behaviors like habit formation.^[102] From 2022 to 2025, theoretical emphases have shifted toward multi-modal rewards, incorporating social and cognitive dimensions beyond primary reinforcers, with optogenetics providing causal evidence for circuit-specific integrations.^[103] Studies using optogenetic manipulation in rodents have shown that dopamine projections to the prefrontal cortex encode social rewards, such as affiliation, by modulating incentive salience in a manner distinct from food-based signals, supporting hybrid models of valuation.^[103] Similarly, ventral hippocampal inputs integrate cognitive context with reward history via optogenetic tagging, enabling flexible adaptation to multi-modal contingencies like effortful social interactions.^[104] These advances underscore a broader, distributed reward architecture, informed by precise neural control techniques.^[105]

Comparative and evolutionary perspectives

In non-human animals

In non-human animals, the reward system has been extensively studied using model organisms to elucidate conserved neural mechanisms underlying motivation and learning. Rodent models, particularly rats, have been pivotal through intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) paradigms, where animals voluntarily press levers to electrically stimulate brain regions like the medial forebrain bundle, demonstrating robust reward-seeking behavior driven by dopaminergic pathways.^[106] This technique, pioneered in the mid-20th century, reveals how activation of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) sustains operant responding, providing insights into the circuitry's role in reinforcement without external incentives.^[107] In primates, such as rhesus monkeys, social reward studies highlight dopamine's involvement in processing interpersonal interactions; for instance, dopamine neurons in the VTA encode the value of social cues like gaze or grooming, modulating responses in the striatum during cooperative tasks.^[108] These findings underscore parallels to human social bonding, with phasic dopamine release signaling unexpected social rewards to reinforce affiliative behaviors.^[109] Behavioral parallels across species illustrate the conservation of dopamine-mediated reward processing, from simple foraging to complex cognitive feats. In social insects like ants and bees, dopamine regulates foraging decisions by modulating risk assessment and activity levels; for example, elevated dopamine titers in ant foragers increase trip frequency and exploration of food sources, adapting colony-wide resource acquisition to environmental demands.^[110] This mirrors dopaminergic influences in vertebrates, where dopamine facilitates motivated search behaviors. In corvids, such as American crows, tool use for obtaining rewards involves activation of neural circuits, including the ventral tegmental area (a key reward-related region), in proficient individuals, analogous to mammalian reward centers.^[111] These examples demonstrate dopamine's conserved function in value-based decision-making, scaling from invertebrate appetitive drives to avian problem-solving.^[112] Post-2010 advancements in experimental techniques, particularly optogenetics, have enabled causal dissection of reward circuits in rodents like mice. By expressing light-sensitive channelrhodopsins in VTA dopamine neurons, researchers can precisely activate or inhibit projections to the NAc, revealing how phasic stimulation drives real-time reward seeking, such as increased sucrose consumption or conditioned place preference.^[113] These manipulations confirm that dopamine release in the NAc shell causally reinforces behaviors, while inhibition disrupts motivation, highlighting circuit-specific contributions to reinforcement learning.^[114] Optogenetics has further clarified interactions between the VTA and downstream targets, showing how balanced excitation and inhibition fine-tune reward valuation in freely moving animals.^[115] Species variations in reward system anatomy and function are evident when comparing avian and mammalian models, reflecting divergent evolutionary paths yet functional convergence. In mammals, the basal ganglia, including the striatum, serve as primary reward hubs with dense dopaminergic innervation from the VTA, whereas in birds, the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) functions as a striatal analog, processing reward predictions through similar dopamine-modulated loops.^[116] Avian reward centers exhibit higher neuron density and more compact circuitry compared to mammalian counterparts, enabling efficient integration of sensory and motivational signals in smaller brains. Recent comparative genomics, including single-cell multiome analyses, has identified conserved enhancer codes in pallial regions across birds and mammals, suggesting shared regulatory mechanisms despite structural differences.^[117] These insights point to parallel evolution of reward processing, with brief implications for broader adaptive strategies in diverse taxa.

Evolutionary origins

The reward system, particularly its dopaminergic components, traces its origins to the emergence of early free-moving animals in the oceans approximately 540 million years ago during the Cambrian period, where it facilitated essential survival behaviors such as foraging for food, securing territory, and reproduction to enhance fitness in resource-scarce environments.^[118] In early vertebrates, like lampreys diverging over 500 million years ago, these circuits evolved to integrate sensory cues with motivational drive, promoting energy-efficient actions by balancing exploration for potential rewards against conservation of limited caloric resources.^[119] Dopaminergic signaling played a pivotal role in this adaptation, modulating arousal and movement to favor exploitation of reliable food sources while minimizing unnecessary energy expenditure in unpredictable ancestral habitats.^[120] Across phyla, the core machinery of the reward system exhibits remarkable genetic conservation, with dopamine pathways showing homology from invertebrates like Caenorhabditis elegans to vertebrates, underscoring a shared evolutionary blueprint for reward-seeking and learning.^[121] In C. elegans, eight dopaminergic neurons regulate behaviors akin to reward prediction and aversion, mirroring the mesolimbic dopamine system's functions in higher animals and highlighting how these ancient pathways enabled adaptive responses to environmental stimuli long before the diversification of vertebrate brains.^[121] This homology suggests that the reward system's foundational role in motivating survival-oriented actions predates the vertebrate lineage, evolving incrementally to support increasingly complex decision-making as nervous systems grew more sophisticated. In humans, the reward system underwent significant expansion, particularly in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which enlarged dramatically in parallel with other association areas during hominin evolution, enabling processing of abstract rewards beyond immediate survival needs.^[122] This granular PFC development, unique among primates, facilitated higher-order cognition such as delayed gratification and social cooperation, integrating reward signals with long-term planning to underpin cultural evolution and cumulative knowledge transmission.^[123] Such adaptations allowed human ancestors to value symbolic or deferred rewards, like tool-making or alliance-building, which amplified group-level fitness in social environments. Contemporary maladaptations in the reward system, including addiction vulnerability, are explained by the evolutionary mismatch hypothesis, where mechanisms honed for scarce ancestral resources are hijacked by abundant modern cues like calorie-dense foods and psychoactive substances.^[124] In calorie-rich environments, hyperstimulation of dopaminergic pathways overrides self-regulation, leading to compulsive behaviors that were adaptive for survival in famine-prone settings but detrimental today.^[124]

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The dopamine hypothesis for ADHD: An evaluation of evidence ...
Altered DA functions during neurogenesis have been linked to several neuropsychiatric/neurodevelopmental disorders including autism, schizophrenia and ADHD (45) ...
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Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal ...
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Behavioral experiments suggest that learning is driven by changes in the expectations about future salient events such as rewards and punishments.
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Here we briefly highlight findings on three dissociable psychological components of reward: 'liking' (hedonic impact), 'wanting' (incentive salience), and ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
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Optogenetic and chemogenetic approaches reveal differences in ...
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Ingestive Classics James Olds and Pleasure in the Brain
Sixty years ago James Olds and Peter Milner brought pleasure into the brain with a paper entitled “Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of ...
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Brain Stimulation Reward Supports More Consistent and Accurate ...
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Reward and value coding by dopamine neurons in non-human ...
Their phasic responses are tuned to rewards. Specifically, dopamine signals code reward prediction error, the difference between received and predicted rewards.
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Dec 8, 2020 · These studies reveal that the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and dopamine-related subcortical regions play a central role in relative ...
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The Role of Dopamine in the Collective Regulation of Foraging in ...
Oct 26, 2018 · Foragers with increased brain dopamine titer made significantly more foraging trips than control-treated nestmates, and foragers treated with a ...
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American crows that excel at tool use activate neural circuits distinct ...
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Apr 17, 2025 · This review explores how DA influences risk-related behavioral choices, with a focus on its role in foraging decision-making in social insects.
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Optogenetic Interrogation of Dopaminergic Modulation of the ...
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Molecular and Circuit-Dynamical Identification of Top-Down Neural ...
Aug 24, 2017 · After mice retrieved 50 rewards for at least 3 consecutive days ... For lever pressing optogenetics experiments, post hoc power ...
[117]
Avian pallial circuits and cognition: A comparison to mammals
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Enhancer-driven cell type comparison reveals similarities ... - Science
Feb 14, 2025 · Enhancer codes of nonneuronal cell types are highly conserved between birds and mammals. After finding similarities between avian and mammalian ...Missing: reward | Show results with:reward
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Circuits regulating pleasure and happiness: the evolution of reward ...
The very first free-moving animals in the oceans over 540 million years ago must have been able to obtain food, territory and shelter, as well as reproduce.Missing: energy | Show results with:energy
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The Dopaminergic Control of Movement-Evolutionary Considerations
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Putting desire on a budget: dopamine and energy expenditure ...
Jul 20, 2012 · Increased dopamine promotes energy expenditure and exploration while decreased dopamine favors energy conservation and exploitation.
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The dopaminergic system of Caenorhabditis elegans - PMC
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Evolution of prefrontal cortex - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
A major expansion of the granular PFC occurred in humans in concert with other association areas, with modifications of corticocortical connectivity and gene ...
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Evolutionary neuroscience of cumulative culture - PNAS
Jul 24, 2017 · We develop a more particularistic and mechanistic evolutionary neuroscience approach to cumulative culture, taking into account experimental, developmental, ...
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Evolutionary perspectives on substance and behavioural addictions
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