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Mainamati

Mainamati is a prominent archaeological site comprising a series of low hills and ridges in the Comilla District of southeastern Bangladesh, serving as a major center of Mahayana Buddhism from the 6th to the 13th centuries CE.^[1]^[2] Located about 8 km west of Comilla town, the site extends approximately 17 km north-south and up to 4.5 km east-west, with elevations reaching 45 meters, and is situated near the Gomati and Meghna Rivers in the Brahmaputra-Meghna delta floodplain.^[1]^[2] It was part of the ancient Samatata region, a political and cultural hub influenced by dynasties such as the Guptas, Chandras, and Devas, and played a key role in regional trade and the spread of Buddhist practices to Southeast Asia via maritime routes.^[2] The site's historical significance stems from its role as a thriving Buddhist monastic complex, with over 50 identified mounds, of which nine have been extensively excavated since systematic archaeological work began in 1955.^[1] Key structures include the Salban Vihara, a large cruciform monastery built in the 7th century CE by King Shri Bhavadeva of the Deva dynasty, featuring 155 monastic cells arranged around a central courtyard and adorned with terracotta plaques depicting Buddhist motifs.^[1]^[2] Nearby, the Ananda Vihara, constructed around the late 7th or early 8th century CE by Shri Anandadeva, represents another major vihara with similar architectural elements, while the Kutila Mura features unique tri-ratna stupas and terraced shrines from the 7th to 13th centuries CE.^[1]^[2] Archaeological discoveries at Mainamati have yielded a wealth of artifacts, including over 400 gold and silver coins from various periods, 12 copperplate inscriptions detailing royal grants and monastic endowments, bronze and stone sculptures of Buddhist deities, and thousands of terracotta plaques illustrating Jataka tales and daily life.^[1]^[2] Notable finds also encompass Gupta-era coins, an Abbasid gold dinar from the 13th century, and seals linked to the Chandra rulers, highlighting the site's economic integration with broader Indian Ocean networks.^[1] The Mainamati Museum in Comilla houses many of these treasures, preserving the cultural heritage of this ancient Buddhist stronghold, which is currently on UNESCO's Tentative List for World Heritage status due to its architectural innovation and historical influence.^[2]

Location and Geography

Site Overview

Mainamati is an archaeological site located in Comilla District, within the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh, extending across the Lalmai-Mainamati hill range.^[1] This range forms an isolated low ridge in the eastern margins of the deltaic Bengal plains, spanning approximately 17 kilometers in length and averaging 2-3 kilometers in width, up to 4.5 kilometers at its broadest point.^[2]^[1] The site's average elevation rises about 10–15 meters above the surrounding flat terrain, with some peaks reaching up to 45 meters, providing a distinctive topographic feature in the otherwise level landscape. Situated roughly 8 kilometers west of Comilla city and adjacent to the Mainamati Cantonment, the site is easily accessible by road.^[1] Visitors can reach it from Dhaka, approximately 100 kilometers away, via National Highway 1, with the journey taking about 2–3 hours by car, bus, or taxi.^[3] From Comilla, local options such as buses, auto-rickshaws, or CNG vehicles provide convenient transport to the site.^[4] Mainamati represents a key connection to ancient Buddhist centers in Bengal, highlighting its historical significance as a hub of religious and cultural activity.^[1]

Lalmai-Mainamati Hills

The Lalmai-Mainamati Hills constitute a low-relief, north-south trending ridge in Comilla District, Bangladesh, extending approximately 17 kilometers in length and averaging 2-3 kilometers in width, with southern sections broadening to up to 4.5 kilometers. This isolated hill spur, situated about 8 kilometers west of Comilla town, features undulating topography with broad valleys, hillocks, and an average elevation of 10-15 meters, though some peaks attain heights of up to 45 meters. Geologically, the range forms part of the western margin of the Chittagong-Tripura Fold Belt, comprising a low-amplitude anticline structured from Plio-Pleistocene Dupi Tila Formation sandstones overlain by Pleistocene Madhupur Clay, which imparts a characteristic reddish mottled capping and reflects deposition in ancient fluvial and deltaic environments.^[5]^[6] Vegetation across the Lalmai-Mainamati Hills is dominated by scrub jungles and deciduous woodlands, with grasslands occurring on slopes and in inter-hill valleys, adapted to the region's acidic, low-nutrient Madhupur clay soils interspersed with alluvial deposits. Once densely forested, the hills now support a mosaic of scrub vegetation, fallow lands, and scattered homestead gardens, reflecting historical deforestation and agricultural pressures. At the base, seasonal water bodies such as monsoon-fed ponds and shallow wetlands emerge, enhancing local biodiversity during the wet season but drying out in the arid periods.^[5] The hydrological regime is shaped by the adjacent Gomti River to the east and Dakatia River to the west, which follow a dendritic drainage pattern and deposit fertile alluvium, historically supporting settlement through reliable water access and flood-recession agriculture. These rivers, active during heavy monsoonal rains, have influenced the area's habitability by moderating local climate and soil fertility. Geologically, the hills demonstrate relative stability as a faulted anticline, with erosion primarily affecting the surrounding Chandina Formation deltaic plains through fluvial downcutting and sediment redistribution, thereby preserving the elevated ridge from extensive degradation over Pleistocene to Recent times. This configuration provided a strategically elevated and defensible locale for ancient monastic establishments.^[5]^[2]^[6]

Historical Context

Early Settlement

The Lalmai-Mainamati region exhibits evidence of early human activity through the discovery of Paleolithic and Neolithic tools in the surrounding areas, including upper Paleolithic handaxes made from stone and fossil wood, as well as polished Neolithic implements.^[7]^[8] These artifacts, unearthed during explorations such as the 1989 survey by Jahangirnagar University researchers that recovered 234 prehistoric tools, indicate human presence dating back to the Late Pleistocene period.^[8]^[9] The area formed part of the ancient Samatata kingdom, a territorial unit in southeastern Bengal active from the 4th century CE, as referenced in the Gupta emperor Samudragupta's Allahabad pillar inscription around the same period.^[2] Samatata maintained influential trade connections with Southeast Asia, facilitated by maritime ports like Samandar (near modern Chittagong) that linked to regions in present-day Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam, supporting exchanges of goods such as coins, cowries, and cultural influences.^[2]^[10]^[11] Mainamati's elevated hill position, bridging the expansive Bengal plains and adjacent hilly terrains, positioned it as a strategic hub along ancient trade routes, enhancing its role in regional commerce and settlement before the 7th century.^[2] Archaeological findings include early pottery shards dated to the 5th–6th centuries CE, which suggest the existence of foundational settlements potentially featuring Hindu or pre-Buddhist shrines.^[12] This early activity laid the groundwork for the subsequent flourishing of Buddhist establishments in the region.

Buddhist Flourishing (7th–12th Centuries)

The Buddhist tradition in Mainamati reached its zenith between the 7th and 12th centuries, primarily under the patronage of the Deva and Chandra dynasties, which ruled the Samatata region of southeastern Bengal. The Deva dynasty, active from the late 7th to 8th centuries, saw kings such as Bhava Deva (also known as Bhavadeva or Shri Bhavadeva), a devout Mahayana Buddhist described in inscriptions as paramasaugata (supreme Buddhist), actively supporting monastic institutions through land grants. For instance, Bhava Deva donated 7.5 patakas of land to viharas like Ratna-traya and Vegdamatl-vihara, fostering the growth of Mahayana practices that emphasized philosophical depth and bodhisattva ideals.^[13]^[2]^[14] This era marked the initial consolidation of Mainamati as a hub for Buddhist scholarship and devotion, with royal endorsements ensuring the sustainability of monastic communities. Succeeding the Devas, the Chandra dynasty from the 10th to 12th centuries further elevated Buddhism's status, with rulers like Śrīcandra, Ladahacandra, and Govindachandra continuing the tradition of patronage while balancing support for Hinduism. These kings, also identified as paramasaugata in copperplate inscriptions, issued grants to both Buddhist viharas and Brahmin establishments, such as lands in the Mainamati area that bolstered monastic economies through agricultural revenues.^[13] Under their rule, Mainamati emerged as a preeminent center for tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, where esoteric rituals, mandalas, and deity yogas were practiced alongside Mahayana doctrines, as evidenced by the proliferation of over 50 viharas and stupas across the Lalmai-Mainamati hills.^[2]^[15] This development reflected a societal context in which Buddhism integrated with local kingship, serving as a unifying cultural force amid regional trade and political alliances. Monastic life in Mainamati during this period was structured around communal living and intellectual pursuits, with monks residing in dedicated cells within viharas and engaging in rigorous study of Sanskrit and Pali texts. Education encompassed Mahayana sutras, tantric treatises on logic, grammar, and meditation, preparing scholars for roles as teachers and ritual specialists who propagated Vajrayana initiations.^[13] Economic support derived largely from royal grants of villages and tax-free lands, enabling self-sufficient communities that included assembly halls for debates and rituals, while monks contributed to societal welfare through almsgiving and manuscript copying. These institutions, such as Shalban Vihara built under Bhava Deva, exemplified the era's monastic vibrancy.^[2] Mainamati's Buddhist centers maintained vital interactions with neighboring regions, facilitating the exchange of ideas and artistic influences. Pilgrims and scholars traveled to Arakan via overland routes, sharing tantric practices that shaped shared sculptural motifs in bronze and stone, while maritime links connected the area to Sri Lanka, where Chinese traveler Yijing noted Bengali monks studying en route to Harikela (near Mainamati).^[13] These connections extended Vajrayana elements to Southeast Asia, influencing temple art in Myanmar and Thailand through stylistic borrowings in iconography and ritual architecture.^[2]

Archaeological Excavations

Initial Discoveries

The first known archaeological relic from Mainamati, a copperplate inscription of Ranavankamalla Harikaladeva dated 1220 CE, was discovered in 1803 during earth digging for highway repair through the hills.^[1] The archaeological significance of the site's ruins was recognized in 1875 during the reconstruction of an axial road through the Lalmai-Mainamati hills by British colonial authorities, when workers uncovered structures initially mistaken for a small brick fort but later identified as remnants of a Buddhist monastery and stupas.^[16] This discovery highlighted the presence of ancient structures amid the hills, prompting initial notes in colonial records about the site's potential historical value, though no systematic exploration followed at the time.^[17] Local folklore has long attributed the name "Mainamati" to a legendary Chandra dynasty queen of the same name, mother of King Govindachandra, who is celebrated in 17th- and 18th-century Bengali ballads and folk songs as a patron of Buddhism; this folk etymology underscores the site's enduring cultural resonance in regional traditions.^[18] These legends, passed down orally, linked the hills to royal and religious narratives, influencing local perceptions of the ruins as sacred even before formal archaeological attention. The site was rediscovered during World War II when military authorities constructed a cantonment over part of it, leading to a hurried survey that recognized and protected 18 sites by the government.^[1] In the early 20th century, particularly during the 1920s, informal digging by locals for bricks and building materials at various mounds led to the incidental uncovering of terracotta plaques depicting Buddhist motifs, which began to draw amateur interest and highlighted the site's untapped archaeological layers.^[16] These activities, while destructive to some structures, provided early glimpses of the site's artistic heritage and spurred calls for protection. This paved the way for more structured investigations after Bangladesh's independence, including systematic excavations in the mid-20th century.

Major Excavation Phases

Following Bangladesh's independence in 1971, the Department of Archaeology, Government of Bangladesh, continued and expanded systematic excavations at Mainamati that had begun under the Department of Archaeology of Pakistan in the mid-20th century.^[1]^[16] The initial major phase commenced in January 1955 at Salban Vihara, led by archaeologist F.A. Khan, focusing on the Salban Raja Palace Mound and revealing foundational structures of the Buddhist monastery complex.^[19]^[20] This effort identified over 50 archaeological sites across the Lalmai-Mainamati hills through surveys conducted between 1955 and 1957.^[17] Subsequent campaigns from 1962 to 1965 intensified work at Salban Vihara, uncovering the central courtyard and surrounding monastic cells through targeted digs that exposed brick-built terraces and peripheral walls.^[1]^[21] These excavations employed stratigraphic analysis to delineate construction layers, confirming occupational phases spanning the 7th to 12th centuries CE based on associated pottery, coins, and inscriptions.^[17] In the late 1970s, efforts shifted to peripheral sites, with significant digs at Ananda Vihara from 1979 to 1982 revealing additional vihara layouts and ancillary structures.^[1] The 1980s and 1990s emphasized conservation-oriented excavations, such as the 1984 campaign at Rupban Mura, which documented a cruciform temple and surrounding defenses using careful stratigraphic profiling to preserve in situ remains.^[22]^[23] A follow-up dig at Halud Vihara in 1993 further applied these methods to stabilize exposed features.^[22] Artifacts from these phases, including terracotta plaques and bronze images, were systematically cataloged for the onsite museum.^[19]

Buddhist Monuments

Shalban Vihara

Shalban Vihara stands as the central and most prominent Buddhist monastery in the Mainamati complex, constructed in the late 7th to early 8th century CE by Sri Bhavadeva, the fourth ruler of the Early Deva dynasty of Devaparvata.^[24]^[2] Originally known as Sri Bhavadeva Mahavihara, it served as a major residential center for Buddhist monks, reflecting the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism in the Samatata region during this period.^[24] The structure exemplifies the quadrangular vihara architecture typical of eastern India, with its cruciform design integrating monastic living quarters and ritual spaces.^[25] The monastery's layout features a spacious central courtyard enclosed by four wings containing 115 monastic cells, each designed for individual monk occupancy and study.^[2]^[26] At the heart of the courtyard rises a prominent cruciform stupa, 51.8 meters in length, serving as the focal point for worship and meditation, surrounded by ancillary shrines and votive stupas that supported communal rituals.^[24] The overall enclosure measures about 167.6 meters per side, with thick outer walls up to 5 meters wide and a single northern gateway flanked by guardrooms for controlled access.^[24]^[2] Architecturally, Shalban Vihara was built using burnt bricks laid in mud or lime mortar, coated with lime surki plaster on interior surfaces for durability and aesthetics.^[25] Elaborate terracotta plaques, averaging 21.5 cm in height and depicting Buddhist motifs alongside secular scenes, adorned the basement walls and projected cornices, providing both decorative and protective elements against weathering.^[25] An integrated drainage system, facilitated by the overhanging cornices and strategic wall projections, ensured effective water management in the tropical climate.^[25] Seven to eight copper plate inscriptions discovered at the site provide crucial insights into the monastery's administration, recording royal endowments of land and resources to support the monastic community, as well as regulations governing daily monastic life and discipline.^[2]^[24] These epigraphic records, dating from the 8th to 12th centuries, confirm the vihara's continuous use and royal patronage under successive Deva rulers.^[24]

Ananda Vihara and Other Viharas

Ananda Vihara, locally known as Ananda Rajar Bari, stands as the largest Buddhist monastery in the Mainamati complex, constructed around the 8th century CE.^[2] The structure measures approximately 198 meters square and features 115 monastic cells arranged in four wings surrounding a central courtyard.^[2] At its heart is a cruciform central shrine, later modified into a rectangular form, which served as the primary worship area.^[2] The vihara is enclosed by a large moat-like water tank, the largest in the region, enhancing its defensive and ritualistic functions, with a single northern entrance featuring an elaborate facade adorned with mouldings and ornamental bricks.^[17] Excavations have uncovered artifacts such as a life-size bronze image of Avalokitesvara, a copperplate inscription, silver coins, miniature bronze images, and terracotta plaques, indicating its role as a thriving center of Mahayana Buddhism.^[2] Among the secondary viharas, Bhoj Vihara, also referred to as Bhojaraja's Palace, represents a smaller yet significant residential monastery dating to the 8th century CE.^[2] It adopts a square layout with each wing measuring 137.2 meters, enclosing a cruciform central shrine within an open courtyard, accompanied by a large eastern water tank.^[2] The site includes votive stupas, subsidiary shrines, and chapels, with notable finds like bronze images of Amitabha and Aksobhya, as well as a giant bronze Vajrasattva statue, suggesting tantric influences in its later phases.^[2] Its fortified entrance and double pradakshina paths highlight architectural adaptations for monastic seclusion and circumambulation.^[17] Itakhola Mura forms a combined stupa and vihara complex from the 7th to 8th centuries CE, featuring a square monastery with 19 cells and a central hall measuring 16.2 meters per side.^[2] The attached stupa rises on a 13.1-meter square basement across three terraces, with a unique eastern sanctum, and the entire site is accessed via a gateway 15.6 meters by 8.5 meters.^[2] Brick-built like its counterparts, it includes meditation cells and yielded artifacts such as a stucco image of Aksobhya, a copperplate, gold objects, and pottery, reflecting early Buddhist practices.^[2] The orientation aligns with east-west axes common to Mainamati's monastic designs.^[17] Rupban Mura, dating from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, integrates a cruciform temple measuring 28.2 meters by 28 meters with a smaller adjacent monastery of 34.1 meters per wing.^[2] Situated on a hillock, the complex features a square platform base for the temple, boundary walls, and octagonal stupas within a courtyard, evolving from simpler shrine forms to more elaborate tantric elements over time.^[2] Key discoveries include a colossal stone Buddha image, a Mahapratisara sculpture, a 0.5-metric-ton bronze bell, and gold coins, underscoring its ritual importance.^[2] All these viharas share brick construction, courtyard-centric layouts, and integration of votive stupas, marking an architectural progression from Shalban-influenced models to sites with pronounced tantric features in later periods.^[17]

Kutila Mura

Kutila Mura is a distinctive Buddhist monument complex at Mainamati, comprising three terraced stupas arranged in a tri-ratna formation, dating from the 7th to 13th centuries CE.^[2] The upper stupa, the largest, measures about 20.7 meters square at its base and rises in three terraces, while the middle and lower stupas are smaller, with the entire structure built on a hillock using brick and featuring remnants of a circumambulatory path. This unique design symbolizes the Buddhist triratna (Three Jewels) and served as a shrine site, with artifacts including terracotta plaques and structural evidence of later modifications indicating prolonged use.^[1]^[2]

Artifacts and Museum

Key Discoveries

Excavations at Mainamati have uncovered a significant collection of bronze and stone sculptures, primarily depicting Buddhist deities and reflecting the artistic traditions of the 8th to 12th centuries. Among the bronze artifacts, notable examples include standing images of the Buddha in the Abhayamudra gesture, symbolizing fearlessness and protection, dated to the 8th century and exemplifying the refined casting techniques of the period. Stone sculptures feature colossal Buddha figures seated on lotus thrones, often inscribed at the base, while bronze Tara figures, such as the four-handed Shyama Tara, highlight tantric influences with intricate details of adornments and ritual attributes, indicating the site's role in Vajrayana Buddhism.^[1]^[27] Terracotta plaques form another major category of discoveries, with hundreds recovered, many depicting scenes from Jataka tales that illustrate the Buddha's previous lives through narrative vignettes of moral lessons and daily life. These plaques, dated primarily to the 7th–10th centuries, also incorporate floral motifs such as lotuses and scrolling vines, serving both decorative and symbolic purposes in monastic contexts.^[28] Inscriptions provide crucial historical insights, with twelve copper plates and several stone slabs unearthed, mostly in Sanskrit and recording land donations by the Chandra kings, such as Ladahachandra and Govindachandra, to support Buddhist monasteries between the 10th and 11th centuries.^[29]^[30] These epigraphic records, often in the late Brahmi-derived script, detail royal patronage and monastic endowments, with some plates also containing Pali verses invoking Buddhist protection.^[31] Additional finds include a variety of pottery shards and vessels, ranging from utilitarian earthenware to finely crafted pieces indicative of local production and trade, alongside over 400 coins issued by Samatata rulers, including gold and silver issues from the Khadga and Deva dynasties that attest to the region's economic integration. Numerous terracotta and baked clay seals bear impressions of monastic names like Sri-Bhavadeva Mahavihara and titles such as Arya-Bhiksu, evidencing administrative functions within the viharas.^[1]^[16] These artifacts are preserved and displayed in the Mainamati Museum for public study.^[1]

Mainamati Museum

The Mainamati Museum was established in 1965 by the Department of Archaeology, Bangladesh, to preserve and exhibit artifacts from the Lalmai-Mainamati archaeological sites.^[32] Located in Kotbari, Comilla, on the south side of Shalban Vihara and facing west toward the site, the museum serves as a key institution for showcasing the region's Buddhist heritage.^[32] It was expanded in 1970–71 on the southern side and again in 2018–19 on the northern side to accommodate growing collections and visitor needs.^[32] The museum's collection consists of numerous artifacts primarily unearthed from Mainamati-Lalmai excavations, including pottery such as red-coated ware, pale red ware, and gray ware; terracotta plaques; seals; stone and bronze sculptures; copper plates; and coins spanning the 6th to 13th centuries AD.^[32]^[33] Over 150 bronze statues form a significant portion, alongside more than 86 bronze objects, highlighting the site's Buddhist and cultural significance.^[33] These items, including notable bronze sculptures and terracotta plaques discovered at the site, are displayed to illustrate the evolution of local craftsmanship and religious practices.^[34] The galleries are organized in multiple rooms with 42 display showcases, systematically arranging exhibits to trace historical developments from early settlements through the peak of Buddhist activity in the region.^[32] Thematic sections focus on categories like sculptures, inscriptions, and ritual objects, providing visitors with insights into the artistic and epigraphic traditions of ancient Bengal.^[34] While specific facilities such as a dedicated conservation laboratory and a specialized library on Bengal archaeology are not currently detailed in records, the museum supports broader educational efforts through public access to its exhibits and ongoing research into the site's heritage.^[34]

Significance and Preservation

Cultural Importance

Mainamati's archaeological sites stand as a pivotal testament to the synthesis of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in medieval Bengal, exemplifying a fusion that bridged Indian philosophical traditions with Southeast Asian esoteric practices from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. Inscriptions, architectural layouts of viharas like Shalban, and iconographic artifacts reveal a curriculum in monastic education that integrated Mahayana's emphasis on bodhisattva ideals with Vajrayana's tantric rituals, fostering a trans-regional network of spiritual and intellectual exchange. This blend not only enriched Bengal's religious landscape but also facilitated the dissemination of Vajrayana elements to regions like Tibet and Indonesia, positioning Mainamati as a cultural conduit in broader Buddhist history.^[35]^[2]^[10] The sites further illuminate the medieval economy through evidence of monastic trade networks, where viharas served as hubs along hill routes and maritime paths linking Bengal to Southeast Asia, enabling the exchange of textiles and spices alongside religious artifacts. Monks and lay traders utilized these routes—extending from the Lalmai hills via ports like Samatata—to bolster economic vitality, with dual currency systems of metallic coins and cowries supporting commerce in commodities that sustained monastic communities and regional prosperity. This integration of economic activity with spiritual life underscores Mainamati's role in sustaining Bengal's position as a vital node in ancient Asian trade circuits.^[2]^[10] In the realm of art, Mainamati's terracotta plaques exhibit a distinctive style marked by spontaneous, folk-inspired motifs—such as wide-faced figures, animals, and mythological scenes—derived from Gupta influences and local tribal aesthetics, predating and inspiring the more refined decorations at Paharpur's Somapura Mahavihara. Recovered from structures like Shalban Vihara, these 8th-century plaques, often depicting Buddhist deities alongside secular elements like warriors and flora, employed appliqué techniques that emphasized narrative vitality over classical precision, laying the groundwork for later Bengali sculpture's evolution in temple ornamentation during the Pala and Sena periods. This artistic lineage highlights Mainamati's contribution to a uniquely regional aesthetic that persisted in Bengal's religious architecture.^[36]^[37] Mainamati's enduring cultural importance is affirmed by its nomination to UNESCO's Tentative World Heritage List in 2019 as the Lalmai-Mainamati sites, acknowledging the ensemble's exceptional testimony to human interchange, architectural innovation, and Buddhist heritage on a global scale.^[38]

Conservation and Tourism

The Lalmai-Mainamati archaeological sites face significant conservation challenges, primarily from seasonal erosion exacerbated by monsoon rains, which increase moisture levels and accelerate structural degradation of the ancient brick monuments. Plant invasions, including pteridophytes and shrubs, further contribute to physical damage by rooting into the ruins, particularly within structures like the monks' cells at Shalban Vihara. To mitigate these threats, site development proposals for the Mainamati cultural complex include measures to protect excavated remains from unauthorized access and environmental factors.^[39]^[40]^[17] The Government of Bangladesh, through the Department of Archaeology, provides ongoing protection and maintenance for the sites, including efforts toward UNESCO World Heritage listing. Preparatory assistance from UNESCO has supported the revision and reformulation of cultural nominations for Mainamati, aiding in the development of heritage management plans and nomination dossiers to meet international standards. These initiatives emphasize long-term preservation amid urbanization pressures in the region.^[2]^[41] Tourism at Mainamati is facilitated by basic infrastructure, including guided tours that provide historical context for visitors exploring the viharas and stupas, often arranged through local operators from nearby Comilla. As of 2024, entry fees are nominal, approximately 20 BDT for Bangladeshi citizens to access the ruins. The optimal visiting season spans October to March, when cooler, drier weather enhances comfort and reduces erosion risks during exploration.^[42]^[43]^[44] Sustainable practices are integrated into site management to balance visitation with preservation, including community involvement in upkeep and tourism-related activities to foster local economic benefits and awareness. Efforts focus on archaeotourism models that connect heritage with community development, though specific visitor limits remain informal to prevent overcrowding and damage. These approaches aim to ensure the longevity of the sites while promoting responsible tourism.^[45]^[46]

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[28]
(PDF) Terracota Plaques Preserved in the Mainamati Museum; A ...
Aug 8, 2025 · This study is the Socio-Economic and Cultural explanation of these terra-cotta which are preserved in 'Mainamati Museum', Cumilla. ResearchGate ...Missing: Jataka tales
[29]
Inscriptions - Banglapedia
Jun 17, 2021 · Inscriptions on stones, copper-plates, coins, terracotta seals, earthen wares and pedestal of deities, have been discovered from all over Bengal.Missing: Pali | Show results with:Pali
[30]
[PDF] Pakistan Archaeology No.3
B.C.), and a fragmentary potsherd (1st century A.D.). Of the Gupta. (4th to 6th century A.D.) and Pala (8th to 12th cent. A.D.) periods, struc- tural remains ...
[31]
CHANDRAS OF EAST BENGAL - jstor
passage in the copper plates of his son, Śrl-chandra: prādhāro ... in the Mainamati plate of Govinda-chandra, which applies the following verse ...
[32]
[PDF] SAARC Culture, Vol. 10, 2024
exhibit these valuable finds, the Mainamati Museum was established in 1965. It is situated on the south side of Shalban Vihara in Comilla's Kotbari, facing ...
[33]
[PDF] Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures
Jun 24, 2012 · The Mainamati Museum has a rich and varied collection of copper plates, gold and silver coins and 86 bronze objects. Over 150 bronze statues ...
[34]
A Preliminary Study on the Architecture of the Mainamati Museum ...
These investigations uncovered a rich collection of Buddhist artifacts, including inscriptions, coins, sculptures, terracotta plaques, and ritual objects, which ...
[35]
(PDF) Buddhist Education System in Early Medieval Southeast Bengal
Oct 20, 2025 · The findings indicate that Lalmai–Mainamati was a flourishing Buddhist educational hub, influenced by both Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions. ...Missing: synthesis | Show results with:synthesis
[36]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339527677_Terracotta_ornamentation_on_the_Religious-Architectures_of_Bengal_Gradual_Deconstruction_of_Cultural-units_through_the_Expanse_of_Lokayata
[37]
[PDF] Search For Architecture Commonality In Bengal
Terracotta plaques have been in use as is evident from the Buddhist site of Paharpur and Mainamati (Eighth-Twelfth. Century CE) sites. It is established that ...
[38]
[PDF] Tentative Lists submitted by States Parties as of 15 April 2019, in ...
Jun 30, 2019 · The Lalmai-Mainamati Group of monuments. C. Bhutan. Ancient Ruin of Drukgyel Dzong. C. Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary. N. Dzongs: the centre of ...
[39]
The Effects of Plant Invasions on the Ruins of the Ancient Buddhist ...
Plant invasion has been identified as a significant challenge in conserving the Lalmai-Mainamati archaeological sites in Bangladesh. The main objective of ...
[40]
Shahidul Islam - Comilla University - Academia.edu
Seasonal changes, significantly increasing moisture during the rainy season and accumulating in winter, are accelerating the erosion of the archaeological site.
[41]
Revision and reformulation of two cultural nominations
Revision and reformulation of two cultural nominations ; Properties: Mahasthangarh · Mainamati ; Type of Assistance: Cultural / Preparatory ; Previous Id: 1998-107.
[42]
Mainimati Ruins, Comilla - Tripadvisor
Rating 4.3 (44) It is west of Comilla. Locally known as Kotbari. Entrance fee BDT 20 in Mainamoti ruine and BDT 20 for visiting Museum. Car parking charges there which is ...
[43]
Trip to Mainamati Bangladesh - Pathfriend Tour Operator
Mainamati in Comilla is one of the finest archaeological camps in Bangladesh covered by many historical ruins. “War Cemetery” where you can see the ...
[44]
Mainamati Museum, Comilla - Tourist Places in Bangladesh
Situated near the ancient ruins of the Mainamati archaeological site, the museum houses an impressive collection of artifacts from the 7th to the 12th centuries ...<|separator|>
[45]
An Exploratory Research in Mainamati Region, Bangladesh
The main purpose of the study is to find out tourism-based income-generating activities and ensure local involvement and community development by connecting ...
[46]
An Integrated Analysis of Archaeological Assets, Khadi Fabrics, and ...
Oct 17, 2025 · PDF | This paper investigates the potential for sustainable development in the Cumilla region of Bangladesh, driven by its cultural heritage ...