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Scrub

Scrub, also known as shrubland or scrubland, is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs and low woody plants, often forming an intermediate stage between grassland and forest in areas with dry, nutrient-poor, or sandy soils that limit taller tree growth.^[1]^[2] These habitats typically feature hot, dry summers and variable precipitation ranging from 200 to 1,000 mm annually, with plants adapted through small, needle-like leaves, waxy coatings, and fire resistance to survive periodic droughts and disturbances.^[2] Scrub ecosystems occur globally in coastal and inland regions between 30° and 40° latitude, such as the Mediterranean Basin, southwestern Australia, the Cape region of South Africa, central Chile, and parts of the southwestern United States, where they thrive on steep slopes or well-drained ridges.^[2] Common flora includes aromatic shrubs like sage, rosemary, and chamise, as well as drought-tolerant species such as acacia and evergreen oaks, often interspersed with grasses, herbs, and succulents in more arid variants like desert scrub.^[2]^[3] In regions like Florida's Lake Wales Ridge, scrub consists of evergreen shrubs on infertile sandy soils, supporting endemic plants adapted to open, bare sand patches.^[4] Ecologically, scrub provides critical habitat for biodiversity, serving as a source of nectar, fruits, seeds, shelter, and breeding sites for a wide array of species.^[5] It supports invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals; for instance, dense thickets of blackthorn, hawthorn, and bramble host birds like nightingales, bullfinches, and turtle doves, while also offering basking sites for adders and roosting for owls.^[5] In North American contexts, scrub-shrub areas act as nurseries for declining species such as ruffed grouse, woodcock, and blue-winged warblers, providing cover and food amid early successional stages between meadows and mature forests.^[6] These habitats are transitory and require management through coppicing or controlled disturbances to prevent succession into woodland and maintain their value, though they face threats from invasive species, habitat fragmentation, and altered fire regimes.^[5]^[6]

Definition and Characteristics

Overview of Scrub Vegetation

Scrub vegetation refers to a distinct plant community characterized by dense clusters of low-growing shrubs, typically 2 to 6 meters in height, varying by region and species, interspersed with grasses, herbs, and occasional scattered trees. These communities are adapted to challenging conditions, including nutrient-poor, dry, or disturbed soils, where taller vegetation struggles to establish dominance.^[1]^[4]^[7] The term "scrub" derives from the late 14th century as a variant of "shrobbe," stemming from Old English "scrybb," which denoted brushwood or stunted shrubbery. Over time, it evolved to describe transitional or marginal habitats dominated by such low, woody growth, reflecting their role in intermediate ecological zones.^[8] Structurally, scrub exhibits an open canopy that permits light penetration to the understory, fostering a mix of growth forms, while its accumulation of fine fuels renders it highly fire-prone. Many constituent plants display sclerophyllous leaves—thick, leathery, and waxy—or spines, traits that enhance water retention and survival in water-limited settings.^[9]^[10] Scrub, as a form of shrubland, can function as a seral stage bridging grasslands and woodlands through its intermediate density and stature, or as a climax community in environments like Mediterranean climates.^[11]

Key Plant Species and Adaptations

Scrub ecosystems feature a range of dominant shrub genera tailored to nutrient-poor, drought-stressed, and fire-frequent conditions across global regions. In chaparral-like scrubs of California, Quercus (oaks) and Arctostaphylos (manzanita) are prevalent, forming dense stands that define the vegetation structure.^[12] In the fynbos of South Africa's Cape region, Protea species, such as Protea repens, emerge as key components, contributing to the biome's iconic proteoid shrubs.^[13] Australian scrubs, including mallee and kwongan, are often dominated by Acacia species, like Acacia pulchella, which thrive in sandy, low-nutrient soils.^[14] These plants exhibit specialized adaptations to endure water scarcity and periodic fires. Deep root systems, extending several meters into the soil, enable access to subsurface moisture during prolonged dry seasons, as seen in many chaparral shrubs.^[15] Thick, corky bark provides thermal insulation against fire damage, allowing species like Arctostaphylos to resprout from basal burls post-burn.^[12] In drought-prone areas, seasonal deciduousness reduces transpiration, while small, leathery sclerophyllous leaves minimize water loss; additionally, chemical defenses such as tannins and alkaloids deter herbivory in Acacia and Protea.^[16] Scrub patches typically host 20 to 50 shrub species, fostering moderate to high local diversity despite harsh constraints, with elevated endemism in isolated habitats. In Florida scrub, for instance, approximately 40 vascular plant species are endemic, contributing significantly to its high local biodiversity.^[17] Reproduction in scrub plants relies on diverse pollination vectors and fire-cued mechanisms for resilience. Many species depend on wind, insects, or birds for pollination, with Protea attracting nectar-feeding sunbirds; post-fire, persistent soil seed banks germinate en masse, as in serotinous Protea cones or Arctostaphylos burl resprouting, ensuring rapid recolonization after disturbances.^[13]^[18]

Ecological Formation and Processes

Environmental Factors Influencing Formation

Scrub vegetation primarily develops in semi-arid to Mediterranean climates, where annual precipitation typically ranges from 200 to 1,000 mm, often with unpredictable distribution and distinct wet and dry seasons that limit tree establishment.^[2] These conditions are prevalent in regions between 30° and 40° latitude, where summer droughts and winter rains create edaphic stress unsuitable for forest formation, with hot, dry summers frequently exceeding 38°C.^[2] Soil characteristics are pivotal in scrub formation, featuring well-drained, nutrient-deficient substrates such as sandy or rocky materials with low organic content and poor water retention.^[19] These soils often have variable pH levels that restrict nutrient availability and root penetration for larger plants.^[20] Topographic features significantly influence scrub development by enhancing drainage and exposure, typically on slopes, ridges, or plateaus that prevent water accumulation and soil saturation.^[19] Such positions, often aligned with ancient shorelines or karst formations, create microhabitats where wind and erosion amplify aridity.^[19] Disturbance regimes are essential for scrub persistence, as recurrent events like fire, grazing, and erosion suppress succession to woodlands by removing competing biomass and resetting community structure.^[21] Fire, in particular, acts as a key abiotic driver with return intervals varying by region, such as 5-40 years in Florida scrub, promoting shrub regeneration while limiting overstory development.^[19] Grazing and erosion further maintain openness by reducing litter accumulation and soil stability, ensuring the dominance of disturbance-tolerant shrub formations in these dynamic landscapes.^[21] Increasing temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns due to climate change, as reported in assessments up to 2023, may alter scrub formation by intensifying drought stress and potentially expanding shrub dominance in some semi-arid regions while fragmenting others.^[22]

Succession and Dynamics

In scrub ecosystems, primary succession typically initiates on exposed substrates such as bare sand or rock, where pioneer shrubs play a crucial role in stabilizing the environment and facilitating further colonization. For instance, in coastal dune systems, species like sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) establish on shifting sands, binding soil with extensive root systems and enriching it through nitrogen fixation, allowing subsequent shrub communities to develop over decades.^[23] This process transforms unstable, nutrient-poor substrates into more structured habitats, with shrub cover increasing as organic matter accumulates.^[24] Secondary succession in scrublands often follows disturbances like fire, enabling rapid initial recovery through resprouting and seeding mechanisms. In Mediterranean-climate shrublands such as chaparral and sage scrub, woody vegetation shows significant regrowth, with colonizers reaching 7-14% cover by year 5 post-fire, driven by factors including precipitation and fire severity, though full maturity may take 20-30 years.^[25] However, repeated disturbances like overgrazing can disrupt this trajectory, leading to reversion toward grassland dominance as shrub seedlings fail to establish amid intense herbivory and soil compaction.^[26] Scrub communities frequently represent a stable seral stage rather than a terminal climax, particularly in fire-prone systems where periodic burning prevents succession to denser forest formations. In chaparral, for example, the chamise-dominated (Adenostoma fasciculatum) shrub assemblage persists as a subclimax under natural fire regimes, maintaining open structure and high biodiversity by inhibiting tree encroachment.^[27] Without fire, stands may become decadent after 60 years, accumulating dead biomass that alters community composition.^[27] Disturbance cycles, especially fire intervals of 10-50 years, are integral to scrub dynamics, promoting nutrient cycling through ash deposition and sustaining species diversity by favoring fire-adapted shrubs. In coastal sage scrub, historical fire return intervals around 20-40 years support biomass accumulation sufficient for reproduction while preventing excessive fuel buildup that could lead to stand-replacing crown fires.^[28] Ecosystem models indicate that deviations in fire frequency—such as shortened intervals—reduce post-fire biomass recovery by up to 99% for obligate-seeding species, shifting community structure toward herbaceous dominance and lowering overall productivity.^[29] These cycles underscore scrublands' resilience, where balanced disturbances enhance long-term stability.^[30]

Global Distribution and Types

Major Regional Variants

Scrub vegetation exhibits significant regional variation, shaped by distinct climatic zones and biomes across the globe. These variants are broadly categorized into Mediterranean, temperate, and tropical/subtropical types, each adapted to specific environmental pressures such as seasonal drought, fire regimes, and soil nutrient limitations. Collectively, shrublands, including scrub formations, cover approximately 17.6% of the global land surface, spanning roughly 23 million km², and play a critical role in terrestrial ecosystems by stabilizing soils and supporting biodiversity in transitional zones between forests and deserts.^[31] Mediterranean scrub, also known as maquis in the Mediterranean Basin or chaparral in California, thrives in regions with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, typically between 30° and 40° latitude on western continental margins. This variant is distributed across the Mediterranean Basin, southwestern California (United States), west-central Chile, the western Cape Province (South Africa), and southwestern Australia, where sclerophyllous (hard-leaved) evergreen shrubs dominate, often reaching heights of 1-5 meters and featuring adaptations like thick cuticles and small leaves to conserve water during prolonged dry seasons. Aromatic herbs and evergreen oaks, such as Quercus species, are prevalent, contributing to dense, fire-prone thickets that regenerate rapidly post-fire due to resprouting mechanisms.^[9]^[32] Temperate scrub occurs in cooler, more variable climates, particularly in eastern Australia and the fynbos regions of South Africa, where sclerophyllous shrubs with specialized proteoid roots—cluster roots that enhance phosphorus uptake from nutrient-poor, sandy soils—predominate. In South Africa's Cape Floristic Region, fynbos scrub forms a low, evergreen shrubland dominated by proteoid (e.g., Protea family) and ericoid shrubs, covering about 90,000 km² and characterized by high plant diversity, with nearly 9,000 species, over 6,000 of which are endemic, adapted to winter rainfall and frequent fires that promote seed germination. Eastern Australia's temperate scrub, including heathlands and mallee formations, features similar drought-tolerant sclerophyllous shrubs like those in the Proteaceae and Myrtaceae families, occurring in semi-arid to temperate zones with erratic rainfall, where proteoid roots facilitate survival on ancient, leached soils.^[33]^[34]^[35] Tropical and subtropical scrub, exemplified by thorn scrub in semi-arid regions of India and Africa, consists of deciduous thorny shrubs and small trees that shed leaves during extended dry periods to minimize water loss. In India, this variant dominates dry deciduous forests and scrublands in the Deccan Plateau and northwestern regions, with species like Ziziphus mauritiana forming dense thickets on rocky or sandy soils receiving 250-750 mm annual rainfall, often concentrated in monsoons. In Africa, thorn scrub extends across sub-Saharan savanna margins, including areas in South Africa and further north, where Ziziphus mucronata (buffalo thorn) is a key species, featuring hooked thorns for defense and edible fruits, thriving in summer-rainfall zones with seasonal droughts and supporting pastoral economies.^[36]^[37]

Notable Examples

Florida scrub, found on ancient sand dunes along the central ridges of peninsular Florida, is characterized by xeric, well-drained sandy soils supporting a mosaic of evergreen oaks, sand pine (Pinus clausa), and herbaceous species adapted to nutrient-poor conditions.^[38] This ecosystem, which originally covered about 1.2% of the state, of which less than 10% remains (approximately 0.12% of the state) due to extensive habitat loss, hosts high levels of endemism, including over 30 plant species unique to scrub habitats and numerous endemic arthropods.^[39]^[40] Development for urban and agricultural expansion poses a primary threat, fragmenting remnants and endangering species like the Florida scrub-jay.^[41] Australian mallee scrub, prevalent in the semi-arid interiors of southern and western Australia, is dominated by multi-stemmed eucalypt species such as Eucalyptus dumosa and E. socialis, which form dense, low woodlands up to 10 meters tall on sandy or loamy soils.^[42] These plants exhibit remarkable fire adaptations, including lignotubers—swollen underground root structures that store carbohydrates and enable epicormic resprouting after intense bushfires, which are a natural disturbance regime in the region.^[43] The ecosystem supports moderate endemism, with many eucalypt taxa restricted to mallee habitats, though it faces pressures from altered fire regimes and land clearing.^[44] Garigue, a low-growing shrubland typical of Mediterranean Europe on calcareous limestone soils, consists of aromatic herbs, dwarf shrubs like thyme (Thymus spp.) and rockroses (Cistus spp.), and scattered succulents adapted to hot, dry summers and mild winters.^[45] Spanning regions from southern France to Greece, it contributes to the Mediterranean Basin's status as a global biodiversity hotspot, with high levels of plant diversity and endemism across its varied assemblages, many of which are endemic to local limestone outcrops.^[46] Endemism in garigue-like formations can reach significant levels, reflecting isolation on rugged terrains, though habitat degradation from overgrazing and urbanization threatens this diversity.^[47] Fynbos, a fire-prone scrub vegetation in South Africa's Cape Floristic Region, exemplifies extreme endemism in Mediterranean-type ecosystems, with approximately 80% of its 8,500 plant species, including proteas (Proteaceae) and ericas (Ericaceae), found nowhere else.^[48] This nutrient-impoverished, sandy-soil habitat, dominated by fine-leaved shrubs and restioids, relies on periodic fires for regeneration, supporting unparalleled floral diversity in a compact area.^[49]

Associated Fauna and Biodiversity

Animal Communities in Scrublands

Scrublands support a variety of animal communities adapted to the sparse, shrub-dominated vegetation and often arid conditions, with species exhibiting specialized traits for foraging, shelter, and predator avoidance in low-canopy environments. These habitats typically host fewer vertebrate species than forests, but the fauna show high levels of specialization, such as burrowing behaviors or reliance on shrub cover for nesting. For instance, overall vertebrate diversity in scrub ecosystems is lower than in forested areas, reflecting the limited structural complexity, yet individual species achieve notable densities through targeted adaptations. Amphibians, though less abundant due to aridity, occur in moister microhabitats or temporary pools within scrublands; examples include the western spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus hammondii) in California chaparral, which breeds in vernal pools amid shrubs, and the natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita) in European Mediterranean scrub, adapted to sandy soils and nocturnal activity.^[50] Mammals in scrublands are predominantly small herbivores and medium-sized predators that utilize the patchy shrub cover for protection and food sources like seeds, fruits, and insects. Common herbivores include rabbits such as the desert cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii) and brush rabbit (S. bachmani), which forage on grasses and shrubs while using dense thickets to evade predators; kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), adapted with long hind legs for hopping and cheek pouches for seed storage, thrive in sandy or open scrub areas. Predators like the coyote (Canis latrans), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and bobcat (Lynx rufus) patrol these landscapes, relying on keen senses and agility to hunt in fragmented cover; studies in semi-desert shrublands document 10-20 mammal species per site, including rodents, carnivores, and occasional ungulates like mule deer.^[51]^[52] Bird communities emphasize ground-nesters and shrub-foraging insectivores, capitalizing on the open understory and seasonal insect abundance. Species like the California quail (Callipepla californica) and Gambel's quail (C. gambelii) nest on the ground amid shrubs, with cryptic plumage and rapid flushing behaviors for escape; insectivores such as wrentits (Chamaea fasciata) and various sparrows (Melospiza spp.) glean arthropods from foliage, adapted to low perches in dense brush. Chaparral scrublands alone support dozens of bird species, with over 100 recorded in coastal variants, highlighting the habitat's role in avian diversity despite its structural simplicity.^[51]^[52]^[53] Reptiles and invertebrates dominate the understory and soil layers, exploiting the warm, exposed microhabitats of scrublands. Lizards like the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) and Florida scrub lizard (S. woodi) bask on rocks and shrubs, with spiny scales and quick darts for defense, while burrowing species such as the desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) dig into sandy soils to regulate temperature and avoid desiccation. Invertebrates, including ants (Formicidae spp.) and beetles, form the base of many food chains, thriving in the open ground with high densities due to abundant detritus; for example, scrub lizards primarily consume ants and other small arthropods, underscoring the invertebrates' ecological centrality. Overall biomass in scrublands skews toward invertebrates and reptiles, with vertebrate densities lower than in mesic habitats but sustained by specialized niche partitioning.^[51]^[54]^[55]

Ecological Interactions

In scrub ecosystems, pollination networks are predominantly mediated by birds and insects, which facilitate reproduction among shrub species adapted to fragmented habitats. Insects such as bees, butterflies, and hoverflies form complex interaction networks with flowering shrubs, visiting multiple plant species to transfer pollen and enhance genetic diversity within communities. For instance, in scrubland weed floras of the north-western Indian Himalaya, 25 insect species interact with 14 plant taxa, creating generalized networks that buffer against pollinator loss.^[56] Birds, including sunbirds, contribute significantly as pollinators in scrub biomes, particularly in regions with nectar-rich shrubs, where their long bills enable access to specialized flowers. These avian pollinators support shrub persistence by promoting outcrossing in fire-prone environments.^[57] Mutualistic relationships, such as ant-plant protections, further structure ecological interactions by deterring herbivory. In fynbos shrublands of South Africa, ants defend shrubs from insect herbivores in exchange for nectar and shelter, maintaining plant vigor and influencing community composition. This symbiosis enhances shrub survival rates, as ants aggressively patrol foliage, reducing damage that could otherwise limit reproductive output.^[58] Food webs in scrub ecosystems exhibit herbivory cycles where browsing by mammals regulates shrub density and prevents dominance by taller species. In chaparral shrublands, vertebrate herbivores like deer exert selective pressure on young shoots, promoting a mosaic of shrub heights that sustains understory diversity. Top-down control by predators, such as coyotes and birds of prey, stabilizes these cycles by limiting herbivore populations, thereby mitigating overbrowsing and preserving shrub cover. For example, in Mediterranean scrub, predation reduces herbivore abundance, allowing shrubs to recover from grazing pressure and maintain trophic balance. Nutrient cycling in scrub ecosystems relies heavily on decomposers processing fire-charred litter, which releases essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil. Post-fire, microbial decomposers break down charred organic matter, accelerating mineralization despite reduced moisture, and supporting rapid shrub regrowth in nutrient-poor substrates. Mycorrhizal fungi play a critical role by forming symbiotic associations with shrub roots, enhancing water and nutrient uptake in fire-adapted soils. In fire-prone shrublands, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi persist on resprouting roots, facilitating phosphorus acquisition and aiding ecosystem recovery after disturbances.^[59] Keystone species, particularly fire-dependent birds, profoundly influence scrub community structure through seed dispersal. In fynbos shrublands, frugivorous birds disperse seeds of fire-prone plants, enabling colonization of post-fire landscapes and preventing monodominance by serotinous species. Similarly, in California chaparral, species like scrub-jays act as keystone dispersers, caching acorns and promoting oak shrub regeneration, which shapes long-term vegetation patterns and biodiversity.^[60]

Human Interactions and Conservation

Uses and Impacts by Humans

Scrublands have long served traditional human uses, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where local communities rely on them for essential resources. Shrubs and sparse vegetation are harvested for fuelwood, providing a primary energy source in areas with limited tree cover; for instance, in northwest Patagonia, firewood collection from shrublands constitutes a significant portion of household energy needs, with gathering intensity varying by landscape domestication levels. These ecosystems also function as grazing lands for livestock, supporting pastoral economies, though overgrazing can alter plant community structure, as observed in southwestern U.S. shrublands where domestic animals favor certain grasses and forbs. Additionally, many scrub plants hold medicinal value; in East African scrublands, species of Aloe, such as Aloe secundiflora, are traditionally used to treat wounds, digestive issues, and skin conditions due to their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.^[61] In modern times, scrublands face extensive exploitation through conversion to agriculture, which transforms low-productivity shrub habitats into croplands, often on marginal soils. In southern California's chaparral shrublands—a Mediterranean-type scrub ecosystem—agricultural expansion in the early 20th century contributed to landscape conversion, with further losses driven by irrigation and non-native grass introductions.^[62] Mining activities target sandy soils common in arid scrub areas, leading to habitat disturbance and soil erosion; in the U.S. Southwest, 19th-century mining booms in scrublands expanded resource extraction, fragmenting ecosystems and altering drainage patterns. Urbanization exacerbates fragmentation, isolating scrub patches and increasing edge effects; in Florida's xeric scrub habitats, suburban development since the mid-20th century has isolated populations of endemic species like the Florida scrub-jay, reducing habitat connectivity across large areas.^[63] Scrublands offer economic value through limited timber extraction from sparse trees and emerging ecotourism opportunities in preserved regions. Woody species in scrub ecosystems, such as acacias in Australian mulga shrublands, provide small-scale timber for fencing, poles, and local construction, contributing to rural livelihoods despite low yields.^[64] Ecotourism leverages the unique biodiversity and landscapes of intact scrub areas, as seen in Australia's interior shrublands around Uluru, where guided tours highlight endemic flora and cultural heritage, generating revenue while promoting low-impact visitation.^[65] Historical human activities, particularly during the 19th-century colonial era, profoundly impacted scrublands through widespread clearing for agriculture and settlement. In Mediterranean shrublands, such as those in southern Europe, colonial-era expansion reduced vegetation cover through deforestation and conversion to arable land, leading to soil degradation and shifts toward more open grasslands.

Conservation Challenges and Efforts

Scrub ecosystems face significant conservation challenges, primarily from habitat fragmentation driven by urban expansion and agricultural conversion, which isolates plant and animal populations and reduces genetic diversity. In arid and semi-arid regions, such fragmentation has led to biodiversity losses of up to 75% in affected patches, impairing ecosystem functions like nutrient cycling.^[66] Invasive species, such as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), exacerbate these issues by altering fire regimes in North American shrublands; the grass increases fuel continuity and fire frequency, converting native sagebrush-dominated systems to annual grasslands and reducing perennial shrub cover by promoting more intense burns.^[67] Climate change further compounds threats by shifting rainfall patterns, with projections indicating reduced winter precipitation in Mediterranean-type scrubs, leading to decreased plant water availability and altered succession toward more drought-tolerant but less diverse communities.^[68]^[69]^[67]^[70]^[71]^[72] Efforts to protect scrub habitats include the establishment of reserves tailored to regional variants, such as the Disney Wilderness Preserve in Florida, which safeguards over 11,500 acres of scrub habitat critical for endemic species like the Florida scrub-jay.^[73] Internationally, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) supports Mediterranean shrubland conservation through initiatives like the Life ADAPTAMED project, which focuses on ecosystem restoration to buffer against climate impacts across maquis and garrigue landscapes. These protected areas emphasize connectivity to mitigate fragmentation, with IUCN's Mediterranean Plant Specialist Group coordinating assessments and action plans for over 25,000 plant species in the region. The project, completed in 2021, informed ongoing adaptive management as of 2025.^[74]^[40]^[75]^[76] Restoration techniques in scrublands often involve controlled burns to mimic natural fire regimes and control invasives, followed by native replanting to enhance resilience; in sagebrush shrublands, prescribed fires have successfully reduced cheatgrass dominance and promoted native perennial recovery. In Australian mallee systems, combining burns with direct seeding of eucalypt species has achieved survival rates exceeding 70% in revegetation projects, leading to improved habitat structure over 5-10 years. These methods prioritize site-specific adaptations, such as timing burns to avoid sensitive periods, to achieve biodiversity gains of 20-30% in restored versus degraded sites.^[77]^[78]^[79]^[80] Policy frameworks bolster these efforts, notably through biodiversity hotspot designations; the Cape Floristic Region, encompassing fynbos shrublands over 78,555 km², benefits from the Western Cape Biodiversity Spatial Plan, which integrates conservation into land-use planning and supports expansion of protected areas. Such policies facilitate funding and cross-sector collaboration, ensuring scrub ecosystems receive priority in national strategies for invasive control and climate adaptation.^[81]

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[PDF] United States Department of the Interior
The scrub-jay has specific habitat needs. It is endemic to peninsular Florida's ancient dune ecosystems or scrubs, which occur on well-drained to ...
[37]
[PDF] The sand pine scrub ecosystem is rich in endemic species ...
The sand pine scrub ecosystem is rich in endemic species (Christman and Judd 1990), probably due to a unique interplay between harsh edaphic conditions and geo ...
[38]
[PDF] Scrub - Florida Natural Areas Inventory
... Scrub harbors a wealth of species endemic to Florida, many of which are considered rare. Scrubs on the Lake Wales Ridge support 27 rare plant species, 14 of.
[39]
[PDF] Saving the Florida Scrub Ecosystem: Science and Serendipity
The Florida scrub, ranked as the 15th most endangered ecosystem in the nation, with one of the highest densities of rare, endemic species in the world, came ...
[40]
Florida Peninsula Inland Scrub | NatureServe Explorer
Lack of fire is a big threat to Florida scrub ecosystems. Threats also include the loss of habitat to agriculture, commercial and residential development, and ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[41]
[PDF] Comprehensive Regional Assessment
major and minor communities for mallee open-scrub within 17 biogeographic regions across ... Eucalypt scrubs and shrublands are characteristically ...<|separator|>
[42]
[PDF] Mallee plants - Australian National Botanic Gardens
Mallee eucalypts are specially adapted to cope with fire as well as damage ... “The monstrous and dismal look of an extensive scrub is depressing. The ...
[43]
The Feel of a Word: mallee — Sue Butler — Lexicographer at large
This is thought to be an adaptation to fire. The lignotuber is known as the 'mallee root' and presented a huge obstacle to settlers wishing to farm mallee ...
[44]
[PDF] MEDITERRANEAN BASIN BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT - Doğa Derneği
Approximately 30,000 plant species occur, and more than 13,000 species are found nowhere else, or endemic, to the hotspot; yet, many more are being discovered ...Missing: Garigue | Show results with:Garigue
[45]
[PDF] Important Plant Areas of the south and east Mediterranean region
The Mediterranean is an undisputed global biodiversity hotspot solely because of her huge plant diversity. Around 10% of the world's vascular plants (25,000) ...Missing: Garigue | Show results with:Garigue
[46]
Phrygana vegetation on southern Greece | Biodiversity East
Phrygana, the east Mediterranean version of garigue, consists of low, cushion-shaped thorny shrubs, such as the endemic Greek Spiny Spurge Euphorbia ...
[47]
[PDF] Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands - IUCN Portal
around 8,000 to 12,000 with rates of endemism of from 55% to 80%. Rates of endemism are comparable, or higher, in many faunal groups. Thus of 197 resident ...
[48]
[PDF] Cape Floral Region Protected Areas
Jul 7, 2004 · It displays the highest levels of endemism at 31.9 % and it has been identified as one of the world's 18 biodiversity hot spots. A serial site ...
[49]
Scrublands - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National ...
Sep 30, 2025 · Chaparral is a specific type of scrubland that occurs along the California coast. The word chaparral comes from Spain , where it refers to ...
[50]
Beaver Creek Site - Speices by Semi Desert Shrubland Life Zone - Animals
### Animal Species in Semi-Desert Shrublands at Beaver Creek
[51]
[PDF] Enhancing Coastal Scrub and Chaparral Habitat for Birds at Your ...
One type of shrubland, coastal sage scrub, supports over 100 species of plants and animals of rare, threatened, or endangered status. Dozens of bird species.
[52]
WEC 139/UW133: Florida Scrub Lizard (Sceloporus woodi)
Sep 9, 2019 · Their diet consists of insects, spiders, and other small arthropods and even lizards. This species has very limited dispersal capabilities.
[53]
Desert Iguana - Phoenix Zoo
Dipsosaurus dorsalis ; Diet: fruits, buds, leaves, insects, carrion ; Zoo Diet: herp salad, invertebrates ; Habitat: deserts, scrublands ; Length: 10 – 16 in.<|separator|>
[54]
Framework for monitoring shrubland community integrity in ...
Sep 30, 2019 · Human developments convert and fragment remaining habitat leaving patches that may be too small to sustain target species and communities ( ...
[55]
Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems
Mar 20, 2015 · Habitat fragmentation reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75% and impairs key ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and altering nutrient cycles.Missing: shrubland | Show results with:shrubland
[56]
Cheatgrass alters flammability of native perennial grasses in ...
Nov 26, 2024 · The invasive annual grass cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) increases fuel continuity, alters patterns of fire spread, and changes plant communities ...
[57]
A synthesis of the effects of cheatgrass invasion on US Great Basin ...
Sep 26, 2020 · Cheatgrass invasion decreases biodiversity and rangeland productivity and alters fire regimes. Our findings indicate cheatgrass invasion also ...
[58]
[PDF] Climate change in grasslands, shrublands, and deserts of the ...
Climate changes appear to be most favorable for Mohave Desert, Sonoran Desert, and Chihuahuan Desert scrub vegetation types, which are all projected to expand.
[59]
Intra‐annual rainfall regime shifts competitive interactions between ...
Feb 1, 2014 · Intra-annual rainfall regime shifts competitive interactions between coastal sage scrub and invasive grasses. Leah J. Goldstein,.
[60]
Disney Wilderness Preserve | The Nature Conservancy in Florida
It contains 3,500 acres of restored wetlands that act as nature's “sponges,” capturing rain, filtering out nutrients and replenishing our groundwater.
[61]
Supporting Mediterranean ecosystems helps buffer against climate ...
Aug 30, 2017 · IUCN is currently involved in a pioneering endeavor in the region called the Life ADAPTAMED project, which aims to mitigate the negative effects ...
[62]
IUCN SSC Mediterranean Plant Specialist Group
The MPSG, formed in 1995, aims to evaluate plant diversity, implement conservation plans, and promote sustainable conservation, including field projects and ...Missing: shrublands | Show results with:shrublands
[63]
Using Prescribed Fire to Control Invasive Plant Species
Jan 21, 2020 · Prescribed burning can be a very successful strategy when trying to control non-resprouting plants as it often will kill the plant. Resprouting ...
[64]
Practical postfire sagebrush shrub restoration techniques
We investigated management-friendly restoration techniques aimed at increasing sagebrush cover in a sagebrush system important to Gunnison sage-grouse and ...
[65]
[PDF] Evaluating revegetation outcomes through community based ...
These findings are similar to those outlined by Hnatiuk et al. (2020), who reported the survival rates of these species were above 70% in eastern Australia.
[66]
Terrestrial ecosystem restoration increases biodiversity and reduces ...
May 12, 2022 · We found that, relative to unrestored (degraded) sites, restoration actions increased biodiversity by an average of 20%, while decreasing the ...Missing: mallee | Show results with:mallee
[67]
[PDF] 2023 western cape biodiversity spatial plan and guidelines
The 2023 Western Cape Biodiversity Spatial Plan (WC BSP) is a provincial plan that is developed to inform the Provincial. Protected Area Expansion Strategy, the ...