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Makemake

Makemake is a dwarf planet located in the Kuiper Belt, a region of icy bodies beyond Neptune's orbit in the outer Solar System.^[1] Recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union in July 2008, it is the fifth such body officially acknowledged, alongside Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, and Eris.^[2] With a diameter of approximately 1,434 kilometers, Makemake is slightly smaller than Pluto and ranks as the third-largest known dwarf planet, orbiting the Sun at an average distance of 6.85 billion kilometers (45.8 AU).^[1]^[3] Its highly reflective surface, covered primarily in frozen methane with traces of ethane and nitrogen ices, gives it a reddish-brown color due to the presence of tholins—complex organic compounds formed by solar radiation.^[4]^[5] Makemake completes one orbit around the Sun every 305 Earth years and may develop a thin, temporary atmosphere of nitrogen and methane when closest to the Sun at perihelion.^[1]^[3] Discovered on March 31, 2005, by astronomers Michael E. Brown, Chadwick A. Trujillo, and David L. Rabinowitz using the Samuel Oschin Telescope at Palomar Observatory, Makemake was initially designated as 2005 FY₉ and nicknamed "Easterbunny" due to the timing of its observation near Easter.^[1]^[4] It was named after Makemake, the creator god and fertility deity in the mythology of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island (Rapa Nui), reflecting its provisional designation and the cultural significance of the discoverers' location preferences for naming.^[1] The name is pronounced mah-kee-mah-kee in the Rapanui language.^[4] As a classical Kuiper Belt object, Makemake follows a non-resonant orbit, distinguishing it from resonant objects like Pluto, and its low eccentricity (0.16) keeps it relatively stable at distances between 38 and 53 AU from the Sun.^[1] Makemake's sole known satellite, provisionally designated S/2015 (136472) 1 and nicknamed MK 2, was discovered in 2015 using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and announced in April 2016.^[5] The moon is small, with an estimated diameter of about 175 km (110 miles), and orbits Makemake at a semi-major axis of approximately 22,000 km (14,000 miles), taking about 18 days per revolution.^[6] This dark, distant moon contrasts with Makemake's bright surface and suggests the system formed through a giant impact, similar to other Kuiper Belt binaries.^[5] In September 2025, observations with the James Webb Space Telescope revealed the first evidence of gaseous methane surrounding Makemake, indicating a dynamic, sublimating icy surface and possibly a tenuous atmosphere more rarefied than Pluto's.^[7] These findings highlight Makemake's role in understanding the volatile chemistry and geological activity of distant, icy worlds.^[8]

Discovery and Naming

Discovery

Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team of astronomers led by Michael E. Brown of the California Institute of Technology, along with Chad A. Trujillo of the Gemini Observatory and David L. Rabinowitz of Yale University, using the 48-inch Samuel Oschin Telescope at Palomar Observatory in California.^[9]^[1] The initial detection occurred through images obtained on March 31, 2005, with the moving object identified by Brown on April 3, 2005, after processing the data to reveal its motion relative to the fixed background stars.^[1] This provisional designation assigned was 2005 FY9, reflecting the date of observation in the standard minor planet numbering system.^[9] Follow-up observations were conducted over the subsequent months at various observatories to gather additional positional data, refine the preliminary orbital elements, and confirm the discovery while securing priority credit under International Astronomical Union protocols. These efforts were part of Brown's ongoing survey for large trans-Neptunian objects in the Kuiper Belt, amid heightened interest in the outer Solar System following the earlier detection of Eris and the ensuing debates over planetary classification.^[1] The official announcement of the discovery was issued by the Minor Planet Center on July 29, 2005, via Minor Planet Electronic Circular 2005-O42.^[10]

Name and Symbol

Makemake, minor-planet designation 136472 Makemake, received its provisional designation of 2005 FY₉ upon discovery and was assigned its official minor-planet number 136472 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006.^[11]^[1] The name Makemake honors the creator deity of humanity and god of fertility in the mythology of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island, selected to reflect the object's discovery shortly after Easter 2005.^[11]^[1] The discoverer, Michael E. Brown of the California Institute of Technology, proposed the name as part of an effort to draw from non-Greek mythologies for trans-Neptunian objects, diverging from traditional planetary naming conventions.^[11] The IAU formally approved the name in July 2008, coinciding with Makemake's classification as a dwarf planet.^[11] In English, the name is pronounced /ˌmɑːkeɪˈmɑːkeɪ/ (MAH-kay MAH-kay), approximating the Rapa Nui pronunciation [ˈmakeˈmake].^[1] In Rapa Nui lore, Makemake is revered as the supreme god who brought life to the island's first inhabitants.^[11] Makemake's astronomical symbol is a monogram resembling intertwined "MM" initials, encoded in Unicode as U+1F77C (⟨🝼⟩), which was proposed for standardization in astronomical software and texts around 2015 and officially included in Unicode version 15.0 in 2022.^[12]^[13] The symbol is mostly used by astrologers, though it has appeared in some scientific infographics, such as a NASA illustration from 2015. The IAU discourages the use of planetary symbols in scientific publications. This symbol, inspired by Rapa Nui petroglyphs, has been adopted by organizations like NASA for graphical representations.^[13]

Orbital Characteristics and Classification

Orbit

Makemake follows an elliptical orbit around the Sun with a semi-major axis of 45.45 AU, equivalent to about 6.80 billion kilometers.^[14] This places it firmly within the classical Kuiper Belt, far beyond the orbit of Neptune. The orbit's eccentricity of 0.16 results in a significantly varying distance from the Sun, reaching a closest approach (perihelion) of 38.09 AU and a farthest point (aphelion) of 52.81 AU. Additionally, the orbital plane is inclined by 29.0° relative to the ecliptic, contributing to its dynamical isolation in the outer Solar System.^[14] The orbital period of Makemake is 306 Earth years, or roughly 111,800 days, during which it completes one full revolution around the Sun. This lengthy period aligns with Kepler's third law, expressed as T^2 \propto a^3, where T is the orbital period in Earth years and a is the semi-major axis in AU; applying this to Makemake's semi-major axis yields the approximately 306-year period. Unlike many trans-Neptunian objects, Makemake maintains no mean-motion resonance with Neptune, solidifying its status as a non-resonant classical Kuiper Belt object whose orbit has remained relatively undisturbed since the Solar System's formation.^[15] As of November 2025, Makemake is positioned approximately 52.7 AU from the Sun, nearing the outer extent of its orbit.^[16] Its next perihelion will occur in 2187, highlighting the vast timescales involved in its motion through the distant reaches of the Kuiper Belt.

Classification

Makemake satisfies the International Astronomical Union (IAU) criteria for classification as a dwarf planet, which require that a body (a) orbits the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium and thus a nearly spherical shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.^[14] It directly orbits the Sun and is not a satellite of another body.^[1] Its estimated diameter of approximately 1,430 km and density of about 1.7 g/cm³ indicate sufficient mass for self-gravitational rounding, assuming hydrostatic equilibrium.^[1] As a trans-Neptunian object, Makemake resides in a debris-rich region of the Kuiper Belt and has not gravitationally cleared other bodies from its orbital path.^[14] The IAU formally classified Makemake as a dwarf planet on July 11, 2008, making it the fourth such body recognized after Ceres, Pluto, and Eris. Its name, Makemake, was approved shortly thereafter on July 19, 2008, following IAU naming conventions for outer Solar System objects. Due to its location beyond Neptune's orbit, Makemake also falls under the IAU subcategory of plutoids, defined as dwarf planets with a semi-major axis greater than 39.4 AU; it was designated the third plutoid after Pluto and Eris.^[17] As a classical Kuiper Belt object, specifically a cubewano, Makemake follows a non-resonant orbit with Neptune, positioned in the main belt at a semi-major axis of about 45.5 AU.^[1] This distinguishes it from resonant populations like plutinos. Among Kuiper Belt dwarf planets, Makemake ranks as the second-brightest as viewed from Earth, after Pluto, with an apparent magnitude around 16.5 at peak.^[1] It shares a comparably high orbital inclination of approximately 29° with Haumea (28.2°), though unlike Haumea, it lacks a mean-motion resonance with Neptune.^[18]^[19] The 2015 discovery of Makemake's sole known satellite, S/2015 (136472) 1, enabled the first direct measurement of its mass at (3.1 ± 0.5) × 10²¹ kg, providing critical constraints on its density and thereby reinforcing its hydrostatic equilibrium status as a dwarf planet.

Physical Characteristics

Size, Mass, and Rotation

Makemake is one of the largest known trans-Neptunian objects, with an equivalent diameter of approximately 1,430 km, corresponding to a mean radius of 715 km.^[20] This measurement was derived from thermal modeling combined with data from a 2011 stellar occultation, which provided constraints on its projected dimensions.^[20] The dwarf planet exhibits an oblate spheroid shape but is nearly spherical, owing to its sufficient mass achieving hydrostatic equilibrium, with a projected elongation of less than 1.06.^[20] The mass of Makemake is estimated at (2.7 ± 0.2) × 10^{21} kg, determined through analysis of the orbital perturbations caused by its satellite, S/2015 (136472) 1, based on 2025 observations.^[21] This value yields a bulk density of 1.7 ± 0.2 g/cm³, indicating a highly icy composition possibly with significant porosity, consistent with other large trans-Neptunian objects.^[21] Density is calculated using the spherical approximation for volume, given by the formula

V = \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3,

where r is the equivalent radius, combined with the measured mass to derive \rho = M / V.^[20] The rotation period of Makemake remains uncertain as of 2025, with possible sidereal periods of approximately 11.4 hours (single-peaked light curve) or 22.8 hours (double-peaked), the latter preferred in some analyses from photometric monitoring.^[22]^[23] The light curve shows a double-peaked profile with a small peak-to-peak amplitude of about 0.03 magnitudes, consistent with its nearly spherical shape and uniform surface.^[22] Makemake possesses a high geometric albedo of 0.81, reflecting a significant portion of incident sunlight due to its bright icy surface.^[20] This contributes to its absolute visual magnitude of -0.2, making it the second-brightest Kuiper Belt object after Pluto and visible to amateur telescopes with apertures of 6 inches or larger during opposition.^[24]

Surface Composition

Makemake's surface is dominated by frozen methane (CH₄) ice, which constitutes the primary component based on near-infrared spectroscopic observations revealing deep absorption features characteristic of large-grained methane. These spectra indicate that methane ice covers a substantial portion of the surface, with models suggesting up to 99% purity in some regions, though irradiation processes introduce minor admixtures. Unlike many other trans-Neptunian objects, no significant water ice is detected, setting Makemake apart from bodies like Pluto that exhibit water ice signatures alongside volatiles.^[25]^[26] Key spectral indicators include strong methane absorption bands centered at approximately 1.72 μm and 2.2 μm, which appear broad and slightly shifted toward shorter wavelengths, suggesting possible dilution in a nitrogen matrix or large grain sizes exceeding 1 cm. Traces of irradiation products from cosmic ray and solar UV processing of methane are evident beyond 2.2 μm, including ethane (C₂H₆), ethylene (C₂H₄), and higher-mass hydrocarbons such as propylene (C₃H₆), contributing to the observed spectral deviations. 2025 James Webb Space Telescope observations confirm layered ices with ethane, acetylene (C₂H₂), and possibly methanol (CH₃OH), along with a D/H ratio in methane of (3.98 ± 0.34) × 10^{-4}.^[25]^[26]^[25]^[7] These organics, along with complex refractory materials known as tholins, impart a reddish-brown hue to the surface, resulting from the polymerization of simple hydrocarbons over geological timescales.^[25]^[26]^[25] The surface exhibits remarkable homogeneity in methane distribution, with rotational spectroscopy showing consistent band depths across ~70% of the rotation period, implying minimal large-scale variegation. Possible subtle darker equatorial bands have been inferred from photometric variations, potentially linked to concentrated tholins or exposed subsurface materials, but no resolved craters or major geological features are discernible at current resolutions. Formation processes involve the primordial deposition of methane ices followed by billions of years of sublimation—driven by solar heating—and irradiation, which gradually converts volatile ices into stable organics without significant atmospheric retention.^[27]^[28]^[27] In comparison to Pluto, Makemake's surface is brighter and more methane-pure, lacking the diverse ices (such as nitrogen and carbon monoxide) that contribute to Pluto's complex albedo patterns, reflecting differences in size, orbital distance, and volatile retention. This composition underscores Makemake's role as a key example of methane-dominated Kuiper Belt objects, highlighting the role of radiation chemistry in shaping outer solar system surfaces.^[26]

Atmosphere

Makemake was long considered to lack a significant atmosphere, based on ground-based occultation observations in 2012 that revealed sharp light curves without the extended "wings" indicative of a gaseous envelope, consistent with its distant orbit and low equilibrium temperature of approximately 40 K. This view aligned with expectations for a Kuiper Belt object too cold and volatile-poor to sustain substantial outgassing, unlike Pluto or Eris.^[29] Recent observations by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2025 have overturned this perspective, detecting evidence of gaseous methane (CH₄) through solar-excited fluorescence, suggesting active sublimation from surface ices or localized plumes.^[30] Using the NIRSpec instrument, astronomers identified distinct emission lines in the near-infrared spectrum, confirming the presence of methane gas at low altitudes above the surface, with fluorescence excited by solar ultraviolet radiation causing the gas to emit faintly at wavelengths around 1.7–2.3 μm.^[7] This detection implies a tenuous atmosphere or transient gaseous layer, with estimated surface pressures as low as 10 picobars (approximately 10⁻⁶ Pa), far below the upper limits from prior occultations but sufficient to produce the observed flux.^[31] The atmosphere's composition is dominated by methane gas, likely in equilibrium with surface methane ices, with potential trace amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane (C₂H₆) or acetylene (C₂H₂) derived from photochemical processing.^[7] Supporting this, JWST's Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) revealed a prominent thermal excess in the 18–25 μm range, indicating localized heating to temperatures warmer than the global average of 40 K, possibly from ongoing sublimation or minor cryovolcanic activity that replenishes the gas.^[23] The gas temperature is estimated at around 40 K, matching the surface equilibrium but suggesting rapid thermalization in the thin layer.^[32] Due to Makemake's low surface gravity (about 0.35 m/s²), any atmosphere experiences rapid hydrodynamic escape, with methane molecules likely lost to space on timescales of years to decades unless continuously replenished by sublimation.^[30] Seasonal variations may enhance this activity near perihelion, when increased solar insolation could drive more intense outgassing, potentially thickening the tenuous envelope temporarily. These dynamics point to Makemake as a geologically active world, with volatile cycling indicating it is not entirely dormant, challenging prior models of static Kuiper Belt objects.^[8]

Satellites

Discovery of S/2015 (136472) 1

The satellite orbiting the dwarf planet Makemake, provisionally designated S/2015 (136472) 1 and nicknamed MK 2, was discovered through observations conducted with the Hubble Space Telescope's Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). The detection occurred in imaging data collected during six visits to Makemake between April 27 and May 29, 2015, utilizing 12 UVIS exposures in the F555W filter, each approximately 12 minutes long. These observations were part of a broader Hubble program aimed at searching for satellites around trans-Neptunian objects, led by Alex H. Parker of the Southwest Research Institute, in collaboration with a team including J. J. Kavelaars, J.-M. Petit, and others from institutions such as the National Research Council of Canada and Lowell Observatory.^[34] Detecting the faint moon presented significant challenges due to its proximity to the much brighter Makemake and its low apparent magnitude of approximately 23 in visible light, making it over 1,300 times fainter than the primary.^[5] The satellite's position, often within or near Makemake's point-spread function (PSF), necessitated advanced techniques such as high-precision astrometric alignment, PSF modeling, and careful subtraction of the primary's light to reveal the companion in stacked images. Retrospective searches confirmed no prior detections in extensive ground-based datasets, including those from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope and Subaru Telescope, underscoring the necessity of space-based observations for such close, faint systems. The discovery was publicly announced on April 26, 2016, via a NASA press release and detailed in a letter published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.^[5] As of November 2025, the satellite retains its provisional designation, with no official name assigned by the International Astronomical Union; future naming is expected to draw from Rapa Nui (Easter Island) mythology, consistent with Makemake's cultural inspiration.^[1]

Physical and Orbital Properties of S/2015 (136472) 1

S/2015 (136472) 1, the sole known satellite of the dwarf planet Makemake, has an estimated diameter of approximately 175 km, derived from its observed apparent magnitude and an assumed geometric albedo of about 0.04, contrasting with Makemake's higher albedo of around 0.8. This low albedo suggests a dark surface, likely covered in complex organics or tholins, with an inferred reddish hue similar to other outer Solar System bodies rich in such materials. The moon's mass is estimated at approximately $3.5 \times 10^{18} kg, based on its size and an assumed icy composition leading to a bulk density of about 1.5 g/cm³. This density aligns with expectations for a primitive, ice-dominated body in the Kuiper Belt, though direct measurements remain unavailable due to observational challenges. Orbitally, S/2015 (136472) 1 follows a circular path (eccentricity ≈ 0) with a semi-major axis of 22,250 ± 780 km from Makemake's center, corresponding to roughly 31 times the primary's radius of 715 km. Its sidereal orbital period is 18.023 ± 0.017 days, as determined from Hubble Space Telescope observations spanning April 2015 to February 2019.^[6] This is consistent with Kepler's third law for the system:

T^2 = \frac{4\pi^2}{GM} a^3,

where T is the orbital period, G is the gravitational constant, M is Makemake's mass (approximately $3 \times 10^{21} kg), and a is the semi-major axis. The orbit is viewed nearly edge-on from Earth, with an inclination of 83.7 ± 1.0° relative to the line of sight, suggesting potential for mutual eclipses or transits in the coming years. The three-dimensional orbital inclination relative to Makemake's equator is unknown. Given its distance well beyond Makemake's Roche limit (estimated at around 1,700 km for fluid bodies of similar densities), the satellite maintains a stable orbit without tidal disruption. Synchronous rotation is probable, with the moon tidally locked to Makemake, a common outcome for close-in satellites of dwarf planets over billions of years.

Observations

Ground-Based Observations

Following its discovery, spectroscopic observations from ground-based telescopes quickly confirmed the presence of methane ice on Makemake's surface. In 2006–2007, near-infrared spectra obtained with the Keck I telescope revealed strong absorption features consistent with crystalline methane ice, marking Makemake as compositionally similar to Pluto among dwarf planets. Complementary spectroscopy using the ESO Very Large Telescope (VLT) in 2007 further corroborated these findings, identifying methane-dominated ices with possible traces of other volatiles, though atmospheric interference limited depth in the mid-infrared range. These early studies established methane as the primary surface constituent, with no evidence of significant water ice. Photometric monitoring of Makemake's brightness variations provided key insights into its rotational dynamics. Time-series observations conducted at the Palomar Observatory's 48-inch Samuel Oschin Telescope between 2006 and 2008 produced light curves showing a low-amplitude variation of about 0.02 magnitudes, yielding an initial rotation period of 7.77 hours.^[35] Subsequent light curve data from ESO telescopes, including the VLT, refined this measurement by 2009, while highlighting the object's nearly spherical shape and minimal rotational modulation due to its uniform surface. Later photometric studies as of 2025 indicate an uncertain rotation period of either 11.4 or 22.8 hours, with the longer value favored due to a possible double-peaked lightcurve.^[22] These ground-based efforts were crucial for establishing Makemake's slow spin relative to other Kuiper Belt objects. Stellar occultation campaigns offered direct geometric constraints on Makemake's size and shape. A multi-site observation on April 23, 2011, involving the VLT and other telescopes captured five chords during the event, revealing an ellipsoidal profile with equatorial dimensions of approximately 1430 km by 1502 km and a geometric albedo of 0.77, implying no substantial global atmosphere. Later analyses of this dataset, combined with adaptive optics imaging from ground facilities, refined the polar flattening to about 1%, suggesting a slightly oblate form consistent with rotational equilibrium. Pre-2015 ground-based searches for satellites using high-contrast imaging at Keck and VLT failed to detect any companions, attributed to Makemake's intense glare overwhelming faint signals within 0.5 arcseconds. Amateur astronomers have contributed to long-term visibility studies, noting Makemake's accessibility at opposition in March–April, when it reaches an apparent magnitude of about 17, observable with 20–30 cm telescopes under dark skies. Color index measurements from ground-based photometry indicate a reddish hue, with B–V ≈ 0.83 and V–R ≈ 0.50, reflecting tholin-rich methane ices. Thermal modeling supported by ground-derived albedos from occultations and photometry, integrated with mid-infrared data, estimates surface temperatures of 36–42 K, highlighting Makemake's cold, icy equilibrium.

Space-Based Observations

Space-based observations of Makemake have provided critical insights into its size, composition, and potential activity, leveraging the advantages of infrared and ultraviolet capabilities beyond Earth's atmosphere. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) played a pivotal role in early imaging efforts, capturing data in 2006 that contributed to initial orbital determinations by resolving the dwarf planet's position against background stars. HST's Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) further enabled the 2015 discovery of Makemake's moon, S/2015 (136472) 1, through high-contrast imaging that separated the faint satellite from the bright primary at a separation of about 21,000 km. Subsequent HST observations from 2015 to 2019 provided initial constraints, with a 2025 reanalysis refining the moon's orbit to a roughly circular path with a period of approximately 18 days and semi-major axis of about 22,250 km.^[5]^[6] Thermal observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope between 2006 and 2010 measured Makemake's infrared emission, yielding an estimated diameter of 1,360 ± 70 km and a high geometric albedo of about 0.81, indicating a highly reflective, icy surface dominated by methane frost. These Spitzer Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer (MIPS) data at 24 μm highlighted Makemake's low thermal inertia, consistent with a porous regolith. Complementing Spitzer, the Herschel Space Observatory's far-infrared observations in 2010 provided additional thermal flux measurements that, when combined with size estimates, confirmed Makemake's low bulk density of approximately 1.7 g/cm³ (refined to about 1.67 g/cm³ as of 2025 using moon orbital data), suggesting an interior rich in water ice and rock with minimal rocky core.^[36] Although the New Horizons spacecraft did not conduct a flyby of Makemake, its 2007 distant observations at large phase angles (over 90°) offered the first space-based photometric data on the dwarf planet, revealing opposition surge characteristics similar to Pluto's, which informed surface regolith models for Makemake by analogy to the Pluto system's icy terrains. Recent advancements with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2025 have revolutionized our understanding, as NIRSpec spectroscopy detected fluorescence from gaseous methane at near-infrared wavelengths, indicating active sublimation or outgassing processes. Concurrently, JWST's Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) revealed a prominent mid-infrared excess between 18 and 25 μm, suggesting localized heating to around 150 K—potentially from cryovolcanic plumes or a tenuous atmosphere—far warmer than expected for Makemake's equilibrium temperature. These findings imply dynamic surface activity, distinguishing Makemake from inert Kuiper Belt objects.^[37]^[30]^[23] Looking ahead, no dedicated missions to Makemake are planned as of 2025, but ground-supported facilities like the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) could provide submillimeter thermal mapping to probe subsurface structure, while the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) may offer high-resolution near-infrared imaging for surface feature resolution.^[38]

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