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Maneuvering area

The maneuvering area of an aerodrome is that part designated for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons and loading/unloading ramps.^[1] This area encompasses critical infrastructure such as runways and taxiways, enabling aircraft to operate under their own power while maintaining separation from ground vehicles and obstacles. Defined under international standards by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), it ensures standardized design and operational protocols across global aerodromes to support safe aviation activities. In aerodrome operations, the maneuvering area falls under the jurisdiction of aerodrome control services, which are responsible for preventing collisions between aircraft and between aircraft and obstructions within this zone.^[2] Typically, the aerodrome control tower (TWR) oversees runway operations and aircraft movements on runways, while ground control (GND) manages taxiing on other parts of the maneuvering area, coordinating to achieve orderly and expeditious traffic flow.^[2] These responsibilities include issuing clearances, maintaining visual surveillance, and providing instructions to pilots and vehicle operators, all in accordance with ICAO Doc 4444 procedures. Vehicle access to the maneuvering area requires explicit authorization from air traffic control to mitigate risks like runway incursions.^[3] The design and maintenance of the maneuvering area are governed by ICAO Annex 14, Volume I, which specifies requirements for pavement strength, lighting, marking, and obstacle limitation surfaces to accommodate various aircraft types and environmental conditions.^[4] Key considerations include ensuring adequate load-bearing capacity for aircraft weights, clear signage for navigation, and integration with rescue and fire-fighting services for emergency response.^[4] This framework plays a vital role in enhancing overall airport safety, with ongoing global efforts focused on reducing incidents through training, technology, and procedural harmonization.^[3]

Definition and Scope

ICAO Definition

The manoeuvring area is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as that part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons. This definition establishes a clear operational zone within aerodromes, focusing on active aircraft movement while distinguishing it from stationary or service-related activities. The term and its associated standards emerged in the post-World War II era, following the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), which entered into force in 1947 and laid the foundation for global aviation regulation. ICAO's Standards and Recommended Practices for Aerodromes, including the manoeuvring area definition, were first adopted by the ICAO Council on 29 May 1951, pursuant to Article 37 of the Chicago Convention, drawing from recommendations of the Aerodromes, Air Routes, and Ground Aids Division sessions in 1947 and 1949.^[5]^[6] Aprons are explicitly excluded from the manoeuvring area to delineate boundaries between high-movement zones and areas dedicated to ground handling, as aprons are defined as spaces on a land aerodrome for loading or unloading passengers, mail, or cargo; fuelling; parking; or maintenance. This separation enhances safety and operational efficiency by preventing interference between taxiing aircraft and service vehicles or personnel, ensuring that manoeuvring activities remain unimpeded.

Variations in National Usage

In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aligns closely with the ICAO definition but primarily employs the term "movement area" in its regulations, defined under 14 CFR § 139.5 as the runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing of aircraft, exclusive of loading ramps and parking areas.^[7] This terminology is used interchangeably with "maneuvering area" in some FAA guidance documents, such as those related to air traffic control procedures, to emphasize operational consistency in airport certification and safety oversight.^[8] In Europe, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) adopts the British English spelling "manoeuvring area" and maintains a strict exclusion of aprons, as outlined in Annex I to Commission Regulation (EU) No 139/2014, defining it as that part of an aerodrome used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft.^[9] This definition supports harmonized aerodrome certification across member states, focusing on taxiing operations while integrating with EU-wide air traffic management standards. Other regions, such as Canada and the Philippines, largely adopt the ICAO baseline without significant divergence. In Canada, the Canadian Aviation Regulations (SOR/96-433) define the "manoeuvring area" as that part of an aerodrome, other than an apron, that is intended to be used for the take-off and landing of aircraft and for the movement of aircraft associated with take-off and landing.^[10] Similarly, in the Philippines, the Civil Aviation Regulations (CAR) Part 1 from the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines (CAAP) describe the maneuvering area as that part of an aerodrome used for take-off, landing, and taxiing, excluding aprons.^[11] These variations arise primarily to align with national air traffic control practices and airport certification requirements; for instance, the FAA's emphasis on "movement area" facilitates integrated oversight under Part 139 for certificated airports, while EASA's precise terminology ensures uniformity in multinational operations.^[12]

Components

Runways

Runways constitute the core paved surfaces within the maneuvering area, serving as the designated rectangular areas on a land aerodrome prepared specifically for the landing and take-off of aircraft.^[13] As part of the maneuvering area, which encompasses zones for take-off, landing, and taxiing excluding aprons, runways may be associated with overrun areas such as stopways—paved extensions beyond the runway ends that enhance deceleration during rejected take-offs—but exclude adjacent safety zones like runway end safety areas (RESAs).^[13] These surfaces must be engineered to withstand the dynamic loads of aircraft operations while ensuring smooth transitions to connecting pathways. Key design elements of runways prioritize aircraft performance, environmental factors, and aerodrome reference codes, which classify runways based on wingspan and outer main gear wheel span. Length is determined by operational needs, such as the critical aircraft's take-off and landing distances adjusted for elevation, temperature, and runway gradient, with primary runways sized to meet full requirements and secondary ones achieving a 95% wind usability factor.^[13] Width varies by code number: Code 1 requires 18 m, Code 2 23 m, Code 3 30 m, and Code 4 45 m to accommodate larger aircraft.^[13] Surface types are predominantly paved for instrument runways, using materials like asphalt for flexible pavements or concrete for rigid ones, selected to provide adequate friction and drainage while minimizing hydroplaning risks.^[13] Load-bearing capacity is quantified by the Pavement Classification Number (PCN), a metric expressing the pavement's strength for unrestricted operations, reported in formats like PCN 80/R/B/W/T to indicate subgrade strength, type, and tire pressure limits.^[13] In operational roles, runways exhibit directionality based on magnetic azimuth, designated numerically to the nearest 10 degrees—for instance, Runway 27 aligns with a 270-degree heading to optimize prevailing winds.^[13] Thresholds mark the start of the usable landing portion, typically at the runway extremity unless adjusted for obstacles.^[13] Displaced thresholds relocate this point inward from the runway end to ensure obstacle clearance, reducing the landing distance available while allowing the preceding pavement for take-offs or opposite-direction landings, with maximum approach slopes limited to 3.3% for Code 4 runways.^[13] Runways integrate seamlessly with taxiways to facilitate efficient ground movement across the maneuvering area.^[13]

Taxiways

Taxiways serve as designated paths within the maneuvering area of an aerodrome, enabling aircraft to taxi between runways, aprons, and other operational zones while excluding immediately adjacent apron sections, which are treated as apron taxiways or taxilanes. According to ICAO standards, a taxiway is defined as "a defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another." This definition emphasizes their role in facilitating safe and efficient ground movement, separate from runway operations for takeoff and landing. In practice, taxiways form a network that supports overall aerodrome flow by connecting key areas without encroaching on non-movement zones. Various types and configurations of taxiways are employed to optimize aerodrome layout and aircraft handling. Straight taxiways are the preferred design for their simplicity, providing uniform guidance and minimizing pilot workload, with minimum lengths ranging from 15 meters for smaller Code A aircraft to 70 meters for Code F.^[14] Parallel taxiways run alongside runways to allow continuous taxiing without runway use, typically separated by at least 120 meters centerline-to-centerline for operational efficiency. Curved taxiways incorporate specified radii—such as 160 meters initial for spiral rapid exits—to ensure safe turns, often with additional width for outer engine clearance. High-speed exit taxiways, or rapid exit taxiways, connect to runways at acute angles (e.g., 30-45 degrees) to permit landing aircraft to vacate at speeds up to 93 km/h for Code 3 or 4 aerodromes, reducing runway occupancy time. Fillet taxiways provide curved paved extensions at runway-taxiway intersections, ensuring wingtip and engine clearance for turning aircraft, with dimensions tailored to the critical aircraft type like the Boeing 777-300.^[15] Design standards for taxiways prioritize safety, structural integrity, and environmental protection, varying by aircraft reference code or design group. Under ICAO guidelines, paved taxiway widths range from 7.5 meters for Code A (e.g., small general aviation aircraft) to 25 meters for Code F (e.g., Airbus A380), ensuring adequate clearance for wingspans up to 80 meters.^[14] FAA standards align closely, specifying widths of 25 feet (7.6 meters) for Taxiway Design Group (TDG) 1 to 75 feet (22.9 meters) for TDG 6, based on undercarriage span and main gear width. Shoulder areas adjoin the paved edges to support occasional overruns, resist erosion from jet blast, and prevent foreign object debris ingestion; these are typically 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) wide and paved for Airplane Design Group (ADG) IV and larger, or stabilized (e.g., turf) for smaller groups. Blast pads, positioned at taxiway ends or high-blast zones, mitigate jet exhaust effects on adjacent surfaces, with widths matching the taxiway plus shoulders and lengths of 60 to 120 meters for larger aircraft like the Boeing 747.^[15] These features collectively enhance ground navigation while integrating with runway systems for seamless aerodrome operations.

Movement Area

The movement area represents a critical zone at an aerodrome where aircraft conduct essential operations such as takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Under International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards, it is defined as that part of an aerodrome used for these purposes, explicitly consisting of the maneuvering area and the apron(s), thereby including spaces for parking and loading/unloading activities.^[16] This broader scope ensures coordinated management of all active aircraft movements within the aerodrome. In contrast, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) employs a narrower definition of the movement area, limited to runways, taxiways, and other areas utilized for taxiing, air taxiing, takeoff, and landing, while explicitly excluding loading ramps and parking areas (aprons).^[16] As a result, the FAA's movement area aligns closely with the ICAO's maneuvering area, highlighting a key terminological and jurisdictional divergence that affects how airport operations are segmented internationally.^[17] These definitional differences carry significant operational implications for air traffic control (ATC) oversight. In ICAO frameworks, aerodrome control services cover the maneuvering area, while apron management services, if established, regulate the activities and movements of aircraft and vehicles on aprons to maintain safe and efficient aircraft flows.^[18] Conversely, FAA procedures mandate specific ATC clearance for entry into the movement area at towered airports, but apron areas fall outside this direct ATC jurisdiction, often handled by separate ramp control or operational teams to prevent incursions and ensure ground safety.^[16] The maneuvering area serves as the core subset within ICAO's broader movement area concept.

Apron and Non-Movement Areas

The apron, also known as the ramp or tarmac in some contexts, is a defined area on a land aerodrome intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo; refueling; parking; or maintenance.^[19] These areas are typically located adjacent to terminal buildings or hangars and are distinct from the maneuvering area, which excludes aprons to focus solely on zones used for takeoff, landing, and taxiing.^[20] Aprons facilitate stationary aircraft operations and are engineered to support the weight of multiple aircraft simultaneously, often featuring reinforced pavements and service infrastructure such as fuel hydrants and ground power units. Non-movement areas encompass aprons, aircraft stands, ramps, and associated service roads where ground vehicles, equipment, and personnel operate without direct air traffic control (ATC) clearance.^[17] Unlike the maneuvering area, these zones are not part of controlled aircraft taxiing paths and exclude operations related to takeoff or landing preparations.^[20] In the United States, for instance, the Federal Aviation Administration defines non-movement areas as those portions of the airport, such as loading aprons and parking areas, that are explicitly outside the movement area under ATC jurisdiction.^[17] Key distinctions between aprons and non-movement areas on one hand, and the maneuvering area on the other, lie in their operational focus and regulatory oversight. These areas prioritize ground handling activities, including the use of baggage carts, pushback tugs, and passenger boarding bridges, rather than aircraft propulsion for transit.^[21] Aircraft movement within non-movement areas is limited to low-speed maneuvering by ground crew, emphasizing safety protocols for intermixing pedestrians, vehicles, and stationary planes without ATC involvement.^[21] Boundaries between non-movement areas and taxiways are typically marked to prevent inadvertent incursions into controlled zones.^[22]

Regulations and Standards

ICAO Annex 14 Requirements

ICAO Annex 14, Volume I, Aerodrome Design and Operations, establishes international Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) for the physical characteristics of the maneuvering area, which encompasses runways and taxiways used for aircraft takeoff, landing, and taxiing, excluding aprons. These requirements are scaled according to the aerodrome reference code, which considers the largest aircraft wingspan (code letter A to F) and the reference field length (code number 1 to 4), ensuring compatibility with intended operations. For instance, runway widths range from 18 meters for code number 1 to 45 meters for code number 4, while taxiway widths vary from 7.5 meters for code letter A to 23 meters for codes D and E.^[13] Longitudinal slopes are limited to a maximum of 1% for runways in codes 3 and 4, and up to 1.5% for taxiways in codes C through E, to maintain safe aircraft control and prevent water accumulation. Pavement strength must be assessed and reported using the Aircraft Classification Rating–Pavement Classification Rating (ACR-PCR) method, which became applicable on 28 November 2024, replacing the previous Aircraft Classification Number–Pavement Classification Number (ACN-PCN) method, accounting for subgrade strength, tire pressure limits, and traffic loads.^[13]^[23] Obstacle limitation surfaces are defined to protect the maneuvering area from intrusions that could endanger aircraft, including approach surfaces with slopes up to 2% for non-instrument runways and transitional surfaces at 14.3% inclination.^[13] Fixed or mobile objects penetrating these surfaces must be removed or mitigated, with frangible designs required for any necessary equipment on runway strips or taxiway strips.^[13] Rescue and firefighting access is ensured through bidirectional vehicle access on taxiways and emergency lanes adjacent to runways, with response times targeted at 2 to 3 minutes under optimum conditions and not exceeding 3 minutes to any point on the maneuvering area.^[13] These provisions support aerodrome certification, which is mandatory for international operations and requires an aerodrome manual, safety management system, and categorization of rescue and firefighting protection levels notified to air traffic services.^[13] Regular inspections and maintenance are integral to compliance, with daily visual checks of the maneuvering area mandated at least once for codes 1 and 2, and twice for codes 3 and 4, to detect foreign object debris, pavement irregularities, and friction levels.^[13] A condition monitoring program assesses pavement strength periodically, ensuring it withstands operational loads without failure.^[13] Originating from the first edition in 1951, which focused on basic runway dimensions and facilities, Annex 14 has evolved through nine editions to the current 9th edition of July 2022, incorporating advancements in safety, such as enhanced obstacle protections and the shift to ACR-PCR for pavements. The 9th edition was further amended by Amendment 18, effective August 4, 2025, with applicability from November 21, 2030, incorporating updates to obstacle limitation surfaces and other safety enhancements.^[24]^[13]^[25] Recent updates emphasize sustainability, recommending aerodrome designs that account for land-use and environmental control measures to minimize impacts, including those related to emissions.^[13] National regulations may adapt these SARPs to local conditions, such as terrain or traffic volumes.

FAA and Other National Regulations

In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates airport operations serving scheduled passenger-carrying operations through 14 CFR Part 139, which mandates certification for certain airports and includes specific requirements for the movement area—often used synonymously with the maneuvering area comprising runways and taxiways.^[26] Under § 139.327, certificate holders must implement a self-inspection program that includes daily inspections of the movement area to identify and address hazards such as debris, surface irregularities, or wildlife, with records maintained for twelve consecutive calendar months.^[27] Additionally, § 139.337 requires airports to develop and implement wildlife hazard management plans based on assessments to mitigate risks to aircraft operations on the maneuvering area, while § 139.313 mandates snow and ice control plans for airports where such conditions could impair movement area usability, including removal procedures and friction testing. Non-compliance with Part 139 provisions can result in enforcement actions by the FAA, including civil penalties of up to $42,657 per violation (as adjusted for inflation in 2025) for each violation, potential suspension or revocation of the airport operating certificate, and corrective orders to prevent incidents like runway incursions stemming from inadequate maintenance.^[28]^[29] For instance, failure to conduct required movement area inspections has been linked to runway incursion events, prompting FAA interventions to enforce remediation. In Europe, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) oversees aerodrome certification under Regulation (EU) No 139/2014, which aligns with ICAO standards but includes detailed Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) and Guidance Material (GM) for movement area oversight.^[30] ADR.OPS.B.015 requires aerodrome operators to monitor and inspect the movement area regularly, with AMC1 specifying daily or more frequent checks for aerodromes with codes 3 or 4 to detect foreign object debris (FOD), surface contamination, or other hazards.^[30] Wildlife hazard management under ADR.OPS.B.020 mandates risk assessments and mitigation programs, including habitat control around the maneuvering area, while ADR.OPS.B.035 outlines procedures for snow and slush removal to ensure safe friction levels.^[30] Enforcement for non-compliance is handled by competent authorities, with ADR.AR.C.055 classifying findings into levels: Level 1 violations (e.g., significant safety risks from uninspected areas) may lead to immediate certificate suspension, and Level 2 require corrective action plans, potentially incurring fines under EU-wide penalty frameworks.^[30] Canada's Transport Canada regulates aerodromes through the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) Subpart 302, supplemented by TP 312 Aerodromes Standards and Recommended Practices, which detail standards for maneuvering area maintenance.^[31] TP 312 requires periodic inspections of maneuvering area surfaces for friction, debris, and condition, with specific guidelines for runway friction testing using devices like the deceleration slipper to measure coefficients and ensure safe braking.^[31] Wildlife control and snow removal plans are also prescribed, integrating with operational procedures to prevent hazards. Non-compliance can result in enforcement actions, including administrative monetary penalties up to $25,000 per violation and potential suspension of aerodrome certification, particularly if linked to incidents such as runway surface-related incursions.^[31]

Safety and Operational Aspects

Markings and Signage

The maneuvering area employs standardized markings and signage to provide pilots with clear visual guidance for safe taxiing, takeoff, and landing, minimizing the risk of runway incursions and navigational errors. These visual aids are painted on pavements or erected as signs, adhering to international standards set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in Annex 14, Volume I, and national implementations such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circulars.^[32]^[33] Runway markings, primarily in white, delineate the usable landing and takeoff surfaces. The runway centerline is a continuous white line along the pavement center, typically 0.9 meters wide for precision instrument runways (ICAO Code 3 or 4), guiding aircraft alignment during operations; in the United States, it consists of 36-inch-wide stripes for precision approaches per FAA standards.^[32]^[33] Threshold bars, white perpendicular lines 1.8 meters wide, mark the beginning of the safe landing area, particularly for displaced thresholds where the runway start is offset.^[32] The aiming point marking, comprising two white rectangles starting 150 to 400 meters from the threshold, assists pilots in achieving the precise touchdown location, with dimensions scaling by runway code (e.g., 4 meters wide by 30 meters long for Code 3/4).^[32]^[33] Touchdown zone markings, consisting of paired white rectangles spaced in 150-meter increments over the first 900 meters, indicate the expected initial contact area for landings on longer runways.^[32] Chevrons in displaced areas, yellow V-shaped patterns beyond the threshold, denote unusable pavement sections such as blast pads or stopways, ensuring pilots avoid non-load-bearing surfaces.^[33] Taxiway markings, executed in yellow to distinguish them from runways, facilitate controlled ground movement. The taxiway centerline is a continuous yellow line, at least 15 centimeters wide, that directs aircraft along the intended path, often enhanced with dashed segments near runway intersections for improved visibility in low-light conditions.^[32]^[33] Edge lines, double continuous yellow markings (each 15 centimeters wide and 15 centimeters apart), define the boundaries of the taxiway pavement, preventing excursions onto adjacent areas.^[32] Hold position markings, typically Pattern A with two solid and two dashed yellow lines forming a stop bar, are located at the runway holding position, positioned at a distance from the runway centerline that ensures the required separation (typically 90–152.5 m for codes 3 and 4, per ICAO Annex 14), to halt aircraft before entering active runways, thereby reducing incursion risks.^[32]^[33]^[4] Signage in the maneuvering area complements pavement markings by conveying location, direction, and mandatory instructions through standardized panels. Mandatory instruction signs, featuring white text on a red background (e.g., displaying runway numbers like "18-36" at holding positions), require aircraft to stop short of protected runway areas, installed at taxiway-runway intersections to enforce safety protocols.^[34]^[32] Location signs, with yellow inscriptions on a black background, identify the current runway or taxiway designation, while direction signs, black on yellow with arrows, guide pilots toward specific destinations at intersections.^[34]^[32] Illuminated wind direction indicators, often in the form of orange-and-white truncated cone windsocks mounted on 6-meter poles and visible to pilots during approach and departure, display prevailing wind conditions to inform takeoff and landing decisions, with illumination required for night operations at international aerodromes.^[32]^[35] The maneuvering area relies on specialized lighting systems to facilitate safe aircraft operations during periods of darkness or reduced visibility, such as fog or heavy rain. These systems provide visual cues for pilots to maintain proper alignment and spacing on runways and taxiways, enhancing precision and preventing runway incursions.^[36] Standards for these lights are established by international bodies like the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and national authorities such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), ensuring uniformity across aerodromes.^[37] Runway lighting primarily consists of edge lights, threshold lights, and touchdown zone lights, designed to delineate the usable runway surface and support instrument approaches. Edge lights outline the runway boundaries and are typically white along the full length, transitioning to yellow for the final 2,000 feet (or half the runway length, whichever is shorter) on precision instrument runways to alert pilots to the impending end. These lights operate at varying intensities—low, medium, or high—depending on visibility conditions, with high-intensity runway lights (HIRL) providing the brightest illumination for Category II or III operations.^[36] Threshold lights, installed at the runway's beginning, emit green light to indicate the start of the landing zone, while red lights mark the opposite end to denote the runway's termination. Touchdown zone lights, used on precision runways for low-visibility landings, illuminate the first 900 meters with white lights spaced at 40-meter intervals (approximately 131 feet), aiding pilots in identifying the initial touchdown area during approaches below 2,400 feet run visibility.^[38] These configurations comply with ICAO Annex 14 standards, which specify light colors, spacing (e.g., 200 feet for edge lights on instrument runways), and intensity levels to ensure reliable guidance.^[4] Taxiway lighting supports ground movement by marking pathways separate from runways, with blue edge lights outlining the taxiway borders to prevent excursions into adjacent areas. These blue lights are steady-burning and spaced at intervals of 50 to 200 feet, depending on the taxiway's classification and visibility requirements, and are essential for operations in low-visibility procedures (LVP). Green centerline lights provide a continuous path along principal taxiways, emitting steady green illumination to guide aircraft during taxiing, particularly at night or in reduced visibility below 1,200 feet run visibility value (RVR). Stop bar lights, consisting of a row of red lights perpendicular to the taxiway at holding positions, indicate where aircraft must stop until air traffic control clearance is received; these are interlocked with runway lighting to prevent unauthorized entry.^[36] ICAO standards mandate green centerline lighting on exit taxiways and major routes at aerodromes supporting low-visibility operations, with blue edge lights on secondary routes for added definition.^[37] Navigation aids in the maneuvering area integrate electronic systems with visual lighting to enable precise aircraft guidance, particularly through the Instrument Landing System (ILS). The ILS localizer provides lateral (azimuth) guidance aligned with the runway centerline, transmitting signals from antennas positioned beyond the runway end within the maneuvering area boundaries to direct aircraft horizontally toward the threshold. The glide slope component delivers vertical guidance, typically at a 3-degree descent angle, with its antenna sited offset from the runway but calibrated to intersect the localizer path at approximately 50 feet above the threshold, ensuring safe alignment during final approach. These systems tie directly to runway lighting, as high-intensity edge and touchdown zone lights are activated in coordination with ILS signals for Category II/III approaches, where visibility is as low as 300 feet RVR.^[38] FAA and ICAO regulations require displaced holding positions in ILS-sensitive areas of the maneuvering area to avoid signal interference from taxiing aircraft, maintaining the integrity of localizer and glide slope coverage.^[36]^[4]

References

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Approval must be obtained prior to moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area during the hours an airport traffic control tower is in operation.
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