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Maraca

The maraca is a percussion instrument classified as a shaken idiophone, consisting of a hollow gourd, coconut shell, or modern synthetic vessel filled with seeds, beads, pebbles, or synthetic pellets, attached to a handle and rattled by shaking to produce a crisp, rhythmic sound.^[1] Typically played in pairs—one in each hand—to create layered rhythms, maracas serve as a foundational element in Latin American and Caribbean music traditions, providing steady beats in genres such as salsa, samba, mambo, and cumbia.^[2] Their distinctive rattling timbre, which varies based on the filling material and shaking intensity, makes them accessible yet versatile for both amateur and professional musicians.^[3] The origins of the maraca trace back to indigenous cultures of Latin America, with evidence suggesting their development by pre-colonial peoples in regions including Brazil, Puerto Rico, Colombia, and Central Chile, potentially as early as 500 BCE.^[4] Some scholars propose influences from West African rattle traditions, introduced via the transatlantic slave trade, which blended with native American gourd-based instruments to shape the modern form.^[5] Historical accounts indicate early uses in ritual and ceremonial contexts among indigenous peoples of Latin America in pre-Columbian times.^[6]^[7] Traditionally crafted from dried gourds of the Crescentia cujete (higuerillo) tree, maracas feature a long, slender handle carved from wood and a bulbous rattle body, often decorated with colorful beads, feathers, or engravings reflecting cultural motifs.^[7] Contemporary versions, popularized since the mid-20th century, utilize durable materials like fiberglass, plastic, or filled leather for consistent tone and portability, enabling their integration into global percussion ensembles and educational programs.^[3] In performance, players employ techniques such as wrist flicks, figure-eight motions, and varied grips to modulate dynamics, with the instrument's volume and pitch influenced by the size of the rattle and the density of its contents.^[8] Beyond music, maracas hold ceremonial significance in indigenous rituals and have become symbols of Latin cultural heritage worldwide.^[2]

Origins and Etymology

Linguistic Roots

The term "maraca" originates from the Guaraní language, specifically derived from "mbaracá" or "mbaraká," referring to a rattle made from a gourd or fruit filled with seeds or pebbles.^[9] This indigenous root reflects the instrument's traditional construction and ritual use among Tupi-Guaraní-speaking peoples in South America, where the word denoted a percussive device producing rhythmic noise.^[10] The term entered European languages through Portuguese colonial contact in Brazil, appearing as "maracá" in 16th-century records, likely borrowed directly from Old Tupi "maraká" (combining "marâ" for tumult or noise and "akâ" for thing).^[9] From Portuguese, it spread to Spanish as "maraca" during the broader European colonization of the Americas, adapting to describe similar idiophones across indigenous groups in regions like the Orinoco basin and beyond.^[10] Alternative theories suggest origins in the Araucanian language of central Chile around 500 BCE, though the Tupi-Guaraní etymology predominates.^[6] This linguistic evolution facilitated the instrument's dissemination in colonial documentation and trade, embedding the term in Ibero-American musical nomenclature. Some linguists have debated potential influences from Arabic "miṭraqah" (مِطْرَقَة), meaning a hammer, mallet, or clapper-like device, transmitted via Spanish colonial pathways in the Americas, with noted phonetic similarity to the Spanish "matraca" (a wooden rattle or clacker derived from dialectal Arabic "maṭraq").^[11] However, this connection remains speculative and is largely overshadowed by the dominant indigenous etymology. Historical linguistic evidence appears in 18th-century texts, such as Jesuit missionary José Gumilla's Historia natural, civil y geográfica de las naciones situadas en las riveras del Río Orinoco (1741), where he describes "maraca" as a term of Arawak (or "aruaco") origin among Orinoco basin peoples, highlighting its use in indigenous rituals and its adaptation in missionary accounts.^[12]

Regional Variations in Naming

The maraca, originating from indigenous traditions, exhibits diverse nomenclature across Latin America and the Caribbean, reflecting local languages, materials, and cultural adaptations. While the term "maraca" stems from a common Guarani root meaning a type of gourd or heavenly object, regional names often adapt this foundation to specific geographic and linguistic contexts.^[13] In Brazilian Portuguese, the instrument is predominantly known as maracá, a direct phonetic adaptation used in samba and other Afro-Brazilian genres throughout the country.^[14] This name prevails in both urban centers like Rio de Janeiro and rural areas, where it denotes the paired gourd rattles filled with seeds or beads.^[15] Caribbean variants frequently employ onomatopoeic terms mimicking the instrument's rattling sound, such as chac-chac or shak-shak, particularly in the Lesser Antilles and Trinidad and Tobago. These names are associated with parang music traditions, where the instrument—crafted from dried calabash gourds filled with seeds—provides rhythmic accompaniment in festive ensembles.^[16] In Puerto Rico, the maraca is sometimes called higuera, alluding to the native higuera tree (Crescentia cujete) whose fruit supplies the hard, resonant shells for the instrument in bomba and plena styles.^[7] In South American indigenous and colonial contexts, additional names highlight material or functional variations, often overlapping with similar shaken idiophones. For instance, adjá refers to a metal bell-rattle variant used in Afro-Brazilian candomblé rituals in Bahia,^[17] while canzá and ganzá denote cylindrical or basket-woven shakers in samba ensembles across Brazil's northeastern and southeastern regions.^[18] The term xeque, derived from adaptations of the African-derived xequerê, describes elongated gourd or metal shakers in Amazonian Brazilian communities, emphasizing their use in syncretic ceremonies.^[19] These names map to broader geographic patterns: Andean regions, such as parts of Venezuela and Colombia, favor gourd-based terms like maraká among indigenous groups for ritual rattles, whereas Amazonian areas in Brazil and Peru incorporate terms like xeque or canzá for larger, seed-filled versions suited to forest acoustics and shamanic practices.^[13]

Historical Development

Pre-Columbian Origins

The maraca, a percussion rattle consisting of a dried gourd filled with seeds or pebbles attached to a handle, emerged in pre-Columbian indigenous cultures across the Americas, serving primarily ceremonial functions in spiritual and communal rituals. Archaeological evidence from Caribbean sites, including Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, indicates that these instruments were crafted from natural materials and integrated into shamanic practices to invoke spiritual forces. Among the Arawak and Taíno peoples, maracas held sacred significance, often carved and painted with cemí motifs representing ancestral deities and used in rituals tied to agriculture, fertility, and spiritual communion.^[20]^[21] In the Orinoco River basin of present-day Venezuela and Colombia, early accounts document the maraca's role among Arawak-related groups, providing insights into its pre-colonial antiquity. Jesuit missionary José Gumilla, in his 1741 natural history, attributed the instrument's invention to the Aruaca Indians, describing it as a hollow calabash containing pebbles shaken by shamans (piaches) during healing ceremonies to simulate communication with demons and diagnose ailments. These observations, drawn from interactions with indigenous communities, reflect enduring pre-contact traditions where the maraca amplified ritual chants and dances to facilitate spiritual intervention. Archaeological parallels from regional sites further corroborate the instrument's widespread use in such contexts prior to European arrival.^[22] Further south, among the Tupinamba and Guarani peoples of coastal Brazil and Paraguay, the maraca functioned as a divinatory oracle and healing tool in shamanic rites. French explorer Jean de Léry, in his 1578 account of Tupinamba society, detailed how sorcerers (caraïbes) employed maracas to deceive participants during rituals, shaking them to mimic spirit voices and guide prophecies or cures. This practice extended to Guarani groups, where the instrument invoked supernatural entities for divination and therapeutic purposes. Andean indigenous communities similarly incorporated gourd rattles in pre-Columbian healing ceremonies, using their resonant sounds to balance energies and connect with ancestral spirits during shamanic sessions.^[23]^[24] The instrument's construction relied on locally abundant plants: bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) for elongated shapes or calabash fruits (Crescentia cujete) for rounded forms, dried and filled with seeds, stones, or beads to produce varied tones. These materials, cultivated across the Americas since at least 8000 BCE, underscored the maraca's deep integration into indigenous ecologies and cosmologies. The term "maraca" derives from the Guarani mbaracá, denoting a sacred rattle tied to ritual efficacy.^[25]

Post-Columbian Evolution

European observers first encountered the maraca during the early phases of Spanish colonization in the Caribbean, particularly through accounts of Taino ceremonial practices in the 16th century. Spanish expeditions following Christopher Columbus's voyages documented the instrument's use in areitos, communal rituals where Taino villagers sang epics of ancestral deeds accompanied by maracas to evoke spiritual and historical narratives. These observations, recorded in colonial chronicles, highlighted the maraca's role in pre-existing indigenous traditions, marking its initial exposure to Europeans amid the broader cultural exchanges and disruptions of conquest.^[26] Following initial contact, the maraca underwent significant adaptation in Afro-Caribbean and mestizo communities during the colonial era, integrating with African rhythmic elements brought by enslaved West Africans to Puerto Rico and Cuba. In genres like bomba, which emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries on sugar plantations, the Taino-derived maraca provided a steady percussive foundation, blending with African-derived drum patterns such as sicá and yubá to create call-and-response structures that symbolized resistance and cultural resilience. This fusion reflected the mestizo synthesis of indigenous, African, and European influences, transforming the maraca from a solely ritual tool into a versatile element of communal expression in Afro-Caribbean music.^[27] By the 19th and early 20th centuries, the maraca transitioned from ritualistic to commercialized ensemble use across Latin America, particularly in urban popular music forms that gained traction through recording and performance circuits. In Cuba, it became integral to son cubano, a late-19th-century genre blending Spanish guitar traditions with African percussion, where maracas marked the clave rhythm in ensembles featuring tres guitars and bongos, facilitating the instrument's shift toward secular dance and entertainment contexts. Similarly, in Venezuela's joropo, the maraca evolved into a key accompaniment for popular harp-based music, underscoring its commercialization as Latin American societies modernized and folk traditions entered broader markets.^[28]^[13] The maraca's dissemination to Europe and North America accelerated in the early 20th century via Latin American migration, trade, and cultural exchanges, embedding it in global popular music scenes. Cuban musicians like Frank "Machito" Grillo, a maraca player, migrated to New York in the 1920s and 1940s, introducing the instrument to jazz ensembles through the "Latin tinge," influencing bands that fused it with swing rhythms. In Europe, Latin American rhythms, including maraca patterns, inspired composers in the interwar period, as seen in works incorporating Caribbean percussion amid growing interest in exoticism and modernism. This spread was further propelled by trade in recordings and performances, establishing the maraca as a symbol of Latin vitality in international orchestras and bands by the mid-20th century.^[29]^[30]

Design and Construction

Traditional Materials and Assembly

Traditional maracas were primarily constructed using dried gourds from species such as Crescentia cujete (calabash or totumo gourd), and sometimes Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd), which provided a resonant, hollow body suitable for rattle instruments in indigenous American cultures.^[31] These gourds, native to tropical regions of the Americas, were harvested when mature and dried naturally to harden the shell, ensuring durability without rotting. The interior was filled with natural rattlers like seeds, small pebbles, dried beans, or beads to produce the characteristic shaking sound, with the choice of filler influencing the timbre and volume.^[31] The assembly process began with selecting and drying the gourd for several months to remove moisture and prevent decay, followed by creating a small opening to hollow out any remaining pulp. Fillers were then inserted through this hole, typically in quantities that allowed free movement without overcrowding, such as capacho plant seeds in Venezuelan indigenous traditions or small stones in other Amazonian styles. The opening was sealed using natural materials like beeswax, resin, or plant fibers to secure the contents, after which a handle was attached—often a straight wooden stick inserted through the gourd and fixed with bindings of vine, sinew, or cordage for a firm grip. In some variants, the gourd's natural neck served as an integrated handle, requiring minimal additional attachment.^[13] Regional differences in construction reflected local resources and practices, evolving from pre-Columbian techniques among groups like the Aruacans. For instance, Andean styles often incorporated dried beans or seeds for a softer rattle, while Amazonian and Venezuelan examples favored river pebbles or hard capacho seeds within totumo gourds (Crescentia cujete) for a sharper tone, with handles sometimes extending fully through the body for ritual use. These methods emphasized sustainability, using readily available plant and mineral elements without metal tools.^[13]

Modern Adaptations and Variations

Since the mid-20th century, mass-produced maracas have increasingly incorporated synthetic materials such as plastic and fiber for the bells, alongside leather or wooden bodies, enhancing durability and enabling widespread commercialization while departing from traditional gourd foundations.^[32] These modern iterations often feature wooden or plastic handles shaped on lathes for better grip, with noisemakers consisting of beads, metal pellets, shells, buttons, or plastic pellets to produce a consistent, bright sound less affected by environmental variations.^[32]^[33] Contemporary variations include both single and paired designs, with singles commonly used in ritual contexts and pairs standard for ensemble playing to create rhythmic contrast through differing sizes or fills.^[6] Ergonomic handles, often curved wooden grips, have become prevalent in professional models to reduce fatigue during extended use, as seen in brands like Latin Percussion's fiber maracas with steel-ball or plastic pellet fills for a projected, even tone.^[34] Specialized types encompass larger gourd-based maracas, typically strung with cowry shells, employed in Brazilian Candomblé ceremonies for invocation and energy cleansing.^[18] Compact or mini versions, around 4-6 inches long, are adapted for educational settings, including samba schools where they suit youth rehearsals and lighter percussion needs with crisp, mellow sounds from plastic shells.^[35]^[36] Plastic maracas are primarily manufactured via blow molding, where molten plastic is extruded into a mold, inflated with compressed air to form the hollow shell, and then sealed, allowing for efficient, uniform production.^[32] In contrast, artisan communities in Venezuela, such as those in Barquisimeto and Cúa, continue handcrafting professional-grade maracas from totumo gourds or calfskin, involving manual cutting, seed filling, and handle binding to preserve tonal authenticity for genres like joropo.^[37]^[38]

Playing Technique and Acoustics

Performance Methods

The basic technique for playing maracas involves holding one in each hand and shaking or rattling them through wrist motion to produce rhythmic sounds, typically in pairs to accentuate beats in musical ensembles.^[39]^[40] In some traditions, such as Cuban music, the right hand holds the higher-pitched "hembra" (female) maraca, while the left holds the lower-pitched "macho" (male) maraca, though conventions vary; the handles are gripped between the thumb and fingers to allow free vibration of the filled gourd or shell.^[39] This shaking motion, often a quick up-and-down or forward-backward gesture, generates a continuous rattle that serves as a foundational rhythm, such as in duple or triplet patterns at moderate tempos around 80 beats per minute.^[41] Advanced methods expand on this foundation, including rolling the maraca between the fingers for a softer, sustained roll or tapping it against the body—such as the hand, leg, or chest—to create varied accents and timbres.^[40]^[41] Other techniques involve synchronized patterns in ensembles, where players coordinate wrist swirls or flams (rapid grace-note strokes) to maintain ostinato rhythms that underpin group grooves, often at faster tempos of 190 beats per minute or higher.^[41]^[42] In Latin music, the maraca player is known as a "maraquero," responsible for providing steady ostinato patterns that lock in the ensemble's clave rhythm and drive the overall pulse.^[39]^[42] This role emphasizes precision and endurance, as the maraquero often performs continuously to support dancers and soloists without overpowering other instruments.^[41] Notable performers include Machito (Francisco Grillo), a pioneering maraquero in mambo and Afro-Cuban jazz who integrated maracas into big band arrangements during the 1940s and 1950s, and Monguito "El Único" (Ramón Quián), who showcased versatile maraca work in salsa ensembles of the 1960s and 1970s.^[43]^[44]

Sound Characteristics and Production

The maraca is classified under the Hornbostel–Sachs system as a shaken idiophone, specifically within category 112.1, encompassing instruments that produce sound through the agitation of internal elements.^[45] The primary mechanism of sound production involves the collision of internal fillers, such as dried seeds or beads, against the inner walls of the instrument's body when shaken, generating a characteristic rattling noise.^[13] This process creates broadband noise primarily in the high-frequency spectrum, contributing to the maraca's bright, percussive timbre that cuts through ensemble settings.^[46] Several factors influence the maraca's tone and timbre. The type of filler material plays a key role; for instance, harder fillers like pebbles produce a sharper, more brilliant sound, while softer ones such as seeds yield a gentler rattle.^[13] The resonance of the body material, often a dried gourd, amplifies and colors the sound, with harder gourds enhancing clarity and projection.^[13] Additionally, the intensity of shaking affects the volume and density of the noise, with faster or more vigorous motions increasing the rate of collisions and overall loudness.^[13] Acoustic analysis reveals that the shape and size of the gourd body contribute to subtle pitch variations. Smaller, narrower gourds tend to produce higher-pitched tones due to their compact resonance cavity, whereas larger ones generate deeper sounds through greater internal volume and lower resonant frequencies.^[13] These properties allow paired maracas of differing sizes to create tonal contrast in performance.^[47]

Cultural and Musical Role

Ceremonial and Indigenous Uses

In the Toré rituals practiced by the Tabajara people of northeastern Brazil, the maracá holds sacred status as an instrument essential for invoking and communicating with spiritual entities, marking the rhythm of dances and chants that facilitate trance states and spiritual connection.^[48] These ceremonies, rooted in indigenous self-affirmation, use the maracá's resonant sound to bridge the human and supernatural worlds, often led by a cacique or shaman during communal gatherings.^[49] Within Afro-Brazilian pajelança, a syncretic healing tradition in northern Brazil blending indigenous and African elements, the maracá serves as a key tool for summoning spirits during therapeutic rites aimed at exorcism, divination, and restoring balance to the afflicted.^[50] Similarly, in Andean curanderismo practices among healers in Peru and surrounding regions, maracas accompany rituals for healing and spiritual diagnosis, their shaking evoking protective energies and aiding in the expulsion of negative forces during ceremonies that integrate herbal medicine and prayer.^[51] The maracá's symbolism in these indigenous contexts emphasizes its ties to nature, with the gourd—derived from fruit—representing life's cyclical abundance and fertility, while its sound acts as a conduit for ancestral communication, echoing calls to forebears and the spirit realm in shamanic work.^[52] This dual role underscores the instrument's role as a living emblem of harmony between the earthly and ethereal. Contemporary indigenous ceremonies among Guarani communities in Brazil and Paraguay continue to feature the mbaraká (maraca), integral to shaman-led rites in the opy (prayer house) for invoking deities and achieving communal healing, as seen in altar setups adorned with feathered gourds.^[53] Likewise, Tupinambá-derived groups in Brazil maintain the maracá's use in modern rituals, such as those celebrating cultural repatriations, where its rattle accompanies chants to honor ancestry and assert ethnic continuity.^[54] These practices build on pre-Columbian foundations of ritual percussion for spiritual mediation.^[55]

Influence in Popular and Global Music

The maraca plays a pivotal role in Latin American music genres, providing a steady rhythmic foundation through its distinctive shaking patterns. In son cubano, an early 20th-century genre originating in eastern Cuba, maracas form part of the core instrumentation in sextetos, alongside the tres guitar, bongó, and claves, helping to drive the syncopated clave rhythm that defines the style.^[56] Similarly, in salsa, which evolved from son and other Cuban forms in New York during the mid-20th century, maracas are typically played by vocalists to reinforce the montuno sections and interlocking percussion layers.^[57] In mambo, maracas contribute to the genre's energetic pulse, as exemplified by their use in ensembles led by innovators like Pérez Prado, where they accentuate the tumbao bass lines and brass punctuations.^[58] By the 1930s, maracas had become integrated into key 20th-century ensembles, marking significant milestones in their musical dissemination. In Cuban rumba, particularly the guaguancó variant, maracas joined congas and claves in urban ensembles, adding textural depth to the genre's call-and-response structures amid the growing popularity of Afro-Cuban rhythms in Havana.^[6] Concurrently, in certain Brazilian samba styles such as samba de roda and choro, maracas enhanced polyrhythmic elements during regional musical developments.^[59] The maraca's global spread extended its influence beyond Latin America, particularly through fusions with international genres. In jazz, maracas were central to the pioneering Afro-Cuban jazz sound of Machito and His Afro-Cubans, formed in 1940 in New York, where bandleader Machito played them to blend son montunos with big band swing, influencing collaborations with Dizzy Gillespie and the birth of Latin jazz.^[43] This adoption carried into reggae and other genres, where shaker-like percussive accents layer rhythms, echoing African-derived traditions.^[60] In broader world music fusions, maracas appear in cross-cultural works, such as those combining Latin percussion with Indian or African elements, as seen in global jazz projects that emphasize rhythmic dialogue.^[6] In modern contexts, maracas continue to appear in pop and electronic music for their versatile percussive effects, often sampled or emulated to evoke exotic textures. Artists like Tito Puente, a timbalero and bandleader who popularized mambo and cha-cha-chá in the 1950s, frequently incorporated maracas into his recordings, such as in "Oye Cómo Va," which later influenced rock and pop covers by Santana, bridging Latin rhythms with mainstream appeal.^[61] In electronic productions, digital maracas or shaker emulations add organic grit to genres like house and trap latino, as in tracks by Bad Bunny that fuse reggaeton with sampled Latin percussion for global dance floors.^[62]

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By the time he arrived in the US from Cuba, Machito was already a seasoned sonero (vocal improviser) and a master “Maraquero” (maraca player) and had been part ...
[44]
Musical Instrument Classification (Sachs-Hornbostel System) (Part 1)
Jul 7, 2020 · The Sachs-Hornbostel musical instrument classification system is the most widely accepted system for classifying musical instruments ...
[45]
Recording Acoustic Instruments, Part 3 - Yamaha Music
Jul 6, 2022 · Hand percussion instruments such as shaker, maracas and tambourine create sounds consisting primarily of upper midrange and high-frequency ...
[46]
Maracas in Cumbia: Symphony of Rhythm and Tradition
Jun 15, 2023 · Dive into the unique role of Maracas in Cumbia, tracing their historical roots, construction, playing techniques, and the mastery of renowned players.Missing: maraquero | Show results with:maraquero
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[PDF] Back school and postural habits of women from the Tabajara ...
Jan 24, 2022 · The meeting started at 9:00 am with the Cacique of Tribe performing a ritual Toré dance. ... maraca, cassava and others. They were asked to ...
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Toré - Pesquisa Escolar
Mar 17, 2022 · The maracá—an Indigenous rattle usually made from a dried gourd, without the kernel, into which stones or seeds are placed—sets the tone, and ...
[49]
The music of sorcery in Brazil (Literary Conference) - SciELO
Among the Indians, the maracá is used systematically as an instrument of exorcism by the Caraibas in their curing ceremonies since they consider that sickness ...
[50]
[PDF] Towards culturally inclusive healthcare in Peru - Research journals
Jan 17, 2025 · using instruments like the maraca in ceremonies. Specific aromatic plant extracts or perfumes were described as part of healing rituals ...
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Episode CCCIX -309: The Sacred Gourd: From Myth to Totuma and ...
a musical instrument that echoes the womb, holding seeds: the matrix of life. Maracas ...
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The Guarani Altar: A Donation Tells a Deep Story | NMAI Magazine
1. Mbaraka: maracas made of gourds adorned with toucan feathers and cotton. · 2. Yvyra'i: thin rods or batons that are distributed to all male participants and ...
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Brazil Indigenous group hails a sacred cloak's homecoming after ...
Indigenous chants and the rattle of maracas resounded Thursday in a Rio de Janeiro park, where Brazil's Tupinambá people ...
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Tupinamba - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
Curing among the Tupinamba was primarily in the hands of shamans using the classic methods of sucking and blowing tobacco smoke over the body of the patient.Missing: Andean healing
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CUBAN MUSIC IN AMERICA
Maracas are a pair of gourds filled with seeds or similar material, and shaken to create rhythmic patterns. (Nowadays synthetic materals are also used.) Cuban ...
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Glossary - National Museum of American History
Its rhythmic foundations stem from Cuban music genres, such as son, mambo, and rumba. It also incorporates particular timbric approaches and other elements ...<|separator|>
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Mambo | Music 345: Race, Identity, and Representation in American ...
Oct 3, 2022 · He grew up singing and played the maracas from adolescence, and after moving to New York in the 1930's, Machito became a revolutionary figure ...
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Explore the Rich History of Maracas: A Comprehensive Guide
Dec 28, 2023 · The earliest known use of maracas dates back to the early 16th century, when they were used by indigenous people in what is now Peru and Ecuador ...
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https://drumpercussioncenter.com/percussion-instruments/maracas-history/
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A Guide to Latin Music Genres | Carnegie Hall
Oct 9, 2024 · With its roots in Cuban danzón and mambo, cha-cha-cha has been popularized by artists like Tito Puente, Enrique Jorrín, and Orquesta Aragón. On ...
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Everything You Need to Know About Maracas - Drum Percussion
Dec 17, 2023 · Modern maracas are made from a variety of materials, including plastic, wood, and metal. They are typically larger than traditional maracas and ...Missing: adaptations variations synthetic