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Mating call

A mating call, also known as an advertisement call, is an auditory signal produced by animals, primarily males, to attract potential mates by conveying information about the caller's species identity, sex, location, and quality as a reproductive partner.^[1] These vocalizations vary in complexity, duration, frequency, and amplitude to optimize transmission through specific environments, ensuring effective mate attraction while minimizing predation risks.^[1] Mating calls are a key component of sexual selection, functioning as honest indicators of genetic fitness and health, and they play a crucial role in species recognition to prevent hybridization.^[2] In amphibians, particularly frogs and toads, mating calls are among the most studied examples, where males gather in choruses during breeding seasons to produce species-specific vocalizations that draw females to water bodies for reproduction.^[3] For instance, male túngara frogs (Physalaemus pustulosus) emit calls featuring a low-frequency whine followed by optional high-frequency chucks, with females preferring complex calls that signal superior genetic quality.^[4] These calls not only facilitate mate attraction but also serve as isolating mechanisms, as variations in spectral features like pulse rate and dominant frequency enable females to distinguish conspecifics from closely related species.^[3] Among birds, mating calls manifest as elaborate songs, predominantly sung by males to defend territories and court females, with song complexity often correlating with mating success and offspring viability.^[5] In passerine species, such as songbirds, these vocalizations are learned during critical developmental periods and evolve under sexual selection pressures, where females assess traits like repertoire size and syllable diversity to choose high-quality mates.^[6] Bird songs also integrate multimodal elements, such as visual displays, enhancing overall courtship efficacy across diverse habitats.^[7] Mating calls extend to other taxa, including insects and mammals, where they adapt to ecological niches; for example, male crickets produce stridulatory chirps to attract females over short distances, while in mammals like mice, ultrasonic vocalizations during courtship signal reproductive readiness.^[8] Despite their adaptive value, mating calls can incur costs, such as increased energy expenditure and higher predation vulnerability, driving evolutionary refinements in signal design.^[9] Overall, these vocal signals underscore the interplay between communication, behavior, and evolution in animal reproductive strategies.^[5]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

A mating call is an auditory signal produced by animals, typically males, to attract mates, indicate reproductive readiness, or establish breeding territories during the mating season. These vocalizations function as a key component of courtship displays, which are behaviors aimed at facilitating attraction and eventual reproduction with the opposite sex. In the broader context of animal communication, mating calls alter the behavior of receivers in ways that benefit the sender or both parties, often serving as species-specific cues in noisy environments. The primary purposes of mating calls encompass mate attraction, species recognition to avoid interbreeding, and evaluation of potential partners' quality. For instance, call complexity can signal the caller's health, strength, or genetic fitness, enabling females to assess and select superior mates through sexual selection. This assessment is crucial for reproductive success, as more elaborate or vigorous calls correlate with higher viability traits in the signaler. Mating calls differ from other vocalizations, such as alarm calls that warn of predators or territorial calls focused on resource defense, by being predominantly shaped by sexual selection pressures, resulting in exaggerated features like prolonged duration or high amplitude for greater detectability. Charles Darwin discussed frog vocalizations as mechanisms of sexual selection in his 1871 book The Descent of Man.^[10] Contemporary insights into their adaptive roles developed within ethology after the 1950s, driven by foundational work from scientists like Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz, who integrated behavioral observations with evolutionary explanations.

Acoustic Characteristics

Mating calls are characterized by distinct acoustic properties that optimize signal transmission and reception in diverse environments. Key features include frequency range, duration, amplitude, and pulse rate. Frequency ranges typically span from low values, such as around 400 Hz to 5 kHz or more in amphibians for effective long-distance propagation in open or watery habitats, to higher values exceeding 10 kHz in insects, which suit short-range signaling in dense vegetation.^[11] Call duration varies from brief pulses lasting milliseconds to extended trills spanning seconds, influencing signal detectability and attractiveness. Amplitude, or sound pressure level, determines propagation distance, with higher amplitudes enabling calls to carry farther but potentially increasing energy costs. Pulse rate, the number of pulses per second, adds temporal patterning; faster rates often correlate with higher-quality signals in receiver preferences.^[12] These acoustic properties exhibit significant variation influenced by ecological and morphological factors. Habitat plays a critical role, as animals in noisy environments, such as urban or turbulent settings, often produce calls with elevated frequencies to minimize masking by ambient sounds and improve signal clarity.^[13] Body size imposes constraints via acoustic allometry, where larger individuals generate lower fundamental frequencies due to the scaling of vocal anatomy, such as longer vocal tracts or larger resonating structures.^[14] Sexual dimorphism further shapes calls, with males in species experiencing strong intrasexual competition typically exhibiting lower fundamental frequencies relative to females, enhancing perceived dominance and mate attraction.^[15] Signal design in mating calls incorporates structural elements like harmonics, trills, and choruses to promote species specificity while balancing communication efficacy against risks. Harmonics, integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, enrich the spectral complexity, allowing precise species discrimination by receivers. Trills, rapid repetitions of notes, convey vigor or genetic quality, often preferred in mate choice. Participation in choruses—synchronized group calling—amplifies collective signal strength for mate location and dilutes per capita predation risk by confusing eavesdropping predators.^[12]^[16] Researchers analyze these acoustic characteristics using spectrograms and oscillograms to dissect call structure. Spectrograms plot frequency against time, revealing harmonic content and modulation patterns, while oscillograms display waveform amplitude over time, highlighting pulse rates and durations. These visualizations, often generated via software like Raven or Praat, enable quantitative assessment of variation and evolutionary adaptations in call design.^[17]

Production Mechanisms

Vocal Production

Vocal production in tetrapod non-avian vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, primarily involves the generation of sound through the vibration of specialized structures in the vocal tract, driven by airflow from the respiratory system. In these groups, the larynx serves as the primary vocal organ, located at the cranial end of the airway. Here, vocal cords—elastic folds of tissue—vibrate as subglottal air pressure from the lungs forces air through the glottis, producing fundamental frequencies that are modulated by tension, length, and mass of the cords.^[18] This myoelastic aerodynamic mechanism relies on precise coordination between respiratory muscles and laryngeal innervation to control airflow and sound characteristics.^[19] Birds possess a unique vocal organ, the syrinx, situated at the caudal end of the trachea where it bifurcates into the bronchi, allowing for independent sound production from each side. Syringeal labia, membranous structures within the syrinx, vibrate under airflow from the lungs, enabling complex vocalizations such as duetting or biphonation, with frequencies ranging from low to high depending on labial tension and air pressure.^[20] Unlike the larynx, the syrinx's position upstream in the airway enhances efficiency by minimizing energy loss during sound propagation through the elongated avian trachea.^[18] Amplification of vocal output often involves accessory air sac systems, which store and recycle air to sustain prolonged calling. In amphibians, such as frogs, paired or single vocal sacs—expandable throat pouches—inflate via buccal pumping, a process where air is alternately drawn into the mouth and forced into the sacs from the lungs, preventing energy dissipation and enabling omnidirectional sound radiation.^[21] These sacs act as resonators, increasing call amplitude and allowing higher calling rates during choruses.^[21] In birds, the interclavicular air sac, part of the respiratory system, modulates sub-syringeal pressure during phonation; experimental rupture in species like starlings abolishes vocalization, underscoring its role in pressure buildup for louder calls.^[22] Neural control of vocal production is orchestrated by conserved brainstem circuits that integrate sensory inputs and motor outputs for precise timing. The nucleus retroambiguus (RAm) in the medulla coordinates laryngeal or syringeal muscles with respiratory patterns, projecting to motoneurons that drive airflow and vibration; lesions here disrupt call coordination across vertebrates.^[23] Hormonal modulation, particularly by testosterone, further regulates calling propensity in breeding males; elevated levels during reproductive seasons activate song control nuclei in birds, increasing motivation and stereotypy of vocal output, while castration reduces calling until hormone replacement restores it.^[24] Similar effects occur in amphibians and fish, where androgens trigger seasonal vocal displays.^[25] Vocal production imposes significant energy costs, approximately 8 times resting metabolic rates during intense calling bouts, due to the demands of sustained airflow and muscle contraction.^[26] This high metabolic expenditure creates trade-offs, such as reduced foraging time or increased predation risk, as seen in male anurans where prolonged chorusing correlates with weight loss and deferred feeding.^[27] In birds, louder songs require greater air sac pressure, amplifying these costs and potentially signaling male quality through honest advertisement of energetic investment.^[28]

Mechanical and Sonation Production

Mechanical sound production in animals involves the generation of acoustic signals through physical interactions of body parts, independent of respiratory airflow. This mechanism encompasses stridulation, where specialized structures such as a file-like ridge on one body part is rubbed against a scraper on another to produce sound, as seen in the wing covers of crickets that create rhythmic chirps during mating displays.^[29] Percussion, another form of mechanical production, occurs when body parts strike surfaces or each other, generating percussive sounds; for instance, certain birds use bill or foot impacts to produce drumming signals.^[29] Sonation refers to non-stridulatory mechanical sounds arising from wing flapping, body vibrations, or air displacement, typically during locomotion or flight, which can serve mating functions without dedicated rubbing mechanisms. Examples include ultrasonic courtship songs produced by rubbing specialized scales on the wings against the thorax in moths or the chirping tones produced by vibrating tail feathers in diving hummingbirds.^[30] Unlike vocal production, which relies on laryngeal or swim bladder vibrations driven by airflow, these methods generate sound purely through biomechanical actions.^[29] At the physiological level, mechanical and sonation production depend on precise muscle contractions to drive rapid movements of skeletal or cuticular elements. In beetles, for example, the clicking of elytra against the thorax involves a spring-loaded hinge in the prosternum that stores and releases elastic energy via thoracic muscles, producing sharp pulses.^[31] These contractions enable high-frequency oscillations without involving respiratory systems, allowing sustained signaling. A key advantage of mechanical and sonation production is the avoidance of oxygen depletion associated with airflow-dependent vocalization, making it particularly suitable for organisms in low-oxygen or aquatic environments. In fish, stridulation via pectoral fin rays rubbing against the shoulder girdle functions effectively.^[32] This energy-efficient approach supports prolonged calling in insects and deep-sea species without compromising respiratory capacity.

Mating Calls in Vertebrates

Birds

In birds, mating calls play a crucial role in courtship, facilitating mate attraction and pair formation across diverse species. These vocalizations vary widely, from the intricate songs of passerines to simpler calls in other orders, often integrated with visual displays to enhance signaling in aerial environments.^[33] Songbirds, particularly oscines within the passerine order, produce complex, learned songs primarily for mate attraction and territorial defense. These songs are culturally transmitted, with juveniles acquiring them through imitation of adult tutors, enabling regional dialects that reflect local adaptations. For instance, in species like the black redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros), males discriminate between local and foreign microdialects, supporting the hypothesis that local dialects signal origin and mate quality due to familiarity with the habitat.^[34] Similarly, Eastern and Spotted towhees (Pipilo erythrophthalmus and P. maculatus) exhibit geographic song variation, where dialects arise from cultural drift or ecological pressures, aiding in species recognition during courtship.^[35] In contrast, non-songbirds, such as grouse and bustards, rely on simpler, innate vocalizations for mating. Male greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) produce low-frequency "boom" calls by inflating yellow gular sacs and expelling air, creating explosive sounds audible over long distances to attract females on leks.^[36] Likewise, male houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata undulata) emit deep booms during courtship displays, with acoustic traits like frequency and duration conveying kinship and inbreeding status, allowing females to assess genetic quality.^[37] These calls are typically unlearned and less melodious than oscine songs, emphasizing endurance and physical condition over complexity. Some species, like ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), incorporate mechanical drumming—rapid wing beats producing low-frequency thumps—as a complementary signal in courtship, though primarily non-vocal.^[38] Females in many bird species exhibit preferences for specific song traits, often favoring longer, more varied vocalizations that indicate male cognitive and developmental quality. In European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), females preferentially select males with extended song bouts over shorter ones, associating length with vigor and repertoire size.^[39] Zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) and other songbirds show similar biases toward complex syntax and larger note repertoires, which correlate with early-life conditions and problem-solving abilities, signaling reliable cognitive traits for offspring viability.^[40] However, not all studies confirm a direct link to general cognition, as song preferences may primarily reflect developmental stability rather than broad intelligence.^[41] Mating calls in birds intensify seasonally, peaking during the breeding period under the influence of photoperiod and hormones. Longer day lengths in spring trigger rises in testosterone and estradiol, stimulating song production and neural plasticity in song control regions like the high vocal center (HVC) in species such as white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys).^[42] In European starlings, this hormonal surge shifts vocal output from short, gregarious winter calls to prolonged, stereotyped spring songs optimized for mate attraction, with dopamine modulating reward pathways to reinforce breeding motivation.^[33] These patterns ensure synchronization with optimal reproductive conditions, declining post-breeding as hormone levels drop.^[33]

Mammals

Mammals exhibit a wide array of mating calls adapted to diverse environments, ranging from terrestrial howls and barks to aquatic songs, often serving to attract mates, defend territories, and signal reproductive readiness.^[43] These vocalizations vary in complexity and production, influenced by habitat acoustics and social structures, with many species integrating calls into broader communication repertoires.^[44] In terrestrial mammals, howls in wolves (Canis lupus) function as long-distance signals for territory maintenance and mate attraction, particularly during the breeding season when reproductive hormones elevate howling frequency.^[45] Male and female wolves howl to coordinate pack activities and reinforce pair bonds, with calls carrying up to 10 miles depending on terrain.^[46] Similarly, in seals such as the Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus), males produce repetitive barks during mating behaviors to defend territories and indicate arousal levels, with bark rates increasing as excitement builds toward copulation.^[47] These barks, often in sequences, help territorial males compete for females on breeding colonies.^[48] Aquatic mammals like humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) produce elaborate songs consisting of repetitive phrases and themes, primarily by males during winter breeding seasons to attract potential mates.^[49] These songs evolve culturally over time, with all males in a population adopting and modifying the same structure annually, akin to learned traditions in other vocal learners.^[50] The songs propagate across populations, spreading from western to eastern breeding grounds through migration and social learning.^[51] Sexual dimorphism in mammalian vocalizations often manifests as males producing louder or deeper calls to exaggerate perceived body size and dominance during mate competition.^[52] In species with intense male rivalry, such as certain ungulates and carnivores, males lower their fundamental frequency beyond physiological norms to signal fitness.^[53] Bats, like the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis), overlap echolocation with ultrasonic mating calls, using high-frequency chirps, trills, and buzzes for courtship that females assess for quality.^[54] This dimorphism extends to amplitude, with males vocalizing more intensely to stand out in noisy environments.^[15] In group-living primates, mating calls facilitate social coordination during breeding, allowing individuals to signal availability and navigate hierarchies. For instance, female geladas (Theropithecus gelada) emit vocalizations tied to fertility that influence male responses in multi-male groups, integrating with visual and olfactory cues.^[55] In bonobos (Pan paniscus), copulation calls vary by social context, with louder emissions during matings involving high-ranking partners to advertise alliances and reduce aggression.^[56] These calls help synchronize breeding efforts within complex societies, minimizing conflicts over mates.^[57] Low-frequency components in such calls, like those in primate long-distance vocalizations, enhance transmission over distances in forested habitats.^[53]

Amphibians

In amphibians, particularly frogs and toads (Anura), mating calls primarily consist of advertisement calls produced by males during the breeding season to attract females and deter rival males. These calls are typically species-specific, featuring distinctive patterns such as trills in toads like Bufo species or peeps and chuckles in treefrogs like Hyla versicolor, which enable females to recognize conspecifics from a distance in noisy wetland environments.^[58] The calls serve a dual function: signaling male presence and quality to females while asserting territorial dominance, often escalating to aggressive calls if rivals approach closely.^[59] Males aggregate in choruses at breeding sites, such as ponds and swamps, where synchronous or alternating calling creates dynamic interactions that enhance overall signal propagation. In species like the túngara frog (Engystomops pustulosus), males synchronize calls with precise timing (average delay of 79 ms), which amplifies the collective acoustic signal across the habitat, making it more detectable to females while potentially confusing eavesdropping predators like bats by masking individual locations and reducing attack rates (0.53 attacks per night in synchronized vs. 1.93 in asynchronous choruses).^[60] This chorus behavior, observed in many anurans, balances mate attraction with predation risk, as denser aggregations can overwhelm predator localization abilities through acoustic interference.^[61] Call characteristics exhibit significant variation influenced by environmental and genetic factors, aiding in species discrimination. Call rate, including pulse repetition, increases with rising temperature, as seen in gray treefrogs (Hyla versicolor), where rates rise from about 15 pulses per second at 15°C to about 26 at 25°C, reflecting physiological adjustments to metabolic rate without altering spectral properties like dominant frequency.^[62] In hybrid zones, such as between Hyla versicolor and Hyla chrysoscelis, F1 hybrid males produce intermediate calls with pulse rates around 24 pulses/s (vs. ~19 for H. versicolor and ~38 for H. chrysoscelis at 21°C), which are less preferred by pure-species females and contribute to reproductive isolation.^[63] Females exert strong selective pressure through preferences for calls indicating male vigor and stamina, often prioritizing temporal traits that reflect energetic investment. In gray treefrogs, females prefer longer call durations (up to 2-3 seconds per call), which demand sustained oxygen uptake and correlate with higher aerobic capacity, signaling a male's ability to endure prolonged chorusing and sire fitter offspring with faster feeding rates. Similarly, in emerald treefrogs (Zhangixalus prasinatus), choice for lower dominant frequencies (around 1300 Hz) favors larger, more robust males whose calls imply greater stamina for lek attendance, directly boosting mating success in competitive choruses.^[64] These preferences underscore how acoustic vigor serves as an honest indicator of male condition in amphibian mate selection.

Fish

In fish, mating calls are primarily produced through mechanical vibration of the swim bladder, a gas-filled organ that acts as a resonant chamber to amplify low-frequency sounds underwater. Specialized sonic muscles attached to the swim bladder contract rapidly, causing it to vibrate and generate pulsed or tonal sounds such as grunts, knocks, or hums that propagate efficiently through water via particle motion rather than pressure waves.^[65] This drumming mechanism is prevalent in teleost species, where the swim bladder's vibration frequencies typically range from 50 to 500 Hz, optimized for short-range communication during courtship and territorial defense.^[66] A classic example is the oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau), which uses fast-contracting sonic muscles to drum the swim bladder, producing characteristic "boatwhistles" or grunts lasting 100–600 ms at around 200–300 Hz to attract females to nesting sites. These calls, emitted by males guarding burrows, consist of 1–7 pulses and can reach sound pressure levels of up to 120 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m, facilitating mate location in murky coastal waters.^[67] Similarly, the plainfin midshipman (Porichthys notatus) employs swim bladder vibrations to generate prolonged hums (up to 1 hour) or shorter croaks and grunts, with type I males producing low-frequency tones (80–120 Hz) from their nests to lure females during nocturnal spawning. These croak-like grunts, resembling frog calls, serve as aggressive or courtship signals and are modulated by superfast muscle fibers that enable sustained output without fatigue.^[68] In damselfishes (family Pomacentridae), such as Dascyllus albisella, males produce series of short pulses (2–16 per call, 5–50 ms duration) via swim bladder contraction to advertise nests and guard eggs, with pulse rates increasing during female approaches to synchronize spawning. These tonal pulses, often in the 200–1000 Hz range, help maintain pair bonds and deter intruders in reef environments.^[69] Fish detect these mating calls through otolith organs in the inner ear, where dense calcium carbonate structures (sagitta, lapillus, and asteriscus) lag behind the surrounding tissue during acoustic particle motion, stimulating sensory hair cells to transduce vibrations into neural signals. Unlike pressure-sensitive hearing in air-breathing vertebrates, this system is highly attuned to near-field particle displacement in water, allowing localization of sound sources within meters and discrimination of call nuances for species recognition. The saccule, the most sensitive otolith organ, extends hearing sensitivity up to 1000–2000 Hz in sonic species, enabling females to evaluate male call quality as an indicator of fitness.^[70] Environmental factors, particularly depth and hydrostatic pressure, influence fish mating call characteristics to optimize propagation. In deeper waters (>100 m), where pressure compresses the swim bladder and increases sound absorption, calls tend to be shorter in duration (often <100 ms) and lower in frequency (<100 Hz) to minimize energy loss and enhance transmission over distance, as low frequencies attenuate less rapidly than high ones in stratified ocean layers. For instance, deep-water sciaenids adapt pulse trains to these conditions, reducing call complexity to counter pressure-induced resonance shifts in the swim bladder.^[71]

Mating Calls in Invertebrates

Insects

In insects, mating calls are predominantly produced through stridulation, a mechanical process where specialized body parts are rubbed together to generate sound vibrations that serve as courtship signals, particularly in nocturnal environments. This is common in orders such as Orthoptera, including crickets and bushcrickets, where males use these calls to attract females over distances. Stridulatory organs typically involve the forewings or legs; for instance, in crickets like Gryllus species, males rub a file on one forewing against a scraper on the other, producing chirps characterized by specific pulse rates, often measured in pulses per second to distinguish species-specific patterns.^[72]^[73] A key feature of insect mating calls is acoustic duetting, where males initiate with loud calls and females respond with softer, shorter sounds to synchronize and guide the male toward her location. In bushcrickets of the Phaneropterinae subfamily, such as Phaneroptera nana, the female's reply is a brief "tick" that precisely times with the male's song, facilitating mutual orientation during courtship. This interaction enhances mate location efficiency in dense vegetation, with response latencies as short as 50 milliseconds in some species.^[74]^[75]^[76] Insect mating calls often integrate with pheromones, where acoustic signals first draw potential mates closer, allowing chemical cues to take over for species recognition and final acceptance. In field crickets, the calling song directs females to the male, after which cuticular hydrocarbons acting as pheromones confirm compatibility and trigger mounting behavior. This multimodal approach reduces energy expenditure on prolonged calling while minimizing errors in mate choice.^[77] Despite their adaptive value, insect mating calls carry significant predation risks, as they can attract parasitoids and predators that eavesdrop on these signals. To mitigate this, some species evolve high-pitched calls that exploit sensory biases in predators, mimicking non-threatening or irrelevant sounds; for example, male lebinthine crickets produce ultrasonic frequencies that exploit females' anti-predator startle responses to bat echolocation, enabling mate location through substrate vibrations while potentially increasing vulnerability to bat predation. In Hawaiian field crickets like Teleogryllus oceanicus, flatwing mutants with silent wings evade parasitoid flies that target loud calls, illustrating the selective pressure on acoustic signaling.^[78]^[79]

Other Invertebrates

In non-insect invertebrates, mating calls are comparatively rare and typically manifest as substrate-borne vibrations rather than complex airborne sounds, reflecting adaptations to environments where tactile signaling predominates. These signals are often simple, low-frequency pulses transmitted through webs, soil, or water substrates to convey mate location and receptivity over short ranges, minimizing energy expenditure in species with limited acoustic apparatus.^[80] Arachnids, particularly spiders, exemplify this vibratory communication, where males generate signals via mechanical actions such as drumming with pedipalps or legs to attract females and initiate courtship. In wolf spiders (Lycosidae), males produce rhythmic vibrations through body tremors or leg taps on the substrate, which females detect using sensitive mechanoreceptors to assess male quality and reduce predation risk during approach. Similarly, jumping spiders like the peacock spider Maratus volans employ opisthosomal bobbing—abdominal oscillations creating distinct patterns such as short "rumble-rumps" (lasting about 2.4 seconds) at a distance and prolonged "grind-revs" (up to 39 seconds) during close-range pre-mount displays—to signal intent, often integrated with visual cues for multimodal attraction. These substrate-transmitted signals, with frequencies below 1 kHz, are crucial for species recognition in over 40,000 spider species, where airborne sounds are absent.^[81]^[80] Among mollusks, acoustic mating signals are even less prevalent, with cephalopods occasionally producing low-frequency sounds generated during siphon expulsion, though these are primarily byproducts of locomotion or defense rather than dedicated attraction mechanisms. In octopuses, mating relies predominantly on visual patterns, tactile exploration, and chemical cues from suckers.^[82]

Evolutionary Significance

Mate Selection and Attraction

Mating calls play a central role in sexual selection by enabling females to discriminate among potential mates based on acoustic cues that signal genetic quality and viability. Females often exhibit preferences for calls with symmetric pulse intervals, as deviations from symmetry can indicate developmental instability or reduced genetic health, serving as an honest indicator of male fitness. For instance, in crickets, females preferentially approach symmetric calling songs over those with frequency modulation asymmetry, which correlates with forewing imperfections and lower phenotypic quality. Similarly, preferences for higher call repetition rates over dominant frequency demonstrate female selectivity for traits linked to energetic investment and competitive ability, with females willing to travel greater distances in response to elevated rates in playback experiments.^[83]^[84] Male-male rivalry intensifies through contests over call intensity and duration, where louder or more persistent calls deter competitors and enhance access to females. Males adjust call amplitude to maintain acoustic spacing, reducing overlap with rivals and optimizing signal propagation while minimizing energy expenditure and predation risk. In chorusing species, endurance rivalry—prolonged calling effort—positively correlates with mating success, as males with greater stamina occupy leks longer and produce lower dominant frequency calls indicative of larger body size, which females favor in choice tests. This competitive signaling escalates in high-density aggregations, where call intensity contributes to territorial dominance.^[85]^[86] Honest signaling in mating calls ensures reliability, as acoustic traits reflect the sender's physiological condition and cannot be easily faked due to their high metabolic costs. Parasite load, for example, inversely affects calling rate; infected males produce less frequent calls, signaling poorer health to discerning females. In treefrogs, higher parasite intensity reduces call rates, particularly in smaller males, positioning calling effort as a costly indicator of immunocompetence and overall viability. Experimental playback studies in birds, for example, show females increase vocal responses to high-quality songs with greater consistency, while habituating to repeated or less varied signals.^[87]^[88]

Role in Speciation

Differences in mating calls can promote speciation by contributing to prezygotic reproductive isolation, where divergent acoustic signals reduce interbreeding between populations, thereby facilitating the formation of distinct species. In many acoustically signaling animals, such as frogs and insects, variations in call parameters like frequency, duration, and pulse rate evolve to enhance species recognition, preventing hybridization and allowing genetic divergence to accumulate over time. This process is particularly evident in environments where gene flow is limited, leading to the establishment of barriers that solidify species boundaries.^[89]^[90] Allopatric divergence occurs when geographically separated populations experience genetic drift or local adaptation in mating calls, resulting in signal differences that prevent successful remixing upon secondary contact. For instance, in anuran amphibians, isolated populations often develop distinct call structures due to neutral evolution or selection pressures from different acoustic environments, such as varying habitat noise levels, which can lead to assortative mating and reduced hybrid production if populations later overlap. This divergence acts as an incidental barrier to gene flow, promoting speciation without direct selection for isolation.^[89]^[90] Reinforcement strengthens reproductive isolation in sympatric populations where hybridization is costly, selecting for enhanced discrimination against hybrid or heterospecific calls to avoid maladaptive matings. In chorus frogs, for example, sympatric populations exhibit greater divergence in mating call traits compared to allopatric ones, as natural selection favors individuals that preferentially respond to conspecific signals, reducing hybridization rates and reinforcing species boundaries—as evidenced by recent neurogenomic studies showing differential gene expression in reinforced populations (as of 2021). This process, known as reproductive character displacement, amplifies call differences and has been documented in multiple taxa, including insects and amphibians, where it accelerates speciation by stabilizing prezygotic barriers.^[91]^[92] The genetic basis of mating calls involves heritable traits that link signal production and female preferences, enabling assortative mating to drive speciation. Studies in crickets reveal that genes controlling call characteristics, such as pulse rate, are often pleiotropic, influencing both male signaling and female auditory tuning, which promotes coordinated evolution and reduces interspecific mating. This genetic coupling ensures that variations in calls are transmitted across generations, strengthening reproductive isolation as populations diverge.^[93]^[94] Theoretical models, including extensions of the Dobzhansky-Muller framework, explain how incompatibilities in acoustic signaling genes amplify speciation by creating mismatches between diverged signals and receiver preferences. In this model, alleles evolving independently in separate lineages interact negatively in hybrids, leading to ineffective communication that reinforces isolation, particularly when combined with postzygotic fitness costs. Such incompatibilities in acoustic traits highlight how neutral divergence in allopatry can evolve into strong barriers upon contact, underscoring the role of mating calls in hybrid dysfunction.^[95]

Case Studies in Speciation

Microhyla Species Pair

The Microhyla olivacea–M. carolinensis species pair consists of two closely related narrow-mouthed frogs whose ranges overlap in the southeastern United States, particularly in eastern Texas and Louisiana, where sympatric populations interact in shared breeding habitats. These species, now classified under the genus Gastrophryne but historically studied as Microhyla, exhibit morphological similarities but distinct behavioral traits that maintain separation. Molecular phylogenetic analyses indicate that the divergence between G. olivacea and G. carolinensis occurred during the Pleistocene, providing time for acoustic traits to evolve as barriers to gene flow.^[96] Mating calls in these species differ primarily in pulse rate and dominant frequency, serving as key premating isolation mechanisms. The call of G. olivacea features a slower pulse rate (averaging 40–50 pulses per second) and lower dominant frequency (around 1,800–2,200 Hz), resulting in a longer overall call duration compared to G. carolinensis, which produces faster pulses (60–80 per second) and higher frequencies (2,500–3,000 Hz) for shorter calls. These acoustic disparities reduce the likelihood of cross-species attraction, as females preferentially respond to conspecific call parameters, thereby preventing interbreeding in overlapping areas. In sympatric zones, reinforcement has amplified these differences, with G. carolinensis calls showing elevated dominant frequencies relative to allopatric populations, a pattern of reproductive character displacement.^[97] Evidence from hybrid zones in Texas and Louisiana demonstrates the role of these call differences in speciation. Presumed hybrids display intermediate call traits, such as pulse rates and durations midway between parental forms, confirming hybridization occurs but at low rates due to behavioral isolation. Genetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear markers reveal limited gene flow across the contact zone, with reinforcement strengthening prezygotic barriers to avoid maladaptive hybrids, which exhibit reduced viability. Analyses of call recordings from multiple sites show no overlap in dominant frequency between species across temperature ranges, underscoring acoustic reinforcement as a primary isolating mechanism.^[97]^[96] This species pair exemplifies acoustic reinforcement in speciation, where selection against hybrids in humid, subtropical environments of the American Southeast has refined mating calls to enhance species recognition and reproductive isolation. The observed character displacement in sympatry highlights how vocal signals can drive divergence even after secondary contact, providing a model for understanding sympatric and parapatric speciation in anurans.^[98]

Engystomops petersi Complex

The Engystomops petersi complex comprises Amazonian foam-nesting frogs in the genus Engystomops, characterized by rapid speciation driven primarily by divergence in male mating calls and female preferences, leading to behavioral isolation among populations.^[99] These small, nocturnal anurans inhabit lowland rainforests across Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, where males aggregate at temporary ponds during the rainy season to produce advertisement calls for attracting females.^[100] The complex includes at least three cryptic species—Engystomops petersi, E. "magnus" (Clade A), and E. "selva" (Clade D)—that overlap in sympatry at sites like Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, with genetic divergence among clades estimated at 6–16 million years ago based on mitochondrial DNA phylogenies.^[101] Despite this deeper history, acoustic and behavioral traits suggest more recent reinforcement of isolation, consistent with sexual selection accelerating speciation in this radiation.^[99] Mating calls in the complex exhibit pronounced divergence in structure and spectral properties, serving as key premating barriers. Males typically produce a downward frequency-modulated "whine" component, but variation occurs in the addition of preceding clicks (0–several syllables) and a trailing "squawk" or buzz-like element, with whine dominant frequencies ranging from approximately 436 Hz in complex-call populations to 742 Hz in simple-call ones.^[99] For instance, E. petersi and E. "magnus" share similar spectral profiles with multi-syllable calls, while E. "selva" differs in syllable number and higher-frequency emphasis, reducing cross-attraction.^[100] Phonotaxis experiments demonstrate strong female preference for conspecific calls, with nonlocal signals eliciting significantly lower response rates (e.g., <20% phonotaxis to divergent calls versus >80% to local ones), indicating that sexual selection on call traits has generated reproductive isolation without corresponding morphological or ecological divergence.^[99] Coalescent analyses of microsatellite and mtDNA data reject neutral drift as the driver, instead supporting divergent selection via female choice as the mechanism for waveform innovation.^[99] Hybridization is rare in sympatric zones due to call-based premating isolation, though not entirely absent, highlighting incomplete barriers in this young complex. In Yasuní, only 14.3% of observed wild amplexus pairs (4 out of 28) were heterospecific, involving E. petersi with E. "magnus" or E. "selva," often at sites with acoustic overlap.^[100] Gene flow between simple- and complex-call populations is 30 times lower than within types (Nm = 0.04 versus 1.19), with no hybrids detected via genetic markers in some pairwise comparisons.^[99] Post-mating isolation further limits introgression, as heterospecific crosses show asymmetric reductions in fertilization success (e.g., 50–70% lower in E. petersi × E. "magnus") and altered larval development, though hybrid viability remains high.^[100] Studies from the 2000s onward have elucidated these patterns through integrated phylogenetics and bioacoustics. Early work used mtDNA sequences and allozymes to reveal polyphyletic call types across 10 populations, estimating low gene flow and multiple independent origins of complex calls.^[99] Acoustic recordings and playback trials confirmed female-driven reinforcement, with call divergence correlating to geographic distance but exceeding neutral expectations. Later research in the 2010s incorporated multilocus data and field observations of amplexus, verifying cryptic diversity and quantifying isolation stages in sympatry.^[101]^[100] These findings underscore the E. petersi complex as a model for sympatric speciation via sensory drive in tropical amphibians.^[99]

Pseudacris triseriata Group

The Pseudacris triseriata group consists of small treefrogs in the family Hylidae, distributed across much of North America from southern Canada through the central and western United States to northern Mexico. These chorus frogs were historically treated as a single polytypic species with four subspecies—P. t. triseriata, P. t. maculata, P. t. feriarum, and P. t. kalmi—exhibiting clinal variation in morphological traits such as body size and stripe patterns, as well as in acoustic signals, which gradually change across latitudinal and longitudinal gradients. This clinal pattern, observed in populations separated by geographic barriers like the Great Plains, contributed to taxonomic revisions elevating the subspecies to full species status based on consistent differences in genetics, morphology, and behavior.^[102]^[103] Mating calls within the group serve as primary advertisement signals during breeding choruses, typically consisting of a series of pulsed trills produced by males to attract females. Key variations include differences in call rate (calls per minute) and pulse rate (pulses per second), with western taxa like P. triseriata exhibiting higher pulse rates (around 100–120 pulses/s at 20°C) compared to eastern P. maculata (70–90 pulses/s under similar conditions), reflecting adaptations to regional climates and habitats. These calls also demonstrate temperature sensitivity, where rising temperatures increase overall call rate while reducing the number of pulses per call and shortening call duration, allowing females to assess male quality and environmental cues for synchronization. Such acoustic divergences enhance species recognition in heterogeneous breeding ponds.^[104]^[105] Speciation in the P. triseriata group likely arose through allopatric processes during Pleistocene glacial cycles, when populations were isolated in refugia south of the ice sheets, leading to genetic and acoustic divergence. Upon post-glacial range expansions and secondary contacts—such as in the Midwest between P. triseriata and P. maculata—mismatches in call traits act as prezygotic barriers, with females showing strong preferences for conspecific pulses and rates, thereby limiting interbreeding. This reinforcement of isolation prevents gene flow despite overlapping habitats.^[106]^[103] Long-term field monitoring in contact zones, including morphometric sampling and playback experiments across multiple breeding seasons, has revealed reduced hybridization rates, often below 5% in sympatric populations, attributed to call-based assortative mating. For instance, analyses of call recordings from hybrid zones demonstrate discrete acoustic clusters aligning with parental forms, with minimal introgression supporting the stability of species boundaries over decades.^[106]^[107]

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