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Airflow

Airflow, or air flow, refers to the movement of air relative to a surface or through a space, particularly the motion of air molecules driven by differences in pressure, temperature, or velocity.^[1] It is a fundamental concept in fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, and engineering, where it describes how air interacts with objects, structures, and systems.^[2] In practical terms, airflow is quantified as the volume of air passing through a given area per unit time, often measured in cubic feet per minute (cfm) or cubic meters per second (m³/s).^[3] Key principles include laminar and turbulent flow types, influenced by factors such as viscosity, speed, and geometry, with applications spanning aviation, HVAC systems, industrial processes, and building ventilation.^[4]

Basic Concepts

Definition and Principles

Airflow refers to the bulk movement of air molecules as a gas, driven primarily by gradients in pressure, temperature, or velocity that create imbalances prompting flow from higher to lower potential regions.^[5]^[6] Central principles governing airflow derive from fluid dynamics, notably Bernoulli's principle and the continuity equation. Bernoulli's principle describes the conservation of energy in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow along a streamline, stating that the total mechanical energy remains constant:

P + \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho g h = \text{constant}

where P is static pressure, \rho is fluid density, v is flow velocity, g is gravitational acceleration, and h is elevation above a reference plane.^[7] This relation, first articulated by Daniel Bernoulli in his 1738 treatise Hydrodynamica, illustrates how increases in velocity correspond to decreases in pressure, a key factor in aerodynamic effects like lift.^[8] Complementing this, the continuity equation enforces mass conservation for incompressible flow, asserting that the volumetric flow rate is constant across varying cross-sections:

A_1 v_1 = A_2 v_2

where A denotes cross-sectional area and v velocity at points 1 and 2; this principle holds for low-speed airflow where density variations are negligible.^[9] The foundational understanding of airflow emerged from early fluid dynamics research, including Daniel Bernoulli's 1738 exploration of pressure-velocity relationships in Hydrodynamica and Osborne Reynolds' 1883 experimental investigation into transitional flow regimes in pipes, which introduced the dimensionless Reynolds number to delineate flow behaviors.^[10] These works established the theoretical framework for analyzing air motion, influencing later distinctions between steady laminar flows and chaotic turbulent ones as manifestations of these principles.^[11] As a specialized case within fluid dynamics, airflow pertains to the motion of air—a compressible gas—typically under near-atmospheric conditions where approximations like incompressibility simplify analysis for subsonic speeds below Mach 0.3.^[6]

Types of Airflow

Airflow in fluid dynamics is classified into distinct types based on its behavioral characteristics, primarily determined by factors such as velocity, viscosity, and density variations. These classifications help predict flow patterns and their implications in engineering applications, from aerodynamics to HVAC systems. The primary categories include laminar and turbulent flows, which depend on the balance between inertial and viscous forces, as well as compressible versus incompressible flows influenced by speed relative to the speed of sound, and steady versus unsteady flows based on temporal variations.^[6] Laminar airflow is characterized by smooth, orderly motion where fluid particles follow parallel streamlines with minimal mixing between layers. This regime occurs when viscous forces dominate over inertial forces, resulting in predictable, layered flow suitable for applications requiring precision, such as in cleanroom ventilation or low-speed wind tunnels. Identification relies on the Reynolds number, defined as Re = \frac{\rho v d}{\mu}, where \rho is fluid density, v is velocity, d is a characteristic length like pipe diameter, and \mu is dynamic viscosity; laminar flow typically prevails for Re < 2000.^[6]^[13] In contrast, turbulent airflow exhibits chaotic, irregular motion with the formation of eddies and vortices that promote rapid mixing and enhanced momentum transfer. This type is prevalent in most practical scenarios, such as atmospheric winds or high-speed aircraft wakes, where inertial forces overwhelm viscosity, leading to stochastic behavior that often requires statistical modeling for analysis. Turbulent flow is identified when Re > 4000, with a transitional regime occurring between $2000 < Re < 4000 where flow intermittently shifts between laminar and turbulent states.^[6]^[14] Airflow is further categorized as compressible or incompressible based on whether density remains constant or varies significantly. Incompressible airflow assumes constant density, simplifying calculations and applying to low-speed scenarios where pressure changes do not substantially affect volume, such as in room ventilation systems. This approximation holds for air when the Mach number M = \frac{v}{a} (with a as the speed of sound) is less than 0.3, corresponding to velocities below about 100 m/s at standard conditions. Compressible airflow, however, accounts for density variations due to high-speed compression or expansion effects, critical in supersonic applications like jet engines, and becomes relevant when M > 0.3, where density changes exceed 5%.^[15]^[6] Steady airflow maintains constant properties—such as velocity and pressure—at any given point over time, enabling straightforward analytical solutions in systems like constant-speed fans. Unsteady airflow, by contrast, involves time-varying properties, often arising from external disturbances like gusts in aviation or pulsating pumps in industrial setups, which introduce complexities such as wave propagation or oscillatory patterns. These temporal distinctions are fundamental in fluid dynamics, where viscosity plays a key role in determining flow stability across regimes.^[6]

Quantification

Units of Airflow

Airflow is quantified primarily through volumetric flow rate, which measures the volume of air passing through a given area per unit time. In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit is cubic meters per second (m³/s), while liters per second (L/s) is commonly used for smaller scales. In imperial and U.S. customary systems, cubic feet per minute (CFM) is prevalent, especially in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) applications. Conversions between these units are essential for international consistency; for example, 1 CFM is approximately equal to 0.4719 L/s.^[16] Mass flow rate, which accounts for the mass of air moved per unit time, is related to volumetric flow rate by the equation \dot{m} = \rho Q, where \dot{m} is the mass flow rate, \rho is the air density, and Q is the volumetric flow rate. The SI unit for mass flow rate is kilograms per second (kg/s), suitable for precise engineering calculations. In imperial units, pounds per hour (lb/h) is frequently employed, particularly in industrial airflow contexts where density variations are significant. This relation highlights how changes in air density—due to temperature or pressure—affect mass flow independently of volume.^[17] Air velocity, the speed of airflow through a cross-section, uses meters per second (m/s) in SI and feet per minute (ft/min) in imperial systems, with ft/min common in ductwork design. Normalization of these measurements often occurs under standard conditions of 20°C and 1 atm to ensure comparable density assumptions across environments. Common anemometers output velocity in these units to derive flow rates.^[18]^[19] The preference for SI units over imperial systems in modern engineering reflects a historical shift following the 1960 adoption of the International System of Units by the General Conference on Weights and Measures, with widespread implementation in technical standards accelerating in the 1970s through initiatives like the U.S. Metric Conversion Act of 1975.^[20] This transition promoted global interoperability in airflow quantification, though imperial units persist in regions like the United States for legacy HVAC systems.

Measurement Techniques

Anemometers are fundamental instruments for directly measuring air velocity in various flow regimes. Hot-wire anemometers operate on the principle of convective heat transfer from a thin, electrically heated wire exposed to the airflow; the cooling effect is proportional to the flow velocity, as described by King's law, which relates the Nusselt number (Nu) to the Reynolds number (Re) through the empirical equation:

\mathrm{Nu} = A + B \mathrm{Re}^{0.5}

where A and B are constants determined by calibration.^[21] Vane anemometers, in contrast, utilize a rotating vane or propeller whose rotational speed is directly proportional to the airflow velocity impinging on its blades, making them suitable for higher-speed, directional measurements.^[22] Ultrasonic anemometers employ pairs of transducers to emit and receive sound pulses across the flow path; the time-of-flight difference between upstream and downstream propagation yields velocity components without moving parts, enabling three-dimensional vector measurements.^[23] These devices typically output velocities in units such as meters per second (m/s). Pitot tubes provide a robust method for quantifying airflow by sensing the difference between total (stagnation) pressure and static pressure. The total pressure port faces the flow to capture dynamic effects, while static ports measure ambient pressure perpendicular to the streamlines; the resulting dynamic pressure ΔP is used to compute velocity via Bernoulli's principle:

v = \sqrt{\frac{2 \Delta P}{\rho}}

where ρ is the fluid density.^[24] For low-flow applications, where pressure differentials are small, manometers—such as U-tube or inclined types filled with liquid—offer high sensitivity to detect minute ΔP values, often achieving resolutions down to 0.1 mm of water column.^[25] Flow visualization techniques complement quantitative measurements by mapping airflow patterns qualitatively or semi-quantitatively. Smoke trails involve injecting neutrally buoyant smoke into the flow field, where streamlines become visible as illuminated paths, particularly useful in wind tunnels for observing laminar-to-turbulent transitions or vortex formation.^[26] Particle image velocimetry (PIV) advances this by seeding the airflow with micron-sized tracer particles illuminated by laser sheets; high-speed cameras capture particle displacements between double exposures, enabling instantaneous velocity field reconstruction via cross-correlation algorithms, with applications in complex indoor airflow studies.^[27] Accurate airflow measurement requires rigorous calibration to ensure traceability and minimize errors. The ISO 5167 standard specifies geometries, installation conditions, and discharge coefficient calculations for orifice plates used in differential pressure-based flow metering, allowing uncalibrated installations with uncertainties as low as ±1% under ideal conditions. For turbine meters, which infer flow from rotor speed, typical accuracies reach ±2% of reading across a broad range, contingent on proper calibration against reference standards to account for bearing friction and fluid properties.^[28]

Modeling and Analysis

Simulation Methods

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) serves as a primary computational technique for predicting and visualizing airflow behavior in complex geometries and transient conditions. It involves numerically solving the governing equations of fluid motion, particularly the Navier-Stokes equations, which describe the conservation of momentum, mass, and energy. For incompressible airflow, the momentum equation is expressed as:

\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t} + \mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u} = -\frac{\nabla P}{\rho} + \nu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} + \mathbf{f}

where \mathbf{u} is the velocity vector, P is pressure, \rho is density, \nu is kinematic viscosity, and \mathbf{f} represents body forces.^[29] These partial differential equations are discretized and solved iteratively on a computational grid, enabling simulations of airflow patterns such as those in ventilation systems or over aerodynamic surfaces. The finite volume method is widely employed in CFD for airflow, as it conserves quantities like mass and momentum over discrete control volumes by integrating the equations across cell faces, making it suitable for unstructured meshes in irregular domains.^[30] Turbulence modeling is essential in CFD simulations of airflow, given the prevalence of turbulent regimes in practical applications. The k-ε model, a Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach, solves two transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy k and its dissipation rate \epsilon to estimate eddy viscosity, providing computationally efficient predictions of mean airflow characteristics. Introduced by Launder and Spalding, this model performs well for free-stream flows but requires wall functions for near-wall regions.^[31] In contrast, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) resolves large-scale turbulent eddies directly while modeling subgrid-scale effects, often using the Smagorinsky model to compute subgrid viscosity based on the grid-filtered strain rate. LES offers higher fidelity for unsteady airflow features like vortex shedding but demands finer grid resolutions, typically requiring at least 8-16 points per Kolmogorov length scale in isotropic turbulence or \Delta x^+ \approx 50-100, \Delta y^+ \approx 1, and \Delta z^+ \approx 15-20 near walls for wall-bounded flows.^[32]^[33] Popular software tools for airflow CFD include ANSYS Fluent and OpenFOAM, both supporting finite volume discretization and various turbulence models. ANSYS Fluent excels in user-friendly interfaces for industrial airflow simulations, such as buoyancy-driven flows in buildings, with validations showing agreement within 10-15% of experimental velocity profiles. OpenFOAM, an open-source alternative, enables customizable solvers for complex airflow cases like particle-laden flows, achieving comparable accuracy to Fluent when validated against benchmarks, though it may require more setup for parallel processing. Simulations from both tools are routinely validated against experimental data to ensure reliability.^[34]^[35] Since the 2000s, advances in GPU-accelerated computing have transformed airflow simulations, enabling real-time LES in complex geometries by leveraging parallel processing for matrix operations in Navier-Stokes solvers. For instance, GPU implementations can achieve speedups of 10-100x over CPU-based methods for large-scale airflow LES, facilitating applications like urban wind flow predictions with millions of cells. These developments, integrated into frameworks like CUDA, have made high-fidelity simulations feasible for time-sensitive engineering designs.^[36] Recent developments as of 2025 have integrated machine learning (ML) with CFD to accelerate airflow simulations, particularly in built environments and urban aerodynamics. Techniques such as physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) and surrogate models reduce computational costs by 50-90% while maintaining accuracy, enabling real-time predictions of airflow patterns in ventilation systems or wind flows around structures. These ML-enhanced methods, often combined with RANS or LES, address challenges in high-dimensional parameter spaces and have been validated against experimental data in applications like urban green infrastructure.^[37]

Analytical Models

Analytical models in airflow analysis provide closed-form solutions or approximations derived from fundamental fluid dynamics principles, enabling rapid estimates without numerical computation. These models simplify complex Navier-Stokes equations under specific assumptions, such as steady flow and negligible viscosity in certain regions, to predict velocity fields, pressure drops, and boundary effects in airflows over surfaces or through conduits.^[38] Potential flow theory models inviscid, irrotational airflow, assuming incompressible conditions where the fluid density remains constant and no vorticity is generated. Under these assumptions, the velocity field is represented by a scalar velocity potential \phi, such that the velocity \mathbf{V} = \nabla \phi, and \phi satisfies Laplace's equation \nabla^2 \phi = 0. This elliptic partial differential equation arises from the continuity equation for incompressible flow and allows superposition of elementary solutions, such as uniform streams or sources, to approximate airflow around airfoils or over wings at low angles of attack. The theory is particularly useful for external aerodynamics where viscous effects are confined to thin boundary layers.^[38]^[39] The Darcy-Weisbach equation quantifies frictional pressure losses in steady airflow through pipes or ducts, applicable to both laminar and turbulent regimes. It expresses the pressure drop \Delta P as \Delta P = f \frac{L}{D} \frac{\rho v^2}{2}, where f is the dimensionless friction factor, L is the pipe length, D is the diameter, \rho is air density, and v is the mean velocity. The friction factor f depends on the Reynolds number \mathrm{Re} = \frac{\rho v D}{\mu} (with \mu as dynamic viscosity) and relative roughness \epsilon/D; for laminar airflow (\mathrm{Re} < 2000), f = 64/\mathrm{Re}, while turbulent cases require empirical correlations like the Colebrook equation. Developed from experiments by Henry Darcy in 1857 and Julius Weisbach in 1845, this model is widely used in HVAC systems to estimate energy losses in air distribution networks, with accuracy typically within \pm 15\% for iron pipes.^[40] Boundary layer theory addresses viscous effects near solid surfaces in airflow, with the Blasius solution providing an exact similarity solution for laminar flow over a flat plate at zero pressure gradient. Assuming steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow parallel to an infinite flat plate with free-stream velocity U, the boundary layer thickness \delta grows as \delta \approx 5 \sqrt{\nu x / U}, where \nu is kinematic viscosity and x is distance from the leading edge. The solution, obtained by transforming the Prandtl boundary layer equations into the ordinary differential equation $2f''' + f f'' = 0 (with f as a dimensionless stream function and boundary conditions f(0) = f'(0) = 0, f'(\infty) = 1), yields the skin friction coefficient c_f = \frac{0.664}{\sqrt{\mathrm{Re}_x}} (\mathrm{Re}_x = U x / \nu). First derived by Heinrich Blasius in 1908, this model is foundational for predicting drag on aircraft surfaces in low-turbulence conditions.^[41] These analytical models rely on assumptions of steady, uniform conditions, such as constant density, no separation, and high Reynolds numbers for boundary layers, limiting their applicability to idealized scenarios like attached laminar flows or smooth pipes. They fail to capture compressibility, unsteadiness, or strong viscous interactions, where full computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is preferred for detailed simulations of turbulent or three-dimensional airflows. Potential flow overlooks drag entirely (d'Alembert's paradox), Darcy-Weisbach assumes fully developed flow and is less accurate for non-circular ducts or compressible gases, and the Blasius solution neglects leading-edge effects and transitions to turbulence beyond \mathrm{Re}_x \approx 5 \times 10^5. Thus, analytical approaches are best for preliminary design and validation, while CFD handles real-world complexities.^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]

Manipulation and Control

Control Mechanisms

Control mechanisms in airflow management encompass a range of principles and strategies designed to actively or passively regulate the direction, speed, and volume of air movement in engineering systems. These mechanisms ensure stable and efficient operation by responding to dynamic conditions, such as varying loads or environmental factors, while adhering to fundamental fluid dynamics principles.^[43] Feedback control systems form a cornerstone of active airflow regulation, utilizing closed-loop architectures to maintain desired setpoints like velocity or pressure. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers are widely employed in these systems, where the proportional term addresses the current error, the integral term corrects accumulated deviations, and the derivative term anticipates future changes based on the rate of error variation. For instance, in sensor-actuator loops, airflow velocity is monitored via anemometers and adjusted through actuators like dampers or fans to minimize deviations from the setpoint.^[44]^[45]^[46] Pressure-based control strategies leverage the relationship between fan speed and system performance to modulate airflow without excessive energy use. Variable speed drives (VSDs) on fans enable precise adjustments by varying rotational speed N, governed by the affinity laws: volumetric flow rate Q is directly proportional to speed (Q \propto N), while pressure P scales with the square of speed (P \propto N^2). This allows for dynamic tuning to match system demands, reducing power consumption when lower flows are needed.^[47]^[48] In modeling and implementing control, boundary conditions define the interaction of airflow with surrounding surfaces and interfaces. The no-slip condition at walls assumes zero fluid velocity at the solid boundary due to viscous adhesion, which is critical for accurate prediction of shear stresses and flow profiles in enclosed systems. Inlet and outlet specifications, such as uniform velocity profiles or pressure gradients, further constrain the flow domain to reflect real-world entry and exit behaviors.^[49]^[50] Energy efficiency in airflow control emphasizes minimizing hydraulic losses through optimized design principles, particularly in conduit systems. Optimal duct configurations reduce friction and turbulence by favoring smooth, gradual transitions and avoiding sharp bends, which can increase pressure drop by up to 20-30% compared to streamlined paths. These strategies align control actions with loss-minimization goals, enhancing overall system performance.^[51]^[52] Simulations can test these controls virtually to validate efficiency gains before deployment.^[53]

Devices for Airflow Regulation

Fans and blowers are essential devices for generating and propelling airflow in various systems, distinguished primarily by their impeller designs and operational characteristics. Centrifugal fans, also known as radial fans, feature an impeller that draws air in axially and expels it radially at high velocity, converting kinetic energy into static pressure through a scroll-shaped housing; they are suited for applications requiring higher pressures, such as overcoming duct resistance or handling particulate-laden air. In contrast, axial fans propel air parallel to the shaft axis using propeller-like blades that generate lift, enabling high-volume flow at low pressures, ideal for general ventilation where compactness and efficiency at moderate loads are prioritized. Performance curves for both types plot airflow rate against static pressure and power consumption, revealing the best efficiency point (BEP) where operation is most stable and energy-efficient; deviations, such as operating in the stall region of axial fans, can lead to instability, noise, and reduced lifespan. Fan laws provide a scaling framework for predicting performance changes with speed adjustments: airflow scales linearly with rotational speed (Q ∝ N), pressure quadratically (ΔP ∝ N²), and power cubically (P ∝ N³), assuming geometric similarity and constant air density.^[54]^[55]^[56] Dampers and louvers serve to throttle and direct airflow by modulating the cross-sectional area of ducts or openings, with designs optimized for precise control or rapid response. Butterfly dampers employ a single disc or blade pivoting on a central axis to restrict flow, offering simple on-off or proportional throttling with minimal torque requirements, though they may introduce turbulence at partial openings. Iris dampers, resembling adjustable apertures, use interlocking segmented blades to create a variable circular orifice, enabling fine-tuned airflow regulation with low leakage and uniform velocity profiles, particularly in high-precision applications. Opposed-blade dampers feature multiple blades that rotate in opposite directions, promoting even airflow distribution and reduced pressure fluctuations during modulation, while parallel-blade (or louver) designs align blades to redirect flow directionally, suitable for two-position operation but less ideal for fine throttling due to higher torque needs at low flows. These mechanisms implement control principles such as proportional-integral-derivative (PID) algorithms through linked actuators for automated response to system demands.^[57] Filters and diffusers play complementary roles in conditioning airflow by removing contaminants and distributing it evenly, respectively, while introducing calculable resistance. Filters capture particulates and gases through media like activated carbon or HEPA elements, cleaning the airstream to protect downstream components and improve air quality; higher-efficiency filters (e.g., MERV 13 or above) enhance particle removal but increase energy demands due to elevated resistance. Diffusers disperse airflow from ducts into occupied spaces via vanes or slots, minimizing drafts and promoting uniform velocity profiles, often integrated with adjustable cores for directional control. The pressure drop across these components arises from frictional and form losses, approximated by the dynamic pressure equation ΔP = K ρ v² / 2, where K is a loss coefficient dependent on geometry, ρ is air density, and v is velocity; this relation guides sizing to balance flow rates against fan power.^[58]^[59]^[60] Smart sensors, integrated with IoT-enabled actuators, have emerged since the 2010s to enable real-time, automated airflow regulation in dynamic environments. These systems deploy networks of pressure, velocity, and temperature sensors connected via wireless protocols (e.g., Zigbee or Wi-Fi) to cloud platforms, allowing predictive adjustments through machine learning algorithms that optimize flow based on occupancy or environmental data. Actuators, such as motorized dampers or variable-speed drives, respond to sensor inputs for precise throttling, reducing energy use by up to 20-30% in HVAC setups compared to static controls. This integration facilitates fault detection and scalability, with prototypes demonstrating seamless retrofitting into legacy systems for enhanced efficiency.^[61]^[62]

Applications

Engineering and Industrial Uses

In industrial settings, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems play a critical role in dust collection and cooling within factories to maintain worker safety and operational efficiency. Local exhaust ventilation systems capture airborne dust at its source, with duct velocities typically ranging from 3,500 to 4,000 feet per minute (fpm) in branch lines to keep particulates suspended and prevent settling.^[63] For cooling, industrial facilities such as machine shops often require air change rates of 6 to 12 per hour to regulate temperature and remove heat generated by equipment.^[64] Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards mandate effective ventilation to control hazardous exposures, including fume hoods that maintain face velocities of 80 to 120 fpm for contaminant containment.^[65] These systems ensure compliance with regulations like 29 CFR 1910.94, which specifies minimum transport velocities of 2,000 to 6,000 fpm in ducts for turbulent flow in dust-handling applications.^[66] Aerodynamics in transportation engineering focuses on optimizing airflow over vehicles and aircraft to minimize drag and enhance performance. Streamlined body designs reduce the drag coefficient (Cd), a dimensionless measure of aerodynamic resistance; for instance, modern passenger cars achieve Cd values of 0.23 to 0.30, significantly lower than the 0.7 to 0.9 of early 20th-century models like the Ford Model T.^[67] In aviation, subsonic transport aircraft attain Cd values around 0.012 through airfoil shaping and fuselage integration, allowing efficient airflow attachment and reduced fuel consumption at cruising speeds.^[67] These reductions, often by 20-40% via computational fluid dynamics and wind tunnel testing, directly improve energy efficiency in both sectors.^[68] Combustion systems in engines depend on controlled airflow for thorough air-fuel mixing to achieve efficient and clean burning. The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for gasoline engines is 14.7:1 by mass, representing the precise proportion where all oxygen and fuel are consumed without leftovers, optimizing power output and minimizing emissions.^[69] In spark-ignition engines, uniform airflow in the intake manifold promotes homogeneous mixing, while deviations—such as lean mixtures exceeding 14.7:1—can cause incomplete combustion if not balanced.^[69] This ratio guides design of carburetors and fuel injectors, ensuring stoichiometric conditions during steady-state operation for maximum thermal efficiency.^[70] Cleanroom environments in manufacturing utilize laminar airflow to prevent contamination in sensitive processes like semiconductor production and pharmaceuticals, adhering to ISO 14644 standards for air cleanliness classification. Unidirectional laminar flow, directed vertically or horizontally at velocities of 0.3 to 0.5 meters per second, creates a sweeping action that removes airborne particles from work zones.^[71] For ISO Class 5 cleanrooms, this supports 240 to 360 air changes per hour, maintaining particle limits below 3,520 per cubic meter for sizes ≥0.5 micrometers.^[71] ISO 14644-3 outlines testing for airflow patterns, ensuring non-turbulent conditions to sustain classification integrity.

Airflow in Buildings and Ventilation

Airflow management in buildings is essential for maintaining indoor air quality, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency, primarily through mechanical, natural, and hybrid ventilation systems. Mechanical ventilation relies on engineered ductwork to distribute conditioned air according to standards like ASHRAE 62.1, which specifies minimum outdoor airflow rates for offices at 5 cubic feet per minute (cfm) per person plus 0.06 cfm per square foot of floor area, equivalent to approximately 2.4 liters per second (L/s) per person plus area-based rates. Ductwork design follows ASHRAE guidelines for low-velocity systems, typically limiting air velocities to 5-10 meters per second to minimize noise and energy loss, with zoning strategies dividing buildings into zones served by variable air volume (VAV) boxes for targeted distribution based on occupancy and load. These systems ensure even airflow to occupied spaces while complying with building codes such as the International Building Code (IBC), which incorporates ASHRAE 62.1 for ventilation requirements to prevent moisture buildup and contaminant accumulation.^[72] Natural ventilation leverages passive forces like the stack effect and wind to drive airflow without mechanical power, promoting sustainability in building design. The stack effect generates a pressure difference given by \Delta P = \rho g h \frac{\Delta T}{T}, where \rho is air density, g is gravitational acceleration, h is height difference, \Delta T is the indoor-outdoor temperature difference, and T is the average absolute temperature, causing warmer indoor air to rise and exit through upper openings while drawing cooler air in from lower levels.^[73] Wind-driven flow, enhanced by building orientation and openings, can achieve cross-ventilation rates up to several air changes per hour in moderate winds, with strategies including placing operable windows on opposite facades for direct airflow paths and high-level vents for exhaust to optimize buoyancy.^[74] ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals outlines these approaches, emphasizing site-specific factors like prevailing winds to maximize ventilation effectiveness while minimizing infiltration. Hybrid ventilation systems integrate mechanical fans with passive elements, such as operable vents and atriums, to switch modes based on outdoor conditions, achieving energy savings of 20-50% compared to fully mechanical systems in temperate climates.^[75] For instance, low-speed fans assist natural stack or wind flows during mild weather, reducing reliance on high-energy air handlers, as supported by ASHRAE research on mixed-mode strategies that maintain indoor air quality per Standard 62.1. Building codes like the IBC mandate minimum ventilation rates, such as 2.4 L/s per person in offices, ensuring hybrid designs meet compliance through integrated controls that monitor CO2 levels and temperature differentials.^[72] This approach balances occupant comfort with operational efficiency, particularly in commercial structures where zoning enhances adaptability.

Impacts and Considerations

Physiological and Health Effects

Airflow plays a critical role in human thermal comfort by influencing heat loss from the body through convection. The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index, developed by P.O. Fanger, quantifies thermal sensation on a scale from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), incorporating air velocity as a key parameter alongside temperature, humidity, and metabolic rate. For sedentary activities, such as office work, optimal air velocities typically range from 0.1 to 0.3 m/s to enhance convective cooling without inducing discomfort; velocities within this range help maintain PMV values between -0.5 and +0.5, aligning with ISO 7730 guidelines for moderate thermal environments. Higher velocities can shift PMV negatively, improving comfort in warmer conditions by increasing evaporative and convective heat transfer, but excessive speeds beyond 0.8 m/s may lead to overcooling and dissatisfaction, as outlined in ASHRAE Standard 55. In indoor settings, airflow patterns significantly affect air quality by determining the dispersal of airborne pathogens and contaminants. Turbulent flows, common in mechanically ventilated spaces, facilitate the rapid mixing and transport of bioaerosols, such as those carrying viruses, increasing the risk of transmission over distances up to several meters depending on ventilation design. To mitigate this, adequate ventilation rates are essential for diluting pollutants like CO₂, which serves as a proxy for human bioeffluents; European standard EN 15251 recommends a minimum of approximately 8 L/s per person in occupied spaces to maintain CO₂ levels below 1000 ppm, thereby reducing odor perception and acute health risks. Studies on turbulent dispersion highlight that fan-generated flows can enhance pathogen spread if not balanced with sufficient fresh air intake, underscoring the need for controlled airflow to protect respiratory health.^[76] High-velocity airflows pose draft risks that can compromise occupant comfort and contribute to health issues, including symptoms associated with Sick Building Syndrome (SBS). Drafts, defined as unwanted local cooling from air speeds exceeding 0.2 m/s at ankle level, cause sensations of chilliness and muscle tension, particularly in sedentary individuals, leading to complaints of headache, fatigue, and irritation. Prolonged exposure to such drafts has been linked to SBS, a condition involving nonspecific symptoms like eye and throat irritation, exacerbated by uneven airflow distribution in poorly designed ventilation systems. Research indicates that maintaining uniform low-velocity flows reduces these risks, with air speeds below 0.15 m/s at body height recommended to prevent discomfort in typical indoor environments.^[77]^[78] Respiratory airflow patterns within the human nasal passages and lungs are governed by laminar-to-turbulent transitions, influencing particle deposition and therapeutic delivery. At rest, minute ventilation averages 6-8 L/min, but increases to 20-30 L/min during moderate activity, with tidal volumes of about 500-700 mL per breath driving oscillatory flows that filter and humidify inhaled air. These patterns are crucial for the efficacy of masks, which alter nasal and oral airflow resistance, potentially affecting pathogen filtration; for instance, surgical masks modify turbulent eddies in the nasal cavity, enhancing capture of aerosols larger than 5 μm. Similarly, inhaler performance depends on these flows, as higher inspiratory velocities (30-60 L/min) promote deeper lung deposition of drug particles in the 1-5 μm range, optimizing treatment for conditions like asthma, while nasal airflow geometry ensures targeted delivery in intranasal devices.^[79]^[80]^[81]

Environmental and Energy Implications

Airflow systems, particularly in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), contribute significantly to global energy demands due to the power required for fans and blowers. The power consumption of a fan is calculated using the formula P = \frac{Q \Delta P}{\eta}, where P is the power in watts, Q is the volumetric flow rate in cubic meters per second, \Delta P is the pressure rise in pascals, and \eta is the fan efficiency.^[82] Globally, HVAC systems account for approximately 40% of energy use in commercial buildings, underscoring the need for efficient airflow management to reduce overall electricity consumption.^[83] Sustainable airflow designs prioritize low-energy alternatives to minimize environmental impact. Earth tubes, also known as ground-coupled heat exchangers, utilize buried pipes to precondition incoming air by leveraging stable subsurface temperatures, thereby reducing the need for mechanical heating or cooling without additional energy inputs.^[84] Efficient airflow strategies, such as optimized ventilation rates, can lower carbon footprints by decreasing reliance on fossil fuel-based energy sources, earning credits under systems like LEED through enhanced indoor air quality performance that exceeds minimum standards by at least 30%.^[85] In urban environments, natural wind patterns play a critical role in pollutant dispersion, with building-induced airflow alterations influencing how emissions from traffic and industry spread across cityscapes. Studies show that thermal conditions on ground and building surfaces modify wind fields, potentially trapping pollutants in low-wind zones and exacerbating air quality issues.^[86] Urban microclimates are further shaped by airflow dynamics, where tall structures redirect winds, creating localized heat islands that amplify temperature variations and energy demands for cooling.^[87] Climate change intensifies the environmental implications of airflow by elevating outdoor temperatures, thereby increasing ventilation requirements in buildings to maintain indoor comfort and air quality. Projections indicate potential rises in cooling energy needs by up to 71% in regions such as the U.S. by 2050 due to warmer conditions, straining HVAC systems and contributing to higher emissions.^[88] Post-2020 research on pandemic responses has highlighted airflow's role in viral dispersion, with computational models demonstrating that enhanced ventilation rates in healthcare settings can reduce transmission risks by improving air circulation and dilution of airborne particles.^[89]

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A horizontal temperature difference causes a horizontal pressure difference aloft. The isobars tilt, being higher in the warm air. Because the tilt ...
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Types of Fluid Flows – Introduction to Aerospace Flight Vehicles
Fluid dynamics is a discipline of engineering that describes the behavior of moving fluids, i.e., the mechanisms by which fluids flow from one place to another ...Laminar & Turbulent Flows · Steady Versus Unsteady Flows · Compressible Versus...
[6]
Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli's Equation. The Bernoulli equation states that,. where. points 1 and 2 lie on a streamline,; the fluid has constant density,; the flow is steady, ...
[7]
404 | NASA Glenn Research Center
### Summary of Bernoulli's Principle from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bernoulli.html
[8]
Worked Examples: Fluid Flows & Fluid Dynamics - Eagle Pubs
This is a common form of the continuity equation, which is very useful for problem-solving when average flow properties are required.<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
XXIX. An experimental investigation of the circumstances which ...
An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in ...
[10]
[PDF] Brief History of Fluid Mechanics - Joseph Majdalani
Euler developed both the differential equations of motion and their integrated form, now called the Bernoulli equation. D'Alembert used them to show his famous ...
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Isentropic Flow Equations
The variable "Wcor/A" is the corrected airflow per unit area function which can be derived from the compressible mass flow. This variable is only a function of ...
[12]
Flow Regimes - The Physics Hypertextbook
It is named after the British physicist and engineer Osborne Reynolds who is generally regarded as the first to realize its importance in 1883. Re = inertial ...
[13]
Correlating Laminar and Turbulent Types of Flow With Reynolds ...
Steady Flow or Unsteady Flow · Uniform or Non-Uniform Flow · Compressible or Incompressible Flow · 1-Dimensional, 2-Dimensional, or 3-Dimensional Fluid Flow.
[14]
Compressible Flow vs Incompressible Flow in Fluid Mechanics
Aug 11, 2023 · Compressible flow is a flow that changes in density under pressure, whereas incompressible flow does not. A good indicator is Mach Number.Missing: Reynolds | Show results with:Reynolds
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Pressure and Gas Flow Unit Conversions | NIST
Be aware that the unit "atm cm3/min", which is sometimes abbreviated "sccm" (standard cubic centimeter per minute), sometimes assumes a different temperature.
[16]
https://www.nist.gov/pml/owm/metric-si/unit-conversion/pressure-and-gas-flow-unit-conversions
[17]
HVAC Ducts - Air Velocities - The Engineering ToolBox
Calculate velocities in circular and rectangular ducts - imperial and SI-units - online calculator. ... Standard dimensions of spiral ducts - Imperial units.
[18]
The SI Guide - ashrae
The International System of Units (SI) consists of seven base units listed in Table 1 and numerous derived units, which are combinations of base units (Table 2 ...
[19]
A modified heat transfer law for hot-wire anemometry - AIP Publishing
May 12, 2025 · King11 proposed an empirical law between the Nusselt number (Nu), which characterizes forced convection intensity, and the Reynolds number (Re):.
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Vane Anemometer - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It uses the principle that the force of moving air on a plate being normal to wind is proportional to the area of the plate and to the square of wind speed. The ...
[21]
Sonic Anemometer - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It uses ultrasonic sound waves to determine instantaneous wind speed by measuring how much sound waves traveling between a pair of transducers are sped up or ...
[22]
Pitot Tube
Bernoulli's equation states that the static pressure plus one half the density times the velocity (V) squared is equal to the total pressure. ps + .5 * r * V ^2 ...Missing: airflow | Show results with:airflow
[23]
U-Tube Differential Pressure Manometers - The Engineering ToolBox
Inclined and vertical u-tube manometers used to measure differential pressure in flow meters like pitot tubes, orifices and nozzles.<|separator|>
[24]
Smoke and Tuft Flow Visualization
Smoke visualizes flow away from a model's surface, while tufts, attached to the surface, show flow direction and separation. Both are used in wind tunnel ...Missing: trails | Show results with:trails
[25]
Review Particle image velocimetry measurement of indoor airflow field
In this study, we performed a series of measurements using large-scale 2D particle image velocimetry (PIV) to quantify airflows in three different orientations ...Missing: trails | Show results with:trails
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https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/tunvsmoke.html
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[PDF] Navier-Stokes Simulation Of Air-Conditioning Facility Of A Large ...
The present simulation solves the full 3-D Navier-Stokes equations for the room with all major components including their detailed geometric complexity. The ...
[28]
Computational fluid dynamics modelling of airflow and carbon ...
The governing equations were discretized by a Finite Volume Method (FVM). The airflow domain was solved using the Reynolds Averaged Naviere Stokes (RANS) model ...
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(PDF) The numerical computation of turbulent flows - ResearchGate
Jun 5, 2017 · PDF | On Jan 1, 1974, B.E. Launder and others published The numerical computation of turbulent flows | Find, read and cite all the research ...
[30]
A review on selection of turbulence model for CFD analysis of air ...
Many researchers use Reynolds averaged Naiver-Stokes equation (k-epsilon model) to predict turbulent air flow pattern and temperature distribution in cold ...
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[PDF] Grid-point requirements for large eddy simulation
In this section, we present the numbers of grid points required for wall-modeled LES, wall-resolved LES, and direct numerical simulation (DNS). 2.1. Wall- ...
[32]
Full-scale validation of CFD simulations of buoyancy-driven ...
Aug 1, 2022 · The CFD simulations are performed with ANSYS/Fluent version 2021 R1 and solve for the flow velocity and temperature field. The following ...
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[PDF] Comparative Evaluation of OpenFOAM® and ANSYS® Fluent for the ...
Preliminary simulations showed that 5 processors are the optimal to run OpenFOAM®, while in ANSYS® Fluent, 6 processors were found to be optimal. A number of 5 ...
[34]
A GPU-accelerated computational fluid dynamics solver for ... - arXiv
Apr 5, 2022 · A new scale-resolving, large-eddy simulation (LES) solver titled DNSLABIB is proposed for MATLAB utilizing graphics processing units (GPUs).
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[PDF] Potential Flow Theory - MIT
When flow is irrotational it reduces nicely using the potential function in place of the velocity vector. The potential function can be substituted into ...
[36]
Potential Flow Theory – Introduction to Aerospace Flight Vehicles
A potential flow assumes the aggregate of an incompressible, irrotational, and inviscid fluid motion, ie, which is called an “ideal” flow.
[37]
(PDF) The History of the Darcy-Weisbach Equation for Pipe Flow ...
A concise examination of the evolution of the equation itself and the Darcy friction factor is presented from their inception to the present day.
[38]
[PDF] Blasius Solution for a Flat Plate Boundary Layer
The first exact solution to the laminar boundary layer equations, discovered by Blasius (1908), was for a simple constant value of U(s) and pertains to the ...
[39]
[PDF] Issues in Computational Fluid Dynamics Code Verification and ...
Throughout the article, clear distinctions are made between the analytical mathematical models of fluid dynamics and the numerical models. Lax's Equivalence ...
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PID loop tuning parameters and control fundamentals
Mar 28, 2023 · PID controllers are typically used in automatic process control applications in the industry to regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level and ...Pid Loop Tuning Insights · Closed-Loop Tuning Procedure · You Might Also Like
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9.2: P, I, D, PI, PD, and PID control - Engineering LibreTexts
Mar 11, 2023 · A PID controller controls a process through three parameters: Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D). These parameters can be weighted, or tuned, ...Missing: airflow | Show results with:airflow
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https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc694386/m2/1/high_res_d/544047.pdf
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[PDF] PID controller For the control of air flows or differential pressures For ...
This PID controller enables a continuous pressure control or air flow control for EC fans, variable air volume systems. (VAV systems) or ventilation flaps.
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Fan Affinity Laws - The Engineering ToolBox
The affinity laws can be used to calculate resulting volume capacity, head or power consumption when speed or wheel diameters are changed.
[45]
Understanding and Applying the 3 Basic Fan Laws - Eldridge USA
Sep 4, 2019 · Fan Law 1 tells us that the change in air flow rate of a fan is proportional to the change in speed of the propeller.
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No-Slip Boundary Condition - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The no-slip boundary condition of a stationary wall is expressed by setting the velocities of wall particles to 0 m/s. The sample programs in this book use this ...
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Wind-US User's Guide - Boundary Conditions
Apr 1, 2016 · The viscous wall boundary condition imposes a no-slip condition of the flow, a zero pressure gradient, and the appropriate heat transfer ...Wall Boundary Conditions · Flow Interface Boundary... · Grid Topology Boundary...
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Minimizing Energy Losses in Ducts
Insulating, air sealing, and placing ducts within the conditioned space of your home will reduce energy losses.
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[PDF] Better Duct Systems for Home Heating and Cooling - NREL
The average duct efficiency will then be 67% in either location. In these typical cases, then, one-third of the energy given to the ducts is lost before it gets.
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HVAC Ductwork Design: 7 Principles to Improve Efficiency
A well-designed duct system minimizes leaks and prevents uneven air distribution, which are common culprits of inefficiencies.7 Principles Of Hvac... · 3. Ductwork Insulation · 5. Duct Sizing<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Improving Fan System Performance - A Sourcebook for Industry
In axial fans, the power tends to decrease with increasing flow. Consequently, for most centrifugal fan types, large fan start-ups should be performed with ...
[52]
AE12/AE020: Fans For Greenhouses - University of Florida
Fan laws relate the performance characteristics of any geometrically similar series of fans. ... Characteristic curves for centrifugal blower (1), vane-axial fan ...
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[PDF] Energy Conservation Standards for Fans and Blowers
Dec 28, 2023 · This document, concerning Fans and Blowers is an action issued by the Department of. Energy. Though it is not intended or expected, should any ...
[54]
[PDF] Damper Applications Guide - HVAC Concepts
Opposed and Parallel Blade Dampers ... Opposed blade dampers have characteristics that can control small air flows more accurately than parallel blade dampers.
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None
Summary of each segment:
[56]
[PDF] The Effects of Filtration on Pressure Drop and Energy Consumption ...
High-efficiency filters with a high minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) typically have a greater pressure drop than a filter with a lower MERV. (ASHRAE ...Missing: directing | Show results with:directing
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Grilles (Diffusers, Terminals) - h2x User Guide
Adjust the zeta value or fixed pressure drop as needed. The formula used for calculating the pressure drop using zeta coefficient is: ΔP = ζ × (ρ × v²) / 2.Missing: directing cleaning K
[58]
Enhancing Monitoring and Control of an HVAC System through IoT
Jan 27, 2022 · This research focuses on a case study that shows how the thermal comfort of a building can be controlled and improved through an IoT vertically integrated ...
[59]
[PDF] IoT-Based Comfort Control and Fault Diagnostics System for Energy ...
This report, IoT-Based Comfort Control and Fault. Diagnostics System for Energy-Efficient Homes, explores a cost-effective and straightforward smart home system ...
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Figure Dust-collection Needs By The Numbers - WOOD Magazine
Jan 2, 2025 · For systems carrying woodshop dust and chips, engineers recommend minimum air velocity of 4,000 FPM in branch lines (that's about a 45 mph ...
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Building Ventilation – The Proper Air Changes Per Hour (ACH)
Jun 7, 2019 · It is generally considered that 4 ACH's is the minimum air change rate for any commercial or industrial building.<|separator|>
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A Guide to Fume Hood Codes and Standards - Laboratory Design
Feb 17, 2017 · OSHA: “General air flow should not be turbulent and should be relatively uniform throughout the laboratory, with no high velocity or static ...
[63]
OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) - Section III: Chapter 3 | Occupational Safety and Health Administration
### Summary of Industrial Ventilation Standards from OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) Section III: Chapter 3
[64]
Drag Coefficient - The Engineering ToolBox
The drag coefficient quantifies the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment. ; Bus, 0.6 - 0.8, frontal area ; Old Car like a T-ford, 0.7 - 0.9 ...
[65]
The Drag Coefficient
The drag coefficient is a number that aerodynamicists use to model all of the complex dependencies of drag on shape, inclination, and some flow conditions.
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Air fuel ratio - x-engineer.org
The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is around 14.7:1. This means that, in order to burn completely 1 kg of fuel, we need 14.7 kg of air.
[67]
Stoichiometric Combustion - The Engineering ToolBox
The stoichiometric ratio is the perfect ideal fuel ratio where the chemical mixing proportion is correct. When burned all fuel and air is consumed without any ...
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Clean Room Classifications (ISO 8, ISO 7, ISO 6, ISO 5) | Mecart
This article will help you understand the basic differences between an ISO 5, ISO 6, ISO 7 and ISO 8 clean room as per ISO 14644.
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CHAPTER 4 VENTILATION - 2024 INTERNATIONAL MECHANICAL ...
Rp = People outdoor air rate: the outdoor airflow rate required per person from Table 403.3. ... For SI: 1 cubic foot per minute = 0.0004719 m3/s. 403.3 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
[PDF] A general routine analysis of stack effect
pressure difference. Pa (in H2. O) p air density, kg/m^ (Ib/ft^) n number of openings between space c and the outside. Subscripts c space b bottom t top. 00.
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Natural Ventilation | WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide
Stack effect ventilation will not work in summer (wind or humidity drivers would be preferred) because it requires that the indoors be warmer than outdoors ...
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Impact of Hybrid Ventilation Strategies in Energy Savings of Buildings
Mar 8, 2022 · This study proposes a hybrid ventilation strategy that can comprehensively reduce cooling, heating, and ventilation energy in mixed-humid climate regions.
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Turbulent dispersion via fan-generated flows - PMC - NIH
These “unconditioned” turbulent flows nonetheless play a pivotal role in driving the spread of pathogens and contaminants, and consequently building ventilation ...
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[PDF] Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick Building Syndrome
Research shows that some VOCs can cause chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations, and some are known carcinogens. Low to moderate levels of ...
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Do you have sick building syndrome? - Nursing2025
These factors include odors, air velocity (drafts or stuffiness), lighting, crowding, aesthetics, and noise. Air pollution or pesticide particles can enter a ...
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Physiology, Tidal Volume - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 1, 2023 · Tidal volume is essentially every breath a person takes. It is one of the main determinants of minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation.Missing: nasal | Show results with:nasal
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Towards More Precise Targeting of Inhaled Aerosols to Different ...
Inhalation dynamics and airway geometry are individual patient characteristics and determine the flow of air or aerosol through the airways. However, a medical ...3.2. Drug Targeting To The... · 4. Particle--Lung... · 5.1. Nebulizer With A Valved...
[78]
Effects of mask-wearing on the inhalability and deposition of ...
Due to the mask resistance, the speeds of both airflow and particles decreased in the otherwise respiration zones when no mask was worn; as a compensation, ...
[79]
Fans - Efficiency and Power Consumption - The Engineering ToolBox
Ideal fan power is P_i = dpq(1). Fan efficiency is μf = dpq/P(2). Power used by the fan is P = dpq/μf(3).Missing: ΔP / η
[80]
A review on buildings energy information: Trends, end-uses, fuels ...
HVAC accounts for 38% of buildings consumption, equivalent to 12% of final energy. Population, wealth and urbanisation in emerging nations are the key upward ...Review Article · 1. Introduction · 2. Energy Use In Buildings<|separator|>
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New Energy Efficient Way to Heat and Cool Buildings
Made of concrete, steel and/or plastic, earth tubes are used to condition outside ventilation air as it is pulled into a building. The temperature of the air ...
[82]
Increased ventilation | U.S. Green Building Council
To provide additional outdoor air ventilation to improve indoor air quality (IAQ) for improved occupant comfort, well-being and productivity.Intent · Requirements · Option 1. Ashrae Standard 62...
[83]
Influencing Factors on Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion ... - PubMed
Oct 8, 2022 · The thermal conditions of the ground and building façades directly affect the wind field and pollutant dispersion patterns in the microclimate.
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Predicting Urban and Coastal Microclimates | BNL Newsroom
Jan 29, 2019 · Tall buildings redirect air flow, altering wind speed and direction. By pushing warm, moist surface air into the cooler air above, skyscrapers ...Missing: effects | Show results with:effects
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Climate change impacts on future thermal energy demands and ...
May 15, 2025 · Their findings indicate a potential increase in cooling consumption by up to 126 % and a decrease in heating consumption by up to 33 %. The ...
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Impact of ventilation and ambient temperature on COVID-19 ...
Aug 8, 2025 · This study employed CFD to model the interactions between airflow, human anatomy, and virus-laden droplets in clinic waiting rooms, providing ...