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Menelik I

Menelik I is the legendary founder of Ethiopia's Solomonic dynasty, traditionally identified as the son of the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, known in Ethiopian lore as Makeda.^[1] His narrative, central to Ethiopian royal ideology, posits that he established monarchical rule in the region around the 10th century BCE, marking the transmission of Israelite heritage to the Horn of Africa.^[1] The primary account of Menelik's life and exploits appears in the Kebra Nagast ("Glory of the Kings"), a Ge'ez-language epic compiled in the 14th century CE, which describes his journey to Jerusalem to meet Solomon, his paternal recognition, and his subsequent return to Ethiopia accompanied by the Ark of the Covenant, said to have been safeguarded in Axum thereafter.^[1]^[2] This tale intertwines biblical motifs with local traditions, portraying Menelik as the progenitor of a lineage that purportedly ruled Ethiopia until the 20th century, thereby legitimizing the Solomonic emperors' authority through claimed Semitic origins.^[3] While the Kebra Nagast narrative profoundly shaped Ethiopian national identity and Christian orthodoxy, empirical historical verification for Menelik's existence or the events described remains absent, with scholars viewing the account as a medieval construct to affirm dynastic continuity rather than a record of verifiable antiquity.^[4] The Solomonic dynasty's actual restoration in the 13th century under Yekuno Amlak invoked this mythology to consolidate power, highlighting its role as a tool of political theology over historical fact.^[3]

Legendary Origins

Biblical and Pre-Ethiopian Foundations

The account of the Queen of Sheba's visit to King Solomon, found in 1 Kings 10:1–13 and paralleled in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, forms the scriptural basis for later legends associating her with Ethiopia.^[5] Hearing of Solomon's fame for wisdom, she traveled to Jerusalem with a vast caravan laden with spices, an immense quantity of gold, and precious stones to pose difficult riddles and test his knowledge.^[5] Solomon discerned and resolved all her queries, then displayed the opulence of his household, provisions for his table, seating arrangements for officials, and daily burnt offerings at the Temple, leaving her awestruck.^[5] She extolled Yahweh for enthroning such a ruler and affirmed that the reality surpassed prior reports, subsequently presenting Solomon with 120 talents of gold alongside abundant spices and stones; in return, he granted her every request beyond her entourage's provisions, after which she departed for her homeland.^[5] The narrative contains no reference to romantic liaison, cohabitation, or offspring. Scholars identify the land of Sheba with the ancient Sabaean kingdom in South Arabia, centered in present-day Yemen, based on archaeological remains and trade patterns aligning with the biblical gifts of spices and gold.^[6] Excavations at sites like Marib uncover monumental dams, temples, and inscriptions from the 10th–8th centuries BCE, evidencing a wealthy society controlling frankincense and myrrh caravan routes to the Levant, consistent with Solomon's era around 950 BCE.^[7] A South Arabian inscription unearthed in Jerusalem further suggests direct Sabaean commercial ties to Judah during this period.^[8] Ethiopian linkages, including Aksumite claims, lack contemporaneous epigraphic or material corroboration and emerge in regional traditions centuries later, diverging from Saba's documented Arabian locus.^[6] Jewish and Islamic texts predating Ethiopian elaborations expand the biblical encounter without introducing progeny from the queen and Solomon. The Targum Sheni, an Aramaic midrashic work on Esther from the early medieval period, portrays her posing riddles and facing Solomon's tests—such as discerning a mechanical device or identifying hybrid creatures—but omits any birth narrative or intimate union.^[9] Likewise, the Quran's Surah an-Naml (27:20–44) names her Bilqis and recounts Solomon learning of her realm via a hoopoe bird, dispatching a letter demanding submission to Allah, relocating her throne via supernatural means, and her marveling at a glass-floored palace mistaken for water, culminating in her monotheistic conversion; no child results from the interaction.^[10] These traditions, rooted in 7th–11th-century sources, emphasize wisdom, conversion, and divine sovereignty over dynastic origins.^[11]

Narrative in the Kebra Nagast

The Kebra Nagast, or "Glory of Kings," is a Ge'ez-language text compiled around 1320 CE, drawing from earlier Coptic and Arabic Christian sources to form Ethiopia's national epic legitimizing Solomonic royal descent.^[12]^[1] Its narrative centers on the union of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, identified as Makeda, ruler of Ethiopia (referred to as "the South").^[1] In the story, Makeda travels to Jerusalem seeking wisdom, where Solomon hosts her lavishly. After a ruse involving a honeyed meal that leads her to violate her vow against sharing his bed, she conceives his child.^[1] Returning to Ethiopia, Makeda gives birth to their son, named Bayna-Lekem (later Menelik I), and raises him there.^[1] Upon reaching maturity, Menelik journeys to Jerusalem, where Solomon, upon seeing his resemblance and hearing testimony, acknowledges him as his firstborn son and heir.^[1] Solomon offers Menelik succession in Israel, but Menelik insists on returning to Ethiopia to rule his mother's kingdom. Accompanied by the sons of Israelite nobles who swear loyalty, Menelik's group secretly removes the Ark of the Covenant from Zion, substituting a replica to avoid detection.^[1] Divine favor manifests through signs, including an earthquake obscuring the theft and angelic assurances that the Ark's relocation fulfills prophecy, transferring God's presence from Jerusalem to Ethiopia.^[1]

Menelik's Parentage and Journey to Ethiopia

In the narrative of the Kebra Nagast, Menelik I is depicted as the firstborn son of King Solomon of Israel and Makeda, Queen of Sheba, conceived during her visit to Jerusalem around the 10th century BCE.^[1] Makeda, having returned to her kingdom after her encounter with Solomon, raised Menelik in Ethiopia, educating him in the laws and customs imparted by his father.^[13] Upon reaching maturity, Menelik traveled to Jerusalem at his mother's behest to meet Solomon, who recognized him as his son, renamed him David in honor of his lineage, and anointed him as king of Ethiopia while bestowing gifts and counsel.^[1] ^[14] Determined to return to Ethiopia, Menelik departed Jerusalem accompanied by a retinue of Israelite nobles' sons and priests, including Azarias, the son of Zadok the high priest, and instructed by Solomon to foster the faith there.^[1] En route, guided by divine visions foretelling the Ark of the Covenant's destined transfer due to Israel's impending apostasy, Azarias and companions covertly substituted the genuine Ark—guarded in the Temple—with a replica crafted from similar materials, secreting the true artifact aboard their vessels.^[15] ^[14] The convoy crossed the Red Sea, which miraculously parted to allow safe passage, echoing the Exodus, before proceeding inland to Ethiopia.^[1] Upon arrival in Aksum, Menelik presented the Ark to Makeda, who prostrated in reverence, affirming its sanctity and the fulfillment of prophecy.^[1] He then assumed rulership, integrating the Israelite contingent by distributing priests and nobles among the Ethiopian populace to instill Semitic religious and governance practices, with Azarias appointed high priest and another companion as guardian of the Ark, termed Zion Tabot.^[15] This establishment marked the legendary inception of the Solomonic dynasty in Ethiopia, blending local Sabaean elements with Israelite traditions.^[1]

Historical Assessment

Absence of Empirical Evidence

No archaeological excavations or textual records from the 10th century BCE in the regions of ancient Israel, Judah, or early Ethiopian highlands reference Menelik I, his purported parentage, or any organized migration of Israelites to Ethiopia.^[16] Biblical accounts of the Queen of Sheba's visit to Solomon (1 Kings 10:1–13) omit any mention of a son named Menelik or the transport of Israelite nobles and the Ark of the Covenant southward, with no corroborating inscriptions from Judean sites like Jerusalem or Gezer yielding such details.^[17] Ethiopian epigraphy, including Aksumite stelae and inscriptions from the 1st to 4th centuries CE—such as those of King Ezana—documents royal titles invoking South Arabian influences like the kingship of Sheba but contains no assertions of Solomonic descent or lineage from Menelik I until the medieval period following the 13th-century restoration of the Solomonic dynasty by Yekuno Amlak.^[18] Pre-Christian Aksumite rulers, evidenced by coinage and Greek inscriptions, professed paganism without reference to Israelite heritage, with the earliest Christian conversions around 330 CE under Ezana failing to invoke Menelik or Solomon in legitimizing authority.^[19] Linguistic analysis traces Ethiopian Semitic languages, including Ge'ez, to migrations from South Arabia between the 9th and 5th centuries BCE, featuring shared innovations with Sabaean scripts and vocabulary absent in Hebrew or other Northwest Semitic tongues, inconsistent with direct transmission from a 10th-century BCE Israelite elite.^[20] Genetic studies of Y-DNA haplogroups among Amhara and Tigrayan populations reveal predominant African-specific clades (e.g., Groups I and II) alongside Eurasian back-migrations via the Horn of Africa, with no distinctive markers linking to ancient Levantine Israelite profiles or indicating a founding Solomonic patriline; instead, admixture reflects broader Nilotic, Cushitic, and Arabian inputs without unique Judean signatures.^[16]00271-6) Mitochondrial DNA patterns further show high diversity in haplogroup L lineages, aligning with indigenous East African origins rather than a bottleneck from mass Israelite influx.^[21]

Construction and Purpose of the Legend

The legend of Menelik I emerged during the transition from the Zagwe dynasty to the Solomonic dynasty in the late 13th century, as Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270–1285) overthrew Zagwe rule and invoked descent from Menelik—purported son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba—to legitimize his claim to the Ethiopian throne over the Zagwe's local Agaw heritage.^[18] This fabrication addressed immediate political vulnerabilities by retroactively linking the new rulers to ancient Israelite prestige, portraying the Solomonic line as a divine restoration superior to the Zagwe's non-Semitic origins, which ecclesiastical texts later derided as impure.^[3] The Kebra Nagast, the primary textual vehicle for the Menelik narrative, was compiled in Ge'ez during the early 14th century, likely under the reign of Amda Seyon (r. 1314–1344), who actively promoted it to consolidate monarchical authority by fusing biblical Jewish kingship with Christian imperial traditions.^[22]^[23] This synthesis served to centralize power amid regional challenges, elevating Ethiopian emperors as inheritors of both Solomonic lineage and Constantinian legitimacy, thereby countering potential rivals within the Ethiopian polity.^[23] Causally, the myth imported Old Testament authority to resolve legitimacy deficits inherent in the Solomonic coup, positioning Ethiopian rulers above external Christian hierarchies like the Coptic patriarchate or Byzantine emperors by asserting an independent, superior covenantal heritage tied to the Ark of the Covenant's transfer to Ethiopia.^[18]^[23] This narrative tool thus reinforced internal cohesion and imperial expansion, framing medieval Ethiopian monarchy as the rightful culmination of sacred history rather than a mere regional successor to Aksumite kingship.^[3]

Modern Scholarly Perspectives

Scholars in the 20th and 21st centuries, including Ethiopianists Edward Ullendorff and David W. Phillipson, classify the Menelik I narrative as an etiological myth designed to legitimize the Solomonic dynasty's rule following the Zagwe interregnum, rather than a factual historical record. Ullendorff, in analyzing the Kebra Nagast, argued that its primary function was ideological, serving as a national epic to assert continuity with biblical antiquity amid medieval power struggles, without intent to chronicle verifiable events.^[24] Phillipson's archaeological syntheses of Aksumite origins similarly omit Menelik as a founder, emphasizing empirical evidence over legendary claims.^[25] No pre-14th-century Ethiopian inscriptions or chronicles reference Menelik I or the Solomonic descent, with the tale's codification in the Kebra Nagast reflecting retrospective fabrication around 1320 CE to bolster imperial authority.^[26] Methodological critiques highlight temporal anachronisms: the Aksumite kingdom, Ethiopia's earliest state-level polity, coalesced around the 1st century CE through trade networks linking the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, centuries after the biblical Solomon's reign circa 950 BCE.^[27] The Queen of Sheba, Menelik's purported mother, aligns more closely with Sabaean rulers in Yemen, attested in Assyrian royal annals from the 8th-7th centuries BCE describing Arabian tribute of spices and gold—paralleling biblical descriptions but situating her polity across the Red Sea, not in proto-Ethiopian highlands.^[6] ^[8] This consensus underscores the absence of falsifiable archaeological or textual evidence, such as Hebrew artifacts or migration traces predating Aksumite coinage, drawing parallels to pseudohistorical genealogies like Britain's Arthurian legends used for monarchical prestige. Ethiopian diaspora assertions often amplify the tale's romance, yet scholarly scrutiny prioritizes causal sequences grounded in dated inscriptions and stratigraphy over unfalsifiable tradition.^[26]

Dynastic and Political Role

Legitimization of the Solomonic Dynasty

The Solomonic dynasty, established by Yekuno Amlak in 1270 following the overthrow of the Zagwe dynasty, invoked the legend of Menelik I as a foundational claim to legitimacy, portraying the new regime not as a conquest but as a divine restoration of the ancient line descending from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.^[28] Yekuno Amlak, originating from the Amhara region, asserted direct male-line descent from this biblical union to counter narratives of Zagwe legitimacy, which had ruled since approximately 1137 and emphasized their own religious credentials tied to local Christian traditions.^[18] This fabricated genealogy, amplified through texts like the Kebra Nagast compiled around the 14th century, framed the Zagwe interregnum as an illegitimate interruption, thereby sanctifying Solomonic rule as a return to God's ordained order.^[29] Throughout the dynasty's seven-century span until its deposition in 1974, emperors repeatedly referenced Menelik I's purported lineage to consolidate power amid internal challenges and territorial expansions.^[28] The Kebra Nagast, functioning as a political manifesto alongside its religious narrative, embedded this descent myth into Ethiopian state ideology, ensuring that succession disputes were resolved by invoking Solomonic continuity rather than merit or conquest alone.^[14] This ideological framework persisted through periods of fragmentation, such as the 18th- and 19th-century Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes), where regional warlords still deferred to the Solomonic emperor as a symbolic unifier.^[18] Emperor Haile Selassie I (r. 1930–1974), the dynasty's final ruler, intensified these claims for both domestic cohesion and international diplomacy, frequently citing Ethiopia's "3,000 years of history" rooted in Solomonic antiquity during appeals to the League of Nations against Italian aggression in the 1930s.^[30] His coronation rituals and public addresses explicitly traced his authority to Menelik I, leveraging the legend to project Ethiopia as an ancient, divinely sanctioned Christian monarchy amid decolonization pressures, which bolstered alliances with Western powers and the Rastafarian movement.^[31] Politically, the Menelik legend served to centralize authority under an Amhara-dominated, Semitic-oriented Christian elite, marginalizing rival ethnic legitimacies such as Cushitic or pagan traditions in southern and eastern regions.^[32] By subordinating diverse polities to a narrative of unified Solomonic inheritance, it facilitated expansionist campaigns framed as reclamation of biblical patrimony, suppressing alternative claims that might fragment the highlands-based empire.^[18] This construct, while fictitious in empirical terms, provided causal stability by aligning monarchical rule with ecclesiastical endorsement from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which viewed Solomonic descent as essential to imperial sacrality.^[22]

Links to Historical Ethiopian Rulers

The Solomonic dynasty, which invoked Menelik I's legendary lineage to assert continuity with ancient biblical and Aksumite heritage, commenced empirically in 1270 when Yekuno Amlak, a noble from Shewa, overthrew the Zagwe dynasty's last ruler, Yetbarek, and established rule from the Amhara region.^[33]^[34] This transition marked a restoration of purported Aksumite-descended monarchy, as Yekuno Amlak claimed male-line descent from the pre-Zagwe royal house, though no contemporary records verify direct ties to Menelik I or Solomon; the dynasty's Solomonic ideology solidified later to legitimize power amid religious and territorial challenges.^[33] Rule proceeded with interruptions, including the Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes, 1769–1855), during which Solomonic emperors became ceremonial figureheads amid regional warlord dominance following the Gondarine era's relative centralization around Gondar.^[35] Official Ethiopian regnal chronologies, such as the 1922 imperial list compiled under Regent Tafari Makonnen (later Haile Selassie), retroactively positioned Menelik I as the dynasty's progenitor around 957 BCE, enumerating over 300 monarchs to forge an unbroken chain from mythic origins through Aksumite kings like Ezana (reigned c. 330–350 CE), who adopted Christianity and expanded Aksum's influence.^[36] These lists bridged legendary narrative to verifiable history by attributing Aksumite sovereignty—evident in Ezana's trilingual inscriptions and coinage—to Menelik's supposed descendants, thereby enhancing Solomonic rulers' divine-right claims against rivals.^[37] Such constructions influenced governance by embedding the Menelik myth in coronation rites and state ideology, portraying emperors as inheritors of Ezana's Christian imperial legacy without empirical interruption.^[33] The dynasty's termination occurred on September 12, 1974, when Emperor Haile Selassie I, the 225th Solomonic ruler by traditional reckoning, was deposed by the Derg military junta amid famine, economic unrest, and army mutinies, ending institutionalized monarchical continuity.^[38]^[39] The Derg's Marxist regime executed Selassie in 1975 and abolished imperial claims, severing the mythic lineage's political role; however, exiled descendants, including Amha Selassie (Selassie's son, crowned in exile in 1989), have sporadically asserted titular rights, preserving genealogical pretensions detached from governance.^[31] This deposition dismantled the legend's practical utility in statecraft, as post-Derg Ethiopia rejected Solomonic symbolism in favor of republican structures.^[38]

Religious and Cultural Significance

Association with the Ark of the Covenant

According to the Kebra Nagast, a 14th-century Ethiopian text compiled from earlier traditions, Menelik I, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, orchestrated the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Ethiopia around the 10th century BCE.^[1] The narrative details that during Menelik's visit to his father, divine prophecy foretold the Ark's relocation due to impending corruption in Israel; Menelik's Israelite companions, including sons of priests, substituted a replica in the Temple and secretly carried the authentic Ark southward, veiled to prevent fatal exposure to its power, as had occurred with Uzzah in biblical accounts.^[1] Upon arrival in Ethiopia, the Ark was enshrined in Aksum, establishing the nation's claim as its eternal guardian, accessible only to a single monastic custodian who dies upon viewing it, ensuring perpetual isolation.^[1] This legend starkly contrasts with biblical records, which last mention the Ark in Jerusalem prior to the Babylonian conquest in 587 BCE, when Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the First Temple without any account of the Ark's capture, relocation, or survival.^[40] Post-exilic texts, such as those describing the Second Temple's construction around 516 BCE, omit any reference to the Ark's presence or return from Babylon, implying its loss or destruction during the siege.^[41] No archaeological evidence supports the Ark's transport to Ethiopia, nor do Jewish historical sources, including Josephus or Talmudic traditions, corroborate such a transfer; instead, they suggest concealment or Babylonian looting without Ethiopian diversion.^[42] The Kebra Nagast's account, while rooted in Ge'ez Christian compilations possibly drawing from Coptic and Arabic influences, functions causally to reposition Ethiopia as the rightful inheritor of Israel's covenantal legacy, circumventing the theological implications of Jerusalem's ruin and exile.^[43] This narrative bolsters Ethiopian Orthodox self-perception as the "true Israel," with the Ark's purported presence symbolizing divine endorsement amid historical isolation from post-exilic Judaism.^[44] Scholarly analyses view it as a medieval construct for dynastic legitimacy rather than historical reportage, lacking corroboration from contemporaneous records or material traces.^[45]

Influence on Ethiopian Orthodox Tradition

The legend of Menelik I, primarily propagated through the 14th-century Kebra Nagast, profoundly integrates Old Testament Jewish elements into [Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church](/page/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo Church) doctrine, establishing Ethiopia as the rightful successor to ancient Israel's divine covenant via the purported relocation of the Ark of the Covenant to Axum around the 10th century BCE. This narrative reinforces a unique fusion of Judaism and Christianity, where practices such as Saturday Sabbath observance, ritual purity laws, and ark veneration—retained from pre-Christian Ethiopian Judaism—coexist with Trinitarian theology, positioning the Church as the guardian of authentic biblical tradition displaced from Jerusalem. The Kebra Nagast is accorded quasi-scriptural status within the Church, shaping its theological self-conception as the elect community inheriting God's favor, independent of later Roman or Byzantine influences.^[46]^[14] Central to this doctrinal framework is the Tabot, a consecrated altar stone symbolizing the Ark, which Menelik I is said to have transported to Ethiopia, accompanied by Israelite priests who instituted Levitical orders still active in Church hierarchy as of the 20th century. Liturgical rites, including the Divine Liturgy and festivals like Timkat (Epiphany), revolve around processions of veiled Tabots, evoking the Solomonic temple cult and affirming Ethiopia's custodial role over sacred objects lost to the Jewish diaspora. This emphasis justifies the Church's hierarchical structure, with emperors historically viewed as divinely ordained defenders akin to Davidic kings, thereby embedding Solomonic lineage into core worship without direct political endorsement.^[47]^[48] Parallel traditions among the Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) acknowledge ancient Israelite roots predating Christianity's 4th-century adoption in Aksum but explicitly reject the Kebra Nagast's Christian overlays, maintaining observances like the Orit (Pentateuch and Prophets) without Solomonic messianic kingship or ark relocation narratives interpreted through Christology. Their persistence as a distinct Jewish community underscores the legend's role in delineating Orthodox identity against non-Trinitarian Judaism.^[49] Critics, including some historians, contend that the Menelik narrative marginalized indigenous Christian elements from the Agaw-dominated Zagwe dynasty (c. 900–1270 CE), which produced monumental sites like Lalibela's rock-hewn churches yet was retroactively delegitimized as non-Semitic usurpers to exalt Amharic-Tigrayan hegemony. This selective emphasis on Semitic origins via the Kebra Nagast post-1270 Solomonic restoration prioritized biblical typology over broader Cushitic contributions to early Ethiopian Christianity.^[50]^[14]

Representations in Popular Culture and Modern Views

Ethiopian traditional art commonly portrays Menelik I through narrative paintings depicting events from the Kebra Nagast, including his conception as the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.^[51] A 20th-century glue tempera on canvas at the Walters Art Museum illustrates Solomon and Sheba conceiving Menelik I.^[51] Similarly, Yale University Art Gallery holds a painting of the Queen of Sheba with Solomon, referencing Menelik I's birth in Ethiopian lore.^[52] The 2004 short film Menelik I, directed by Mari Ellingson and filmed in Ethiopia, dramatizes the legend using tableau vivant scenes accompanied by music.^[53] In Rastafarian culture, Menelik I represents the origin of the Solomonic dynasty, from which Haile Selassie I descends, portraying Selassie as the returned messiah and reinforcing themes of African redemption.^[54]^[55] Contemporary Ethiopian discourse reveres Menelik I as emblematic of ancient sovereignty and cultural continuity, bolstering national identity against historical subjugation narratives.^[56] Outside Ethiopia, Western scholars classify the figure as legendary, rooted in medieval Ethiopian texts rather than empirical records.^[57]^[56] This dichotomy persists, with the narrative romanticized in spiritual and identity-affirming contexts despite academic dismissal.^[58]

Associated Traditions and Sites

Purported Tomb and Relics

The purported tomb of Menelik I is traditionally located in Aksum, northern Ethiopia, where local lore identifies it as the burial site of the legendary founder of the Solomonic dynasty. Archaeological references describe a structure in the area, potentially marking this tomb alongside that of the Queen of Sheba, though its origins and dating remain undetermined due to the absence of systematic excavation. The site has since vanished, attributed to the quarrying of its stones by residents for modern construction.^[59]^[60] Relics linked to Menelik I are primarily symbolic, consisting of tabots—consecrated wooden or stone replicas of the Ark of the Covenant's tablets—enshrined in the inner sanctums of Ethiopian Orthodox churches nationwide. These artifacts embody the enduring tradition of Menelik's importation of sacred Israelite elements to Ethiopia, serving as focal points for worship without verifiable material ties, such as carbon dating or forensic analysis, to the purported 10th-century BCE period. Preservation of such sites and associated veneration occurs within Aksum's UNESCO-listed archaeological complex, where religious sanctity limits invasive study while supporting cultural heritage initiatives.^[61]

Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion

The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Aksum, Ethiopia, is traditionally regarded as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant, which Ethiopian lore attributes to Menelik I's transport from Jerusalem as described in the medieval text Kebra Nagast.^[62] This narrative posits that Menelik, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, conveyed the original Ark to Ethiopia around the 10th century BCE, establishing it as a foundational relic for Solomonic legitimacy.^[44] The site's origins trace to the 4th century CE, coinciding with Aksumite King Ezana's adoption of Christianity, marking it as one of Africa's earliest churches.^[63] The structure has endured multiple destructions and reconstructions, including raids by Queen Gudit in the 10th century and Ahmad Gragn in the 1530s, with the extant old church dating to the 17th century.^[63] In the mid-20th century, Emperor Haile Selassie commissioned a new cathedral adjacent to the old one, completed between 1955 and 1964, to accommodate worshippers of both sexes while preserving the original's sanctity.^[64] The purported Ark resides in a fortified adjacent chapel known as the Chapel of the Tablet, accessible solely to a single lifelong celibate monk appointed as its guardian, who maintains it in isolation without external oversight.^[61] This stringent protocol bars verification of the Ark's presence or authenticity, rendering the claim empirically untestable despite persistent assertions by Ethiopian Orthodox authorities. Outsiders, including author Graham Hancock during investigations in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, have been consistently denied entry, highlighting the tradition's reliance on faith over observable evidence.^[61] Historically, the church functioned as the primary venue for crowning Ethiopian emperors from the Solomonic dynasty, symbolizing unbroken descent from Menelik I; this ritual persisted as a cornerstone of imperial authority until the monarchy's abolition in 1974 following Haile Selassie's deposition.^[65]

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Mar 21, 2019 · Axum was an African kingdom on the Red Sea coast, founded in the 1st century CE, that prospered through agriculture and trade, and was the ...
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Medieval Ethiopia: The Origins of the Solomonic Dynasty
Nov 3, 2024 · Menelek I was the first Ethiopian ruler from the House of Solomon, which continued its lineage for thousands of years until the Zagwe Dynasty ...Missing: transition | Show results with:transition
[29]
Kebra Nagast: The Solomonic Dynasty from Medieval to Modern ...
Jan 3, 2022 · Menelik went on to rule and have sons of his own, the Kebra Nagast claims, and that is the origin of family ruling Ethiopia at the end of the ...
[30]
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia Dies at 83
Aug 28, 1975 · Haile Selassie, the last emperor in the 3,000-year-old Ethiopian ... In 1923 Tafari had the kingdom accepted as a member of the League of Nations.
[31]
Haile Selassie, last emperor of Ethiopia and architect of modern Africa
Oct 18, 2021 · His given name was Tafari Makonnen Woldemikael and he was a member of the Solomonic dynasty descended from King Solomon of Israel. Ad. He ...<|separator|>
[32]
How did the Solomonic Dynasty legitimize its rule in Ethiopia? Why ...
Sep 4, 2020 · Menelik I (Ge'ez: ምኒልክ) was claimed to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. According to Kebra Nagast, a 14th-century record, in the 10th ...
[33]
Ethiopia - The "Restoration" of the "Solomonic" Line - Country Studies
Yekuno Amlak's accession thus came to be seen as the legitimate "restoration" of the Solomonic line, even though the Amhara king's northern ancestry was at best ...Missing: Menelik | Show results with:Menelik
[34]
YEKUNO AMLAK - Encyclopaedia Africana
Yekuno Amlak (12?-1285) ruled as emperor of Ethiopia from 1270-85. He was the founder or “restorer” of the Solomonic dynasty (whose members claimed descent ...
[35]
Changes in the Military System during the Gondar Period (1632-1769)
The decline of the Solomonic dynasty changed the power structure in northern Ethiopian society and resulted in the rise of the Oromo people and great nobles.Missing: interruptions | Show results with:interruptions
[36]
ይኩኖ፡ አምላክ/Yǝkunno Amlak - The Founder Of The Solomonic ...
Jan 24, 2025 · In the late 13th century AD, Emperor Yekuno Amlak overthrew the Zagwe Dynasty, establishing the Solomonic Dynasty, which would rule for around 700 years.
[37]
The Aksumite Empire's Conversion To Christianity: Emperor Ezana ...
Jul 12, 2024 · In the Ge'ez version of his inscriptions, it is claimed that the stele commemorating his victory would bring prosperity to the Aksumite Empire.
[38]
Ethiopia's broken crown: The fall of Haile Selassie, 50 years on - RFI
Sep 12, 2024 · On 12 September 1974, Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie I was quietly deposed by the Armed Forces Coordinating Committee – the Derg – after ...Missing: deposition | Show results with:deposition
[39]
40 Years Ago: Communist Coup Deposed Ethiopia's Last Emperor
Sep 22, 2014 · Selassie argued passionately for a strong League of Nations following the first World War, and became the first Ethiopian monarch to travel ...
[40]
What happened to the ark of the covenant? | GotQuestions.org
Aug 7, 2025 · That is the last time the ark's location is mentioned in the Scriptures. Forty years later, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon captured Jerusalem ...
[41]
The Ark of the Covenant - Associates for Biblical Research
The one built after the Babylonian exile was called the Second Temple. The Location of Solomon's Temple. Although some researchers would place the Temple ...
[42]
https://answersingenesis.org/bible-questions/the-ark-of-the-covenant/
[43]
[PDF] CHRISTIAN NARRATIVES FROM THE KEBRA NAGAST by Morgan ...
Another message the Ethiopian Orthodox Church interprets from the legend is that God has allowed his Ark to belong to Ethiopia, making the country. Israel's ...
[44]
The Ark of the Covenant in Ethiopia: Analyzing the Legend, Tradition ...
Oct 23, 2024 · This paper explores the legend surrounding the Ark, its religious significance within Ethiopian Orthodox tradition, and the enduring fascination with this ...
[45]
The Kebra Nagast: Can Its Secrets Be Revealed? - jstor
I also contend that the Kebra Nagast (KN) may have been written by Monophysite Christians who lived in Ethiopia. The main purpose of writing the Ethiopic KN may ...<|separator|>
[46]
https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789004270268/B9789004270268_031.pdf
[47]
[PDF] THE LITURGY OF THE ETHIOPIAN CHURCH
Menelik I, visited his father King Solomon, he brought back the Ark of the Covenant accompanied by Azarias, son of Zadok the High Priest, and the first-born ...Missing: lineage | Show results with:lineage
[48]
Worship in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
The Tabot represents the Ark of the Covenant, believed to have been brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I, the son of King Solomon. It rests upon the Menbir, which ...Missing: lineage | Show results with:lineage
[49]
Social Structure of the Ethiopian Church - Tezeta - WordPress.com
Apr 18, 2005 · The roots of Ethiopian Judaism go back to the ancient beginnings of the country, probably antedating Christianity. The faith has retained some ...
[50]
Kibre Neggest: A Myth Elevated to a Biblical Cannon - Awate.com
Nov 30, 2019 · The book was conceived to justify the usurpation of power (from then Zagew dynasty) by warlords of the Solomonic dynasty (claiming lineage to ...
[51]
Queen of Sheba and King Solomon conceiving King Menelik I, 20th ...
Queen of Sheba and King Solomon conceiving King Menelik I. Ethiopian (Artist) 20th Century Glue tempera on canvas.
[52]
The Queen of Sheba with King Solomon and Tribute Bearers
According to Ethiopian written and oral histories, the Queen of Sheba became pregnant after visiting King Solomon and gave birth to a son, Menelik I, who became ...
[53]
Menelik l (Short 2004) - IMDb
Rating 7.1/10 (16) Menelik l: Directed by Mari Ellingson. This film explores the Queen of Sheba's visit to Jerusalem using the environment to tell the story.
[54]
Emperor Haile Selassie, God of the Rastafarians
Jan 28, 2022 · According to legend, as a young man Menelik visited his father in Jerusalem, where Solomon is said to have crowned him Ethiopia's first emperor.
[55]
Rastafarians Defy Time And Celebrate Haile Selassie's Legacy
Sep 25, 2025 · ... Menelik I, the offspring of King Solomon and Queen Makeda of Sheba. Afro-Caribbean communities in Jamaica took this to be confirmation of ...
[56]
Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa: A Pictorial ...
Mar 31, 2020 · This blogpost highlights resources available at the Library of Congress regarding Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[57]
Ethiopian History and Politics - Columbia University
In the Ethiopian version, Solomon seduces her and she becomes impregnated with Menelik I, the legendary founder of the Ethiopian state. Since the Ethiopians ...<|separator|>
[58]
The romantic rewriting of Haile Selassie's legacy must stop
Feb 7, 2019 · It narrates the relationship between King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba and their son Menelik I, who allegedly hid the Ark of the Covenant in ...<|separator|>
[59]
Axum - Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia
According to tradition it marked the tomb of Menelik I and his mother, the queen of Sheba, but its actual time of origin is unknown. Elsewhere is a large ...
[60]
[PDF] Aksoum (Ethiopia): an inquiry into the state of documentation and ...
Jul 4, 2016 · Today, the tomb of Menelik I has completely disappeared as the result of removal of the stone by the town people for construction. 4.3.5 ...
[61]
Keepers of the Lost Ark? - Smithsonian Magazine
He said Menelik brought it from Jerusalem to Aksum along with the ark. "The Jerusalem temple priests used this tray to collect and stir the sacrificial animals' ...
[62]
https://byfaith.org/2025/04/11/ark-of-the-covenant-ethiopia/
[63]
Church of St. Mary of Zion | church, Aksum, Ethiopia - Britannica
Over the centuries, however, the church has been destroyed and rebuilt several times; the present structure dates from the 17th century. Emperor Haile Selassie ...
[64]
New Church of St. Mary of Zion - Axum, Ethiopia - Sacred Destinations
It was around this time, in the 300s AD, that a Church of St. Mary was first built in Axum. This church stood for hundreds of years and was seen by a Portugese ...<|separator|>
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Maryam Tsion (Cathedral Of Our Lady Mary Of Zion) - HabeshaHistory
Jan 29, 2025 · The old Cathedral of Mary of Zion holds immense historical significance throughout Abyssinian History, as it served as the coronation site for many emperors.