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Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is a developmental communication disorder involving significant impairments in both the comprehension of language (receptive deficits) and the ability to produce or express language (expressive deficits), relative to chronological age and nonverbal cognitive abilities.^[1] Previously classified as a distinct category in the DSM-IV-TR, it is now integrated into the broader diagnosis of language disorder in the DSM-5 and DSM-5-TR, which consolidates features of both expressive and mixed receptive-expressive impairments without separating them into subtypes.^[2] This condition typically emerges in early childhood and can substantially affect social interactions, academic performance, and emotional development if unaddressed.^[3] Key symptoms include challenges in understanding spoken or written language, such as difficulty following multi-step directions, grasping abstract concepts, or identifying the main idea in stories.^[4] On the expressive side, affected individuals often demonstrate a limited vocabulary, reliance on short or incomplete sentences, grammatical errors, word-finding difficulties, and trouble organizing thoughts into coherent narratives.^[3] These deficits are not attributable to sensory impairments like hearing loss, intellectual disability, or neurological conditions such as autism spectrum disorder, though comorbidities may occur.^[5] Diagnosis requires comprehensive assessment by speech-language pathologists using standardized tests to evaluate receptive and expressive skills against age norms.^[4] The prevalence of language disorders encompassing mixed receptive-expressive features is estimated at approximately 7% among kindergarten-aged children, with higher rates reported in boys (male-to-female ratio of about 1.3:1) and in lower socioeconomic groups.^[3] Etiology is multifaceted and often idiopathic, involving genetic predispositions, prenatal or perinatal complications, and environmental factors, though specific causes remain unidentified in most cases.^[3] Early identification and intervention are critical, as persistent language difficulties can lead to secondary issues like reading disorders or behavioral challenges.^[4] Treatment primarily consists of individualized speech and language therapy, focusing on building vocabulary, grammatical structures, and comprehension strategies through play-based or structured activities tailored to the child's needs.^[4] Multidisciplinary approaches may incorporate educational support, family counseling, and monitoring for associated literacy or social skill deficits to optimize long-term outcomes.^[3] With consistent intervention, many children show substantial improvement, though some residual effects may persist into adolescence or adulthood.^[3]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is a neurodevelopmental communication disorder characterized by significant deficits in both the comprehension (receptive) and production (expressive) of spoken and written language, in the absence of primary sensory impairments, intellectual disability, or neurological conditions.^[1]^[3] This disorder involves difficulties in processing and generating linguistic information, where standardized measures of language ability fall substantially below age-expected norms relative to nonverbal cognitive abilities.^[6] The term originated in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), published in 1994 by the American Psychiatric Association, as a specific subtype within the category of communication disorders.^[7] Key characteristics include impairments in vocabulary acquisition, grammatical structure, syntactic processing, and discourse formulation, which emerge in early childhood and hinder effective daily communication in social, academic, and familial contexts.^[1]^[3] Unlike typical language delays that resolve with maturation, mixed receptive-expressive language disorder persists beyond developmentally appropriate milestones and causes marked interference with overall functioning.^[3] In the DSM-5 (2013), this diagnosis was consolidated into the broader category of language disorder to encompass varying degrees of receptive and expressive impairments.

Classification

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder was classified in the DSM-IV (1994) as a distinct diagnostic category under the broader grouping of communication disorders, specifically with the code 315.32, and required evidence of clinically significant impairments in both receptive and expressive language domains that were not better explained by sensory deficits, intellectual disability, or neurological conditions.^[1] This categorization evolved in the DSM-5 (2013), where the separate diagnoses of expressive language disorder and mixed receptive-expressive language disorder were consolidated into a single "Language Disorder" category (code 315.39, F80.9) to better capture the dimensional and overlapping nature of language impairments across receptive and expressive modalities, emphasizing persistent deficits in language comprehension and production that interfere with communication and academic functioning. In the ICD-11, effective from 2022, the condition aligns with the category of developmental speech or language disorders (code 6A01), which encompasses difficulties in understanding or producing language beyond age expectations, with a specific subtype for developmental language disorder with impairment of both receptive and expressive language (6A01.20) that avoids rigid modality-specific distinctions and highlights mixed impairments as part of a spectrum. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), mixed receptive-expressive language disorder falls within the federal classification of "speech or language impairment," defined as a communication disorder adversely affecting a child's educational performance, qualifying eligible students for special education services such as speech-language therapy without requiring a specific DSM or ICD code.

Signs and Symptoms

Receptive Language Deficits

Receptive language deficits in mixed receptive-expressive language disorder primarily involve impairments in comprehending spoken and written language input, affecting the ability to process and interpret linguistic information accurately. Children with these deficits often struggle with understanding words, sentences, and broader contextual meanings, including difficulties in recognizing synonyms, antonyms, and words with multiple meanings, as well as grasping figurative language such as idioms and metaphors.^[8] These challenges extend to following directions, particularly multi-step instructions, and comprehending complex syntactic structures in narratives or discourse, which can hinder the inference of implied meanings from context.^[9] In younger children, such as toddlers and preschoolers, receptive deficits manifest as delayed responses to their name, simple commands, or basic semantic relationships, like agent-action concepts (e.g., understanding "the boy kicked the ball").^[8] For school-age children, these issues become more evident in struggles with story comprehension, abstract concepts, and curriculum-related vocabulary, where they may require visual aids to process multi-step narratives or infer outcomes without explicit cues.^[10] These age-specific manifestations contribute to slower verbal information processing and weaknesses in working memory, making grammatical elements like verb tense and agreement particularly hard to comprehend.^[10] The impact on learning is significant, as receptive deficits impede vocabulary acquisition, adherence to classroom instructions, and overall academic progress, often leading to underachievement in reading and written language tasks.^[8] Children may exhibit poor comprehension of expository texts or inability to draw inferences, exacerbating educational challenges and increasing the risk of long-term academic difficulties.^[11] When combined with expressive impairments, these receptive issues compound communication barriers, though the core comprehension problems remain distinct.^[9]

Expressive Language Deficits

Individuals with mixed receptive-expressive language disorder exhibit significant impairments in expressive language, characterized by difficulties in producing and articulating spoken or written language. Core expressive issues include a limited vocabulary, resulting in word-finding difficulties and reliance on general terms rather than specifics. Grammatical errors are common, such as incorrect use of verb tenses, pronouns, or sentence structure, leading to incomplete or telegraphic speech. Children often produce short sentences with reduced mean length of utterance and demonstrate poor narrative skills, struggling to organize events coherently or use cohesive devices in storytelling.^[8]^[3] These deficits manifest differently across age groups. In preschoolers, expressive challenges may appear as delayed acquisition of first words, limited word combinations. For instance, a preschooler might say "Me go park" instead of "I am going to the park," omitting key grammatical elements. In school-age children, issues persist with advanced morphology and complex syntax, such as difficulty forming sentences for academic tasks. Adolescents often provide vague descriptions, avoid complex topics, or substitute simple words like "thing" for precise terms such as "scissors," and omit critical details when retelling events, like skipping connections in a story sequence.^[8]^[3] The social impacts of these expressive deficits are profound, frequently causing frustration during conversations and leading to communication breakdowns. Children may experience withdrawal from social interactions, perceived immaturity by peers, or behavioral issues stemming from unsuccessful attempts to express needs or emotions, which can exacerbate risks of bullying and low self-esteem. These challenges hinder peer relationships and participation in group activities, contributing to broader psychosocial difficulties.^[8]^[3]

Causes and Risk Factors

Etiology

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder, now often classified under developmental language disorder (DLD), arises from disruptions in the typical neurodevelopmental processes that underpin language acquisition. Neuroimaging studies have identified abnormalities in key brain regions associated with language processing, including Broca's area (involved in speech production) and Wernicke's area (involved in comprehension), with affected children showing atypical structure and function in these perisylvian regions. Recent neuroimaging also implicates subcortical structures, such as the basal ganglia, supporting a procedural circuit deficit hypothesis.^[12] Functional MRI and cerebral blood flow analyses reveal reduced activation in the left hemisphere during language tasks, contrasting with more bilateral or right-hemisphere recruitment in typically developing peers, suggesting impaired specialization for linguistic processing.^[13] These neural differences likely contribute to the combined receptive and expressive deficits characteristic of the disorder.^[14] Genetic factors play a significant role in the etiology, with recent studies estimating heritability of specific language impairment (a related construct encompassing mixed receptive-expressive features) at 25-50%, though twin studies suggest up to 70%, indicating substantial genetic influence on vulnerability.^[15] Seminal research has linked mutations in the FOXP2 gene, a transcription factor critical for speech-motor control and neural circuit development, to severe impairments in both expressive articulation and receptive grammar processing.^[16] Heterozygous pathogenic variants in FOXP2 disrupt downstream targets like CNTNAP2, leading to broader language deficits, though such monogenic cases are rare and account for only a small fraction of instances.^[17] Genome-wide association studies further support a polygenic model, where common variants across multiple loci incrementally elevate risk for the disorder.^[18] Prenatal and perinatal influences can exacerbate genetic predispositions by altering neural wiring during critical developmental windows. Low birth weight, often resulting from preterm delivery, is associated with increased risk of language impairments through disruptions in brain maturation and white matter integrity.^[19] Maternal substance exposure, such as alcohol or cocaine during pregnancy, correlates with receptive and expressive delays, potentially via toxic effects on fetal brain development and reduced synaptic plasticity.^[20] Similarly, perinatal hypoxia—oxygen deprivation around birth—has been implicated as a contributor to semantic and syntactic deficits, as it may damage vulnerable language-related neural pathways in the temporal and frontal lobes.^[21] No single cause accounts for mixed receptive-expressive language disorder; instead, a multifactorial model integrates biological vulnerabilities—such as genetic variants and early insults—with dynamic environmental interactions to shape the disorder's emergence and severity.^[18] This interplay underscores the disorder's heterogeneity, where neurodevelopmental anomalies manifest differently across individuals based on the timing and confluence of etiological factors.

Associated Factors

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder (MRELD) is influenced by various environmental factors that can hinder typical language acquisition during critical developmental periods. Limited early language exposure, such as reduced parental interaction or interaction in low-stimulation home environments, has been identified as a significant risk, as it deprives children of the verbal input necessary for building receptive and expressive skills.^[22] For instance, children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds often experience fewer conversational turns and less diverse vocabulary from caregivers, which correlates with delayed language milestones.^[23] Additionally, bilingual home environments may contribute to temporary delays in language acquisition, particularly among children from minority ethnic groups or low socioeconomic status families, where divided linguistic input can slow the pace of proficiency in either language.^[24] However, these environmental risks are modifiable through targeted enrichment strategies. Familial patterns play a notable role in increasing vulnerability to MRELD, with a higher incidence observed in families with a history of language disorders, speech impairments, or related conditions like dyslexia. Research indicates that children with a family history of such disorders are at elevated risk due to shared genetic and environmental influences within the household, such as inherited patterns of language processing challenges.^[25] For example, siblings of affected children often exhibit subclinical language difficulties, suggesting a heritable component that manifests across generations.^[26] This familial aggregation underscores the importance of screening relatives to identify at-risk children early. MRELD frequently co-occurs with other neurodevelopmental conditions, which can exacerbate language deficits and complicate management. There is substantial overlap with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with co-occurrence rates estimated at 22-40% in children with developmental language disorders, leading to compounded challenges in attention, social communication, and academic performance.^[8] Similarly, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) shows frequent comorbidity, as many children on the spectrum exhibit receptive and expressive language impairments akin to MRELD, with studies reporting that up to 50-70% of autistic individuals experience significant language delays.^[27] Cognitive impairments may co-occur with MRELD and influence severity, but the diagnosis requires that language deficits exceed those expected from any associated intellectual disability. These comorbidities highlight the need for comprehensive assessments to address interconnected symptoms. Protective factors can mitigate the progression of MRELD, with early intervention emerging as a key element in improving outcomes. Structured speech and language therapy initiated in preschool years has been shown to enhance both receptive and expressive abilities, reducing long-term impairments by capitalizing on neuroplasticity during early development.^[28] Supportive family dynamics, including high maternal well-being and responsive parenting, further serve as buffers against environmental risks, fostering resilient language growth.^[29] These factors, when leveraged promptly, can significantly alter the trajectory of the disorder.

Diagnosis and Assessment

Diagnostic Criteria

The diagnostic criteria for mixed receptive-expressive language disorder are outlined in the DSM-5 under the broader category of Language Disorder (code 315.32, F80.2), which consolidates previous distinctions between expressive-only and mixed impairments.^[30]^[8] To meet Criterion A, individuals must exhibit persistent difficulties in the acquisition and use of language across modalities, such as spoken, written, or sign language, stemming from deficits in comprehension or production; these include reduced vocabulary (e.g., limited word knowledge and retrieval), limited sentence structure (e.g., errors in grammar and syntax), and impairments in discourse (e.g., challenges in narrating events or conversing coherently).^[31]^[32] Criterion B requires that these language abilities fall substantially below age expectations, resulting in functional limitations in daily communication, social interactions, academic performance, or occupational tasks.^[31]^[8] Onset must occur during the early developmental period (Criterion C), typically evident by age 4 or earlier, and the difficulties cannot be better explained by sensory impairments (e.g., hearing loss), motor dysfunction, intellectual disability, global developmental delay, or other medical or neurological conditions (Criterion D).^[30]^[32] Severity is specified based on the degree of functional impact: mild (some limitations in communication but effective overall), moderate (marked difficulties requiring substantial support), or severe (very limited functional language, with reliance on nonverbal means or basic gestures).^[8]^[31] An additional specifier notes the presence or absence of word-finding difficulties, such as anomia, which may exacerbate expressive deficits.^[31] Exclusions emphasize ruling out intellectual disability or other primary causes, where language deficits must exceed those expected for the individual's cognitive level; while no strict IQ threshold like >70 is mandated, standardized assessments confirm the impairment is not solely attributable to lower nonverbal intelligence.^[30]^[8] In the DSM-IV, mixed receptive-expressive language disorder (code 315.32) required substantial deficits in both receptive and expressive language scores on standardized measures, relative to nonverbal intellectual capacity and speech sound production, without meeting criteria for other disorders like expressive language disorder alone or pervasive developmental disorders, and excluding acquired causes such as neurological damage.^[6]^[30] These impairments had to interfere with academic or social functioning and were not due to sensory or motor issues.^[6]

Evaluation Methods

Evaluation of mixed receptive-expressive language disorder (MRELD) typically involves a combination of standardized testing, observational techniques, and multidisciplinary input to assess both receptive and expressive language abilities comprehensively. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) lead the process, often integrating tools that align with diagnostic criteria from established classifications like the DSM-5, ensuring assessments capture deficits in language comprehension and production.^[8] Standardized tests are central to identifying MRELD, providing norm-referenced scores for receptive and expressive skills. The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-5) is widely used to evaluate core language abilities, including receptive components like understanding sentences and expressive tasks such as formulating sentences, with high sensitivity (0.90) for detecting language impairments in children aged 5-21.^[33] Similarly, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-5) assesses receptive vocabulary by having children select images matching spoken words, offering a quick, non-verbal measure suitable for ages 2:6 to 90+ and effective for identifying comprehension delays without requiring expressive output.^[34] These instruments help quantify deficits, such as scores below the 10th percentile in both domains, distinguishing MRELD from isolated impairments.^[35] Observational approaches complement standardized measures by capturing real-world language use. Parent and teacher questionnaires, such as the Children's Communication Checklist-Second Edition (CCC-2), screen for pragmatic and structural language issues in children aged 4-16, rating aspects like speech intelligibility, vocabulary, and social communication on a 70-item scale to flag needs for further testing.^[36] Naturalistic language sampling involves recording and analyzing spontaneous speech during play or conversation, using tools like the Observation of Spontaneous Expressive Language (OSEL) to evaluate syntax, semantics, and pragmatics in context, which is particularly useful for children who underperform on formal tests due to anxiety.^[37] These methods provide qualitative insights into functional communication challenges.^[38] A multidisciplinary team ensures thorough assessment, ruling out confounding factors. SLPs conduct primary language evaluations, while psychologists assess cognitive and behavioral contributions using tools like intelligence tests to differentiate MRELD from intellectual disabilities.^[8] Audiologists perform hearing screenings to exclude auditory issues that mimic receptive deficits, as even mild hearing loss can impact language development.^[39] This collaborative approach, often involving occupational therapists for related sensory-motor factors, enhances diagnostic accuracy.^[40] Cultural and linguistic considerations are essential to avoid misdiagnosis, particularly in bilingual children. Assessments should use normed tests in the child's dominant language or bilingual versions, such as adapted PPVT forms, to account for dual-language exposure and prevent over-identification of impairment due to cultural biases in monolingual norms.^[41] Clinicians may employ dynamic assessment techniques, observing learning potential across languages, and involve interpreters or culturally responsive questionnaires to ensure equitable evaluation.^[42]

Treatment and Management

Therapeutic Interventions

Speech-language therapy forms the cornerstone of treatment for mixed receptive-expressive language disorder, involving targeted sessions designed to enhance both comprehension and production of language. Therapists employ techniques such as recasting, where a child's incorrect utterance is immediately rephrased in a grammatically correct form to model proper structure without direct correction, and focused stimulation, which provides repeated exposure to target language forms in natural contexts.^[8] Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies, including the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), are integrated to support expressive output; PECS teaches learners to initiate communication by exchanging pictures for desired items, progressing from single icons to sentence construction, with evidence from over 240 studies demonstrating its efficacy in building functional communication skills.^[43] These interventions, delivered individually or in small groups, have shown positive effects on expressive phonology, vocabulary, and syntax in children with primary language impairments, as supported by systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials.^[44] Multicomponent approaches combine speech-language therapy with other disciplines to address co-occurring challenges, such as integrating occupational therapy to improve fine motor skills necessary for articulation or writing, and behavioral therapy to manage frustration arising from communication breakdowns. Hybrid methods, including clinician-directed operant procedures alongside child-centered expansions and peer-mediated interactions, foster naturalistic language practice and generalization across settings.^[8] Caregiver training programs, like those emphasizing naturalistic teaching strategies, further reinforce these multicomponent efforts by equipping parents to embed language supports into daily routines.^[44] Educational supports are essential for school-aged children, often formalized through Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) that provide accommodations tailored to receptive and expressive deficits. These may include visual aids such as graphic organizers, picture symbols, and highlighted instructions to bolster comprehension, alongside extended time for processing directions and completing assignments.^[45] Additional strategies encompass preferential seating to minimize distractions, vocabulary lists for upcoming units, and sentence frames to scaffold expressive tasks, enabling greater participation in classroom activities.^[45] Emerging computer-based programs, such as Fast ForWord, target auditory processing and language skills through intensive, adaptive exercises delivered via software. Randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that Fast ForWord leads to significant gains in sentence-level language abilities and phonological awareness, including blending sounds into words, compared to control conditions, though benefits are comparable to other language interventions.^[46] Recent developments include generative AI-powered digital platforms, which have demonstrated effectiveness in pilot studies for enhancing language therapy outcomes, such as significant improvements in vocabulary and comprehension after 2-3 months of use.^[47]^[48]

Prognosis and Outcomes

The prognosis for mixed receptive-expressive language disorder, now often classified under developmental language disorder (DLD), is variable, with outcomes depending heavily on early detection and intervention. Longitudinal studies indicate that approximately 50-70% of young children with early language delays, including those with receptive-expressive components, demonstrate significant improvement in language skills when therapy is initiated before age 5, often resolving to within normal limits by school entry.^[49] However, for those with diagnosed mixed deficits, full resolution is less common, and language gaps may widen over time without intensive support. Several factors influence long-term outcomes, including the severity of deficits at onset, the presence of comorbidities such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or dyslexia, and the timing and intensity of interventions. Children with milder initial impairments and no co-occurring conditions tend to fare better, while those with severe receptive components show greater persistence of difficulties. Early and frequent therapy has been shown to enhance academic attainment, as evidenced by 1990s cohort studies tracking preschoolers into adolescence.^[50]^[51] In adulthood, untreated or inadequately managed cases can lead to residual effects, including challenges in employment—such as lower rates of full-time work and higher reliance on vocational training—and increased risk of social isolation due to ongoing communication barriers. Longitudinal research from cohorts followed over 20 years highlights that individuals with persistent DLD experience poorer educational completion and quality-of-life domains like social relationships, though strong support networks can mitigate some impacts.^[52] A substantial proportion of cases exhibit ongoing significant impairments into adulthood, underscoring the need for lifelong monitoring.

Epidemiology

Prevalence

Developmental language disorder (DLD), which encompasses features of mixed receptive-expressive impairments, affects an estimated 7% of kindergarten-aged children worldwide, equivalent to approximately 1 in 14 children.^[53] Broader language disorders impact 7-10% of children under age 5.^[54] In the United States, the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) reports that 7% of children have DLD, consistent with data as of July 2025.^[55] Prevalence estimates for DLD have remained stable since the DSM-5 reclassification in 2013, which consolidated specific language impairments under a unified category; however, underdiagnosis persists in low socioeconomic status (SES) groups due to barriers in access to screening and services.^[8]^[56] Identification of the disorder peaks between ages 2 and 7 years, when language demands increase and delays become more apparent in social and educational settings, with rates declining thereafter as some children show natural maturation while persistent cases require ongoing intervention.^[57] Demographic variations, such as those by socioeconomic or cultural factors, further influence reported prevalence but are explored in detail elsewhere.^[56]

Demographic Patterns

Developmental language disorder exhibits gender differences in prevalence, with males affected at a ratio of approximately 1.3:1 to 2:1 compared to females.^[58] This male predominance is observed across various studies on developmental language disorders, where boys consistently show higher rates of identification, particularly in the lower percentiles of language ability.^[59] Possible contributing factors include genetic influences related to the X chromosome, as variations in X-linked genes have been associated with increased risk of language impairments in males, who have only one X chromosome.^[60] Socioeconomic status significantly influences the prevalence of the disorder, with higher rates reported among children from low-income families compared to those from high socioeconomic backgrounds.^[61] For instance, children in low-SES environments experience language delays at rates up to three times higher than their high-SES peers, often linked to disparities in early stimulation and healthcare access.^[61] These patterns underscore the role of environmental factors in exacerbating vulnerability to language difficulties. Ethnic and racial variations also play a role, with elevated prevalence observed in minority groups such as African American children, where rates of speech and language disorders reach approximately 8.9%, compared to 7.3% among White children.^[55] This disparity may stem from challenges like bilingualism in diverse households or potential biases in standardized assessments that do not fully account for dialectal variations.^[62] Geographically, the disorder maintains relatively consistent prevalence rates worldwide, estimated at 5-7% in many populations, though diagnosis rates vary in non-Western contexts due to differing cultural norms around language milestones and limited access to specialized evaluations.^[53] For example, studies in Middle Eastern countries report ranges from 3.2% to 25.6%, reflecting differences in screening practices rather than inherent prevalence differences.^[63]

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Developmental Language Disorder - NIDCD - NIH
May 8, 2023 · What are the symptoms of DLD? · Limited use of complex sentences. · Difficulty finding the right words. · Difficulty understanding figurative ...What is developmental... · What causes DLD? · What are the symptoms of DLD?Missing: mixed | Show results with:mixed
[52]
Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children
This epidemiologic study estimated the prevalence of specific language impairment (SLI) in monolingual English-speaking kindergarten children.
[53]
How We Fail Children With Developmental Language Disorder - PMC
Aug 5, 2020 · Parents with lower SES faced more barriers than parents with higher SES, and, not surprisingly given this situation, the children from lower SES ...
[54]
6.48: Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder (315.32)
Jun 14, 2024 · Generally speaking, Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder is characterized by a difficulty with spoken communication. The child can ...DSM-IV-TR criteria · Associated featuresMissing: definition | Show results with:definition
[55]
Gender differences in language are small but matter for disorders
However, males outnumber females in the lowest 10th percentile in language tests (2:1), causing males to more often be diagnosed with developmental disorders, ...Missing: ratio | Show results with:ratio
[56]
The contribution of X-linked coding variation to severe ... - Nature
Jan 27, 2021 · In conclusion, our work shows that monogenic causes on the X chromosome cannot account for the male bias in developmental disorders.
[57]
Poverty and Language Development: Roles of Parenting and Stress
Socioeconomic status affects a variety of mental and physical health outcomes, such as language development.
[58]
Quick Statistics About Voice, Speech, Language - NIDCD - NIH
Jul 8, 2025 · Developmental language disorder (also called specific language impairment) has a prevalence of 7% or approximately 1 in 14 children.
[59]
Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race ...
Disproportional identification with a learning disability occurs among groups who are already socially disadvantaged – racial/ethnic minorities, language ...
[60]
Epidemiology of developmental language disorder among children ...
Apr 17, 2025 · The reported prevalence of DLD ranged from 3.2% in Egyptian children aged 3–6 years to 25.6% in Saudi Arabian children aged 1–5 years.