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Moderate realism

Moderate realism is a metaphysical position in the philosophy of universals that holds universals—such as "humanity" or "redness"—to exist only as common natures instantiated within particular things in the real world, rather than as independent entities separate from those particulars or as mere names without objective foundation.^[1] This view rejects both extreme (Platonic) realism, which posits universals as timeless forms existing ante rem in a separate realm, and nominalism, which denies any real existence to universals beyond linguistic conventions.^[2] Instead, moderate realism emphasizes that universals are mind-independent in their foundation within particulars (in rebus) but become universal through intellectual abstraction, allowing the mind to grasp shared essences across multiple instances.^[1] The theory traces its origins to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), who critiqued Plato's theory of Forms in works like the Metaphysics and argued that universals are not separate substances but predicable structures embedded in sensible particulars, as seen in passages such as Metaphysics III, 3 (998b 14–999a 23), where he questions the unity of genera and species as principles.^[1] Aristotle's approach in the Topics (I, 5, 102a 31–35) further illustrates universality as a logical feature of predication applicable to many, derived from abstraction rather than independent existence.^[1] This Aristotelian framework was later synthesized and refined by Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) in medieval Scholasticism, who integrated it with Christian theology to argue that universals are real intentions of the intellect, abstracted from the phantasms of sense experience and grounded in the essences of created things, as elaborated in his Summa Theologiae (I, q. 85) and commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics.^[2] Key to moderate realism is its resolution of the problem of universals by balancing ontology and epistemology: similarities among particulars are explained by shared formal causes or natures inhering in matter, enabling scientific knowledge without positing a third realm of being.^[1] For instance, Aquinas applied this to mathematical objects, viewing numbers and quantities as abstractions from the accident of quantity in substances, thus ensuring their objective basis in reality while avoiding Platonist separation (In Duodecim Libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis Expositio, Book XI, lect. 10).^[2] This position influenced subsequent thinkers, including medieval Schoolmen like Albert the Great, and persists in contemporary Aristotelian-Thomistic philosophy as a via media for addressing issues in metaphysics, semantics, and the philosophy of science.^[1]

Definition and Core Principles

Definition

Moderate realism, also known as immanent realism, is a metaphysical position in the philosophy of universals that asserts such universals—properties or qualities like "redness" or "humanity"—exist only as instantiated within particular objects in the physical world, rather than in a separate realm of abstract forms or as mere linguistic conventions.^[3]^[4] This view emphasizes that universals are real and mind-independent but depend for their existence on being embodied in concrete particulars, thereby avoiding the extremes of Platonic transcendental realism, which posits universals as independently existing entities, and nominalism, which denies their objective reality altogether.^[3]^[5] In moderate realism, universals are abstracted by the human intellect from sensory experience of particulars, yet they are grounded in the actual, shared natures of those things, reflecting objective similarities among them.^[3] For instance, the universal "humanity" is not an abstract entity floating free but is realized fully in each individual human, enabling predication across multiples without positing a separate domain.^[5] This abstraction process highlights the intellect's role in recognizing what is common, while insisting that universals have no existence apart from their instances.^[4] Positioned as a middle ground in the historical debate over universals, moderate realism draws from the Aristotelian tradition, where universals are described as "particularized and multiplied" in individuals, existing "in rebus" (in things) rather than "ante rem" (before things) or "post rem" (after things).^[3] This framework underscores a commitment to the immanence of universals, influenced by Aristotle's opposition to Plato's separated forms.^[3]

Nature of Universals

In moderate realism, universals are understood as common natures that inhere directly within particular entities, serving as the shared essences that account for the similarities among them without existing as separate entities. For instance, the universal "triangle" is not an independent form but a common property embedded in each particular triangular object, such as a drawn figure or a physical shape, unifying their geometric characteristics while remaining integral to those individuals.^[6] This inherence ensures that universals are not abstract entities detached from the concrete world but are realized concretely through their presence in multiple particulars.^[7] The immanence of universals in moderate realism distinguishes them from transcendent forms, positioning them as real yet spatiotemporally located within the particulars they characterize, rather than in a separate realm beyond space and time. Universals are thus co-located with their instances, wholly present in each without division or separation, allowing them to ground the observable resemblances among things.^[6] This immanent ontology avoids positing an otherworldly domain for universals, affirming their reality as embedded structures in the empirical world. The process of abstraction in moderate realism involves the human intellect extracting these universals from sensory experiences of particulars, transforming concrete observations into intelligible general concepts without conferring independent existence upon the universals themselves. Through sensory perception of individual instances, the intellect identifies and isolates the common natures, rendering them knowable as abstracted types derived from "gutted states of affairs" where placeholders represent shared properties.^[6] This abstraction is rooted in empirical observation and rational comparison, enabling the mind to grasp universals as repeatable features without detaching them from their origins in particulars.^[7] Epistemologically, this framework facilitates scientific generalization by providing a basis for universal knowledge grounded in the immanent realities of particulars, obviating the need for ideal forms while supporting predictive laws and classifications derived from observed similarities. By abstracting universals from sensory data, the intellect achieves comprehension of shared essences that underpin natural kinds and relations, thus bridging particular experiences with broader theoretical understanding.^[6] This approach aligns with empirical inquiry, where universals enable the formulation of general principles without invoking transcendent entities.

Historical Development

Ancient Origins

The origins of moderate realism lie in ancient Greek philosophy, where Aristotle (384–322 BCE) laid its foundational principles by positing that universals, or shared forms, exist immanently within particular things rather than as separate entities.^[8] This approach contrasted sharply with the transcendent realism of his teacher Plato, emphasizing empirical observation of the natural world to understand essences.^[9] Aristotle's theory emerged as a synthesis of earlier naturalistic inquiries, marking a shift toward a balanced ontology that grounded universals in concrete reality. In Metaphysics Book VII, Aristotle systematically critiques Plato's Theory of Forms, arguing that positing universals as independent, separate substances leads to logical absurdities, such as the "third man" regress where each form requires another form to explain its similarity to particulars.^[10] He contends that forms cannot exist apart from matter, as separation would render them unknowable and irrelevant to the sensible world; instead, universals are actualized only within material composites.^[9] This rejection establishes the core of moderate realism: universals are real but not transcendent, inhering in individuals without being reducible to mere names or mental constructs. Central to Aristotle's framework is the concept of ousia (substance), defined as the hylomorphic union of form and matter, where form provides the universal essence and matter the particular individuation.^[11] In this view, a substance like a human being exemplifies the universal "humanity" through its formal structure imposed on organic matter, enabling universals to be both shared across multiples and instantiated uniquely.^[9] This immanence resolves the extremes of Platonic separation and later nominalist denial, affirming universals' objective reality within the physical domain. Aristotle's innovations drew from pre-Socratic empiricism, particularly the observational naturalism of thinkers like Empedocles (ca. 494–434 BCE), who explored mixtures of elemental roots to explain natural phenomena, influencing Aristotle's emphasis on material composition over abstract ideals.^[12] Yet Aristotle remains the primary architect, transforming these empirical insights into a systematic metaphysics of immanent universals.^[13]

Medieval Scholasticism

Moderate realism emerged as a key position in the debate over universals during the scholastic period of medieval philosophy, spanning the 12th to 14th centuries, as thinkers sought to reconcile ancient philosophical insights with Christian theology.^[14] This view posits that universals exist really but dependently in individual things, avoiding both the separate realm of Platonic forms and the purely mental constructs of nominalism.^[15] The doctrine gained prominence in the 13th century, fueled by the recovery and translation of Aristotle's works from Greek and Arabic sources into Latin, which transformed university curricula and prompted a synthesis of Aristotelian metaphysics with doctrines of divine creation and incarnation.^[14] This integration emphasized universals as immanent principles in particulars, aligning natural reason with revealed faith in centers like the University of Paris and Oxford.^[14] The universals controversy intensified in scholastic debates, particularly at the University of Paris, where extreme interpretations of Aristotle threatened theological orthodoxy.^[16] The 1277 condemnations issued by Bishop Stephen Tempier prohibited 219 theses, many drawn from radical Aristotelian and Averroist views, such as denying God's omnipotence or the soul's immortality, thereby curbing excesses and encouraging moderate positions that preserved universals within a theocentric framework.^[16] These events influenced scholasticism by promoting syntheses that subordinated philosophy to theology, fostering moderate realism as a balanced resolution to the problem of how universals could be real without undermining divine sovereignty or individual creation.^[14] Saint Bonaventure (c. 1217–1274) articulated a moderate realist stance, viewing universals as divine ideas eternally present in God's mind (ante rem), reflected and immanent in created particulars (in re), and abstracted in the human intellect (post rem) through divine illumination.^[17] This threefold existence ensured universals' reality while rooting them in God's essence and the sensible world, integrating Augustinian illumination with Aristotelian abstraction to affirm their role in knowledge and creation.^[17] Similarly, John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) advanced moderate realism through his doctrine of the formal distinction, positing universals as objective formalities or common natures inhering within individuals, really distinct from individuating principles (haecceities) yet not separable from them.^[18] This allowed universals to possess a real foundation independent of the mind but contracted to singularity in particulars, preserving their predicability without positing independent entities.^[18] Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) served as a central figure bridging Aristotle's philosophy with Christian theology, exemplifying moderate realism in his synthesis of universals as existing only in sensible things and the intellect.^[14]

Key Proponents

Aristotle

In Aristotle's Categories, universals are identified as secondary substances, which are predicated of primary substances that are individual particulars, such as specific humans or animals.^[19] Primary substances serve as the fundamental ontological units, neither said of nor present in other things, while secondary substances, like species and genera (e.g., "human" or "animal"), are said of primary substances and provide their essential definitions.^[19] This framework positions universals not as independent entities but as common features inhering in particulars, enabling predication without positing a separate realm.^[20] In the Metaphysics, particularly Books Z and M, Aristotle extends this analysis by critiquing Plato's theory of separate Forms, arguing that such separation leads to an infinite regress akin to the Third Man argument.^[21] He contends that if Forms exist apart from particulars and particulars participate in them, a third Form would be required to explain the similarity between the first two, generating an endless chain that undermines explanatory power.^[21] Consequently, universals must inhere directly in sensible particulars rather than existing separately, ensuring that commonality arises from immanent structures observable in the physical world.^[22] Central to this metaphysical framework is Aristotle's hylomorphic theory, where form—understood as a universal—actualizes potential matter to constitute a composite substance, such as a living organism.^[23] The form does not exist independently but only within these hylomorphic composites, unifying matter into a definite essence while remaining inseparable from it in natural substances.^[23] This approach emphasizes empirical observation of sensible things, grounding universals in the concrete processes of generation and change.^[23] Aristotle's conception of universals as immanent in particulars laid the foundational basis for moderate realism, influencing later scholastic thinkers who adapted it within theological contexts.^[24]

Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), a Dominican friar and theologian, developed a synthesis of Aristotelian moderate realism with Christian doctrine, integrating the immanence of forms into a framework centered on God's creative intellect. In his Summa Theologica, composed between approximately 1265 and 1274, Aquinas articulates a position on universals that balances their objective reality with their dependence on divine and created being, rejecting both the independent subsistence of Platonic forms and the mere verbalism of nominalism.^[25]^[26] Aquinas posits a three-fold existence for universals, as detailed in the Summa Theologica (I, q. 85, aa. 1–2). They exist ante rem in the divine mind as exemplary ideas or archetypes, eternally known by God as principles of creation and not as separate entities but as aspects of His simple essence (Summa Theologica I, q. 15, a. 1). In this mode, universals pre-exist things as the divine intellect's objects, enabling God's production of diverse creatures from His unified understanding. They exist in re within individual particulars as common natures or essences, informed by form and individuated by matter, thus inhering really in things without forming separate classes. Finally, universals exist post rem in the human intellect through abstraction, where the active intellect extracts intelligible species from sensory phantasms, rendering the common nature applicable to many individuals without the individuating conditions.^[27]^[28]^[29] By this account, Aquinas explicitly rejects extreme realism, which would locate universals as subsistent entities apart from particulars and the divine mind, as incompatible with the unity of God's essence and the contingency of creation. He likewise dismisses nominalism, which reduces universals to mere words or mental fictions lacking real foundation, arguing instead that the common nature's reality in things grounds true predication and scientific knowledge. Universals are thus real but non-subsistent, existing dependently in their respective modes to explain resemblance among particulars without positing extraneous realities.^[24]^[28] Aquinas' theological integration ties universals to participation in God's essence, where creatures analogically share in divine perfections through a hierarchy of being. As participated forms, universals reflect God's simple actuality diffused in multiplicity, allowing names and concepts to apply proportionally to God (essentially) and creatures (by participation) without univocity or pure equivocation (Summa Theologica I, q. 13, a. 5). This analogy of being undergirds the realism of universals, ensuring that human abstraction mirrors divine creation while preserving God's transcendence.^[30]^[25]

Other Medieval Thinkers

Saint Bonaventure (ca. 1221–1274), a Franciscan theologian, developed a theory of universals rooted in exemplarism, positing that they exist eternally as exemplar causes in the divine mind, serving as archetypes for creation, while also being immanent in created things through divine illumination.^[31]^[17] In this framework, universals participate in the eternal ideas of God, which diffuse through the Trinity and inform all beings, ensuring their unity, truth, and goodness, but their cognition requires the soul's cooperation with divine light to abstract immutable truths from sensory data.^[31]^[17] Bonaventure's illumination theory thus complements moderate realism by regulating human intellect, avoiding Platonic separation while emphasizing the divine origin of forms.^[31] John Duns Scotus (ca. 1266–1308), known as the Subtle Doctor, advanced moderate realism through his doctrine of common natures and haecceity, arguing that a common nature, such as humanity, possesses real being with less-than-numerical unity, existing indifferently in individuals but requiring individuation by haecceity, or "thisness," to form particular substances.^[32]^[18] He employed the formal distinction to explain the relationship between common nature and haecceity within a single entity: this distinction is mind-independent and less than real separability, allowing the nature to be truly common without implying numerical identity across individuals, thus preserving universals as real foundations for predication without separation from particulars.^[32]^[18] Scotus's approach underscores the intrinsic positivity of haecceity as an individuating principle, akin to a specific difference, enabling moderate realism to account for both commonality and individuality.^[32] Albertus Magnus (ca. 1200–1280), an early Dominican scholar and teacher of Thomas Aquinas, played a pivotal role as an Aristotelian commentator by paraphrasing Aristotle's works and integrating them with Christian theology, thereby bridging ancient philosophy and medieval scholasticism on universals.^[33] He defined universals as "that which, although it exists in one, is apt by nature to exist in many," classifying them into those pre-existing ante rem in the divine intellect, existing in re in particulars, and abstracted post rem in the mind.^[33] This tripartite ontology harmonized Platonic exemplarism with Aristotelian immanence, supporting moderate realism by affirming the real aptitude of universals for multiplicity while grounding them in created things.^[33] These thinkers introduced variations in moderate realism, placing greater emphasis on divine ideas and exemplar causes in God's mind compared to a purely immanent interpretation, thereby enriching the theory's metaphysical depth while collectively opposing later nominalist views like those of William of Ockham.^[31]^[32]^[33]

Comparisons with Other Theories

Vs. Platonic Realism

Platonic realism posits that universals, known as Forms, exist eternally in a transcendent, non-physical realm separate from the sensible world. These Forms are perfect, unchanging paradigms that particulars imperfectly imitate or participate in, as outlined in Plato's Phaedo and Republic, where the Form of Beauty, for instance, is itself beautiful and serves as the eternal source of beauty in physical objects. Moderate realism, in contrast, critiques this transcendent ontology as introducing unnecessary separation between universals and particulars, leading to the "participation" problem: it remains unclear how separated Forms causally interact with or explain properties in the sensible world without invoking an infinite regress, as Aristotle argues in Metaphysics Book I. Aristotle rejects Platonic Forms as a duplication of reality, asserting that positing separate entities beyond observable particulars fails to aid scientific explanation and complicates understanding without resolving core issues like change in the physical domain. A fundamental ontological difference lies in moderate realism's immanence: universals exist only as instantiated within physical particulars, enabling direct empirical access to knowledge rather than reliance on abstract separation.^[34] This grounds universals in the concrete world, avoiding the Platonic divide that Aristotle viewed as detached from sensory experience. Historically, Aristotle's development of immanent universals marked a direct response to his teacher Plato, shifting focus from a dualistic metaphysics to one integrated with natural philosophy, as evident in his critiques throughout Metaphysics.

Vs. Nominalism

Nominalism, as a philosophical position on universals, asserts that general terms like "humanity" or "redness" refer merely to names or mental constructs without any corresponding objective reality in the world, reducing universals to linguistic conventions or subjective ideas.^[35] This view, prominently advanced by William of Ockham in the 14th century, denies the existence of universals as entities, treating them instead as flatus vocis—mere puffs of voice or words that group similar particulars for convenience without ontological commitment.^[7] Ockham's nominalism aligns with his principle of parsimony, known as Ockham's razor, which states that "entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity," thereby eliminating universals as superfluous to explaining observed similarities among individuals.^[35] Moderate realism counters this reduction by positing that universals possess an objective reality immanent within particulars, serving as the formal causes or essences that ground genuine similarities across instances.^[36] For example, the universal "humanity" is not a mere label but the shared essence inhering in all individual humans, enabling true predication such as "Socrates is human" to reflect a real unity rather than a verbal fiction.^[37] This approach avoids the nominalist dismissal of universals as flatus vocis by anchoring them in the structure of particulars, allowing for explanations of resemblance through potential formal identity or causal relations, without invoking separate Platonic forms or primitive resemblance relations.^[36] Critics of nominalism from the moderate realist perspective argue that its parsimonious application of Ockham's razor oversimplifies key aspects of metaphysics, particularly causation and scientific inquiry.^[37] By denying universals, nominalism struggles to account for the repeatable patterns and laws in nature—such as why fire consistently heats—since these require shared properties beyond ad hoc linguistic groupings, potentially undermining the foundations of empirical generalization and natural philosophy.^[7] Moderate realism, in response, upholds the necessity of universals for ontological simplicity in a different sense: they provide a unified explanatory framework for predication and scientific laws without proliferating entities unnecessarily.^[35] The tension between these views fueled intense medieval debates, especially at the universities of Oxford and Paris, where Ockham's nominalism clashed with realist traditions.^[38] Realists, drawing on Aristotelian and Thomistic lines, challenged Ockham's rejection of universals as failing to support essential knowledge and theological predications, while Ockham defended his position by emphasizing observable particulars over abstract necessities.^[7] This controversy highlighted nominalism's appeal in simplifying ontology but also its limitations in addressing the objective basis for similarity and truth.^[37] Conceptualism, as a hybrid position, attempts to mediate by locating universals in the mind while allowing some objective reference, though it remains distinct from moderate realism's insistence on extra-mental immanence.^[35]

Vs. Conceptualism

Conceptualism maintains that universals exist solely as mental concepts, lacking any independent reality outside the intellect. Peter Abelard, a prominent medieval thinker, exemplified this view by treating universals as sermones—mental words or signs that represent common features among particulars without positing extra-mental entities.^[39] In moderate realism, by contrast, universals possess an objective foundation in the natures of things themselves, from which the mind abstracts them through intellectual apprehension. Thomas Aquinas articulated this distinction, arguing that common natures exist really and mind-independently in individual substances, with universality emerging only in the act of abstraction rather than being invented by the mind.^[40]^[24] This divergence carries significant epistemological implications: conceptualism's confinement of universals to the mind risks subjectivism or relativism in knowledge, as shared concepts might vary across individuals without an objective anchor. Moderate realism, however, underpins a robust realism in scientific understanding by grounding general laws and classifications in the real similarities among things.^[24]^[41] Historically, conceptualism arose as a mediating position between extreme realism and nominalism but was ultimately rejected by adherents of moderate realism, such as Aquinas, who deemed it insufficiently attentive to the extra-mental reality of common natures.^[24]

Modern Interpretations

20th-Century Developments

In the 20th century, moderate realism underwent a significant revival within analytic philosophy, emerging as a counterpoint to the prevailing influences of logical positivism and nominalism in Anglo-American traditions. Logical positivism, with its emphasis on empirical verification and rejection of metaphysics, had largely sidelined realist accounts of universals, favoring nominalist reductions to particulars or linguistic conventions. Philosophers responding to this landscape sought to reintegrate universals into ontology without resorting to transcendent forms, grounding them instead in the immanent structure of the physical world. A pivotal contribution came from Willard Van Orman Quine in his 1955 essay "Posits and Reality," where he contended that the entities comprising reality are those theoretical posits deemed indispensable by our most successful scientific theories. Quine argued that ontology is not a matter of abstract speculation but is determined by what must exist for scientific discourse to hold, potentially including abstracta like classes or universals if they prove theoretically necessary. This immanent approach tied the existence of universals to their practical role in explanation, avoiding both nominalist denial and Platonic separation.^[42]^[43] David Malet Armstrong further advanced this revival in his 1989 book Universals: An Opinionated Introduction, articulating a robust theory of immanent universals as mind-independent entities instantiated within particulars. Armstrong posited that universals exist only "in rebus"—as components of states of affairs in the spatiotemporal world—and are essential for accounting for natural laws, causal necessities, and objective resemblances among objects. Unlike nominalist views that reduce universals to mere predicates or sets, Armstrong's framework treated them as sparse, non-abundant realities that unify particulars without invoking a separate realm of forms. This position directly addressed the shortcomings of logical positivism's anti-metaphysical stance by demonstrating how universals provide the explanatory power needed for scientific realism.^[44]^[3] Central to these developments was the idea that universals serve to explain resemblance and causation in an immanent manner, inheriting echoes of Aristotelian roots while adapting to modern scientific ontology. Quine and Armstrong's approaches underscored that universals need not transcend the empirical world to be real, offering a middle path that enriched analytic metaphysics against nominalist dominance.^[3]

Contemporary Applications

In the philosophy of science, moderate realism—also known as immanent realism—posits that universals exist only as instantiated in particulars, providing a metaphysical basis for natural kinds and scientific laws without invoking a separate realm of forms. This view supports the objective reality of scientific entities, such as laws of nature, by grounding them in the immanent structure of the world. David Armstrong's realist account of universals continues to shape debates on trope theory, where tropes (particularized properties) are contrasted with shared universals to explain resemblance and causal powers in scientific explanations.^[45]^[3] In contemporary metaphysical discussions, immanent realism informs analyses of properties as non-transcendent universals inherent in objects. Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra has advanced this discourse through examinations of whether immanent universals can be indiscernible, arguing that such universals could share all qualities without numerical identity, thereby refining the ontology of properties in works spanning the 2000s to the 2020s.^[46]^[47] Moderate realism underpins scientific realism by affirming the mind-independent existence of theoretical entities and structures, countering anti-realist skepticism about unobservables. For example, Thomistic variants of moderate realism integrate with quantum mechanics, treating elementary particles as substances composed of immanent forms and supporting realist interpretations of particle modeling.^[41] In the ontology of mathematics, this approach treats mathematical objects as abstracted structures immanent in physical realities, such as quantities and relations, rather than platonic ideals.^[48]^[49] Recent scholarship, such as the edited volume The Problem of Universals in Contemporary Philosophy (2015), synthesizes these applications, exploring how immanent realism addresses modern challenges in metaphysics, including property identity and scientific ontology, while building on mid-20th-century precursors like Armstrong.^[50]

Criticisms and Debates

Philosophical Objections

One prominent philosophical objection to moderate realism comes from nominalism, particularly as articulated by William of Ockham, who invokes the principle of parsimony known as Ockham's Razor to argue that positing universals as real entities is ontologically superfluous. According to this view, resemblances among particulars—such as the shared "humanity" among individual humans—can be adequately explained without invoking universals, relying instead solely on the particulars themselves or their qualities.^[51] Modern extensions of this nominalist critique, such as trope theories, further contend that properties are particularized instances (tropes) inhering in objects, eliminating the need for repeatable universals while preserving explanations of similarity through direct comparisons of these tropes.^[52] From a Platonic perspective, moderate realism is criticized for failing to account for perfect, transcendent ideals by confining universals to immanent existence within spatiotemporal particulars, thereby diluting their universality and perfection. Platonists argue that tying universals to imperfect, contingent instantiations undermines their status as eternal, independent forms that serve as the ultimate paradigms for reality, as seen in critiques of immanentism for denying unexemplified universals like "unicorn" or abstract qualities unbound by physical exemplars.^[53] This objection posits that moderate realism's emphasis on abstraction from particulars cannot capture the full objectivity and ideality of forms, which exist ante rem rather than merely in rebus. Epistemological challenges to moderate realism draw on Humean skepticism regarding the process of abstraction, questioning how objective universals can be derived from sensory particulars without relying on innate ideas or a priori structures. Hume argued that all ideas originate from impressions, rendering abstract general ideas illusory constructs of the mind rather than discoveries of mind-independent universals, thus casting doubt on the moderate realist claim that abstraction yields genuine knowledge of immanent forms. This skepticism implies that moderate realism's reliance on empirical abstraction risks reducing universals to subjective mental habits, unable to guarantee their objective status without additional epistemological assumptions. In contemporary debates, David Armstrong's formulation of immanent realism has faced criticism for engendering a vicious infinite regress in the relation of instantiation between particulars and universals. Critics contend that treating instantiation as a unifying relation requires further relations to bind each level, leading to an unending chain (Bradley's regress) that fails to explain the unity of states of affairs, as each instantiation demands an additional grounding relation without resolution.^[6] This problem persists even in Armstrong's attempts to posit non-relational "intimate unions" or fundamental ties, which are seen as ad hoc and lacking explanatory power, prompting alternatives like trope nominalism to avoid the regress altogether.^[52]

Responses and Defenses

Moderate realists counter nominalist objections by arguing that universals are indispensable for true predication and the formulation of natural laws. Thomas Aquinas maintains that common natures, such as humanity, exist in individuals and are abstracted by the intellect to form universal concepts, enabling predicates like "human" to apply truly to multiple subjects without reducing to mere verbal conventions.^[24] This shared internal structure of natures explains why the same predicate can signify resemblances across particulars, avoiding the nominalist denial of objective commonality that would render scientific generalizations arbitrary.^[40] The doctrine of immanence further defends moderate realism by situating universals within particulars, thereby evading the separation issues of Platonic transcendent forms while upholding their reality. Aristotle critiques Plato's theory through the third man argument, which posits an infinite regress of forms to explain participation, but resolves this by locating universals immanently in sensible things, where they inhere without requiring additional explanatory entities.^[3] This approach preserves the unity and repeatability of universals without positing a separate realm, ensuring no vicious regress arises in accounting for predication or similarity.^[5] In modern interpretations, David Armstrong bolsters the position by emphasizing the causal efficacy of immanent universals as repeatable properties that underpin scientific explanation. Universals, for Armstrong, possess inherent causal powers that ground laws of nature as necessities between property instances, allowing empirical science to identify objective patterns without resorting to nominalist resemblances or trope theories.^[5] This framework demonstrates the explanatory indispensability of universals for understanding causal relations in the physical world, countering objections that they are metaphysically superfluous.^[54] Theologically, Aquinas grounds universals in divine ideas, providing an objective foundation that counters relativist implications of nominalism. These ideas exist eternally in God's simple essence as archetypes for creation, ensuring that common natures in creatures reflect an unchanging divine exemplar rather than subjective human constructs.^[24] By anchoring universals in God's intellect, moderate realism avoids the epistemic relativism where truths depend solely on individual minds, affirming instead a stable, divinely ordained order accessible through reason.^[55]

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Bonaventure (1217/1221-1274) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Bonaventure was a philosopher, a theologian, a prolific author of spiritual treatises, an influential prelate of the Medieval Church.Missing: moderate immanent
[18]
John Duns Scotus (1266–1308) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Some sort of less than real but more than conceptual distinction is needed to capture this fact. Scotus calls this sort of distinction the formal distinction.Missing: realism | Show results with:realism
[19]
Aristotle's Categories - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 7, 2007 · ... Aristotle thinks that in addition to primary substances, which are particulars, there are secondary substances, which are universals (2a11-a18).
[20]
[PDF] Substances | Aristotle
... Categories, it is clear that Aristotle would count primary substances as particulars and secondary substances as universals (see. [CHAPTER 11: UNIVERSALS]).
[21]
Plato's Parmenides - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 17, 2007 · Plato never refers to any argument as the “Third Man”. The moniker derives from Aristotle, who in various places (e.g., Metaphysics 990b17 = ...Problems for the Theory of... · How to Save the Forms: The...
[22]
Aristotle's Metaphysics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 8, 2000 · The first major work in the history of philosophy to bear the title “Metaphysics” was the treatise by Aristotle that we have come to know by that name.6. Substance, Matter, And... · 9. Substance And Definition · 14. TheologyMissing: rejection | Show results with:rejection
[23]
Form vs. Matter - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 8, 2016 · Aristotle famously contends that every physical object is a compound of matter and form. This doctrine has been dubbed “hylomorphism”.
[24]
The Medieval Problem of Universals
Sep 10, 2000 · The medieval problem of universals is a logical, and historical, continuation of the ancient problem generated by Plato's (428–348 BCE) theory.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[25]
Thomas Aquinas - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 7, 2022 · In general, it seems that Aquinas thinks that no forms are universals except inasmuch as we conceive of them in abstraction from particulars. In ...
[26]
Work info: Summa Theologica - Christian Classics Ethereal Library
Written from 1265-1274, the Summa Theologica is St. Thomas Aquinas' greatest work. Originally written for the instruction of beginners.
[27]
SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: Ideas (Prima Pars, Q. 15) - New Advent
An idea is considered to be the principle of knowledge and action. But the divine essence is a sufficient principle of knowing and effecting all things.
[28]
Question 85. The mode and order of understanding - New Advent
I answer that, As stated above (I:84:7), the object of knowledge is proportionate to the power of knowledge. Now there are three grades of the cognitive powers.
[29]
[PDF] Thomas Aquinas On Being and Essence - Fordham University Faculty
Some substances are simple, others are composite, and both sorts have their essence, but the simple ones in a more genuine and excellent way, just as they have ...
[30]
SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: The names of God (Prima Pars, Q. 13)
The reason why God has no name, or is said to be above being named, is because His essence is above all that we understand about God, and signify in word.
[31]
Bonaventure - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 1, 2005 · ... divine and created causes. Bonaventure's Augustinian illumination theory avoids the problems of Platonism, which turns knowing the world ...
[32]
Medieval Theories of Haecceity - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 31, 2003 · First proposed by John Duns Scotus (1266–1308), a haecceity is a non-qualitative property responsible for a substance's individuation and identity.
[33]
Albert the Great (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
### Summary of Albertus Magnus's Role and Views
[34]
[PDF] Aristotle's Ontological Theory and Criticism of the Platonic Forms
At the heart of Aristotle's criticism of Plato's Theory of Forms is the idea that universals are not separate from particulars. Platonists argue that each ...
[35]
[PDF] Abstract - PhilArchive
Some philosophers try to combine both Moderate Realism and Conceptualism into one hybrid theory. Moderate Realism, in the form of Aristotelian or Thomistic ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[36]
Forms as Simple and Individual Grounds of Things' Natures
I offer a novel interpretation of Aristotle's Moderate Realism, in which forms are simple particulars that ground the character and mutual similarity of the ...
[37]
(PDF) Moderate Nominalism and Moderate Realism - Academia.edu
The dissertation titled 'Moderate Nominalism and Moderate Realism' explores the ontological debate between nominalism and realism, specifically examining ...
[38]
Universals | The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy
This article examines the matter, and defends the moderately “continuistic” idea that the appellation “the problem of universals” is not equivocal when applied ...
[39]
Peter Abelard - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 3, 2004 · Abelard defends his thesis that universals are nothing but words by arguing that ontological realism about universals is incoherent. More ...Life and Works · Metaphysics · Philosophy of Language · Bibliography
[40]
[PDF] Aquinas on the Problem of Universals - PhilArchive
According to this type of realism, ordinary facts about resemblance are not to be analyzed or explained in terms of any universals; on the contrary, they are ...
[41]
Thomistic Scientific Realism and the Modelling of Elementary Particles
Feb 24, 2023 · Aristotelian and Thomistic philosophy are considered a form of “Moderate Realism ... philosophy of nature and philosophy of science. He is a ...
[42]
The Ways of Paradox, and Other Essays - Willard Van Orman Quine
... Posits and Reality." Many of these essays deal with unresolved issues of ... Bibliographic information. Title, The Ways of Paradox, and Other Essays The Ways of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
Willard Van Orman Quine - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Apr 9, 2010 · For the mature Quine, there is no more of a problem with realism ... Truth, in Quine's view, is immanent, as opposed to transcendent. In ...
[44]
Universals: An Opinionated Introduction - D. M. Armstrong - Google ...
Other editions - View all · Universals: An Opinionated Introduction · D M Armstrong Snippet view - 1989. Universals: An Opinionated Introduction · D. M. ...
[45]
Metaphysics of States of Affairs: Truthmaking, Universals, and a ...
Mar 2, 2021 · David Armstrong was an a posteriori scientific realist who believed ... natural classes of non-repeatable trope instances. The ...
[46]
Indiscernible Universals | Rodriguez-Pereyra - Revistas UV
But at least in the conception of universals as immanent, there is nothing that rules out there being indiscernible universals. In this paper, I shall argue ...
[47]
[PDF] Indiscernible universals - University of Oxford
Jul 28, 2016 · Clearly, the properties in this definition are supposed to be univer- sals and the resemblance between them is meant to be imperfect or inexact.
[48]
an Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics
Our line is realist (about structure and quantity), but Aristotelian rather than Platonist: we hold that mathematics studies real properties of things such as ...
[49]
[PDF] An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics - PhilPapers
According to the philosophy of mathematics to be defended here, math- ematics is a science of the real world, just as much as biology or sociology.<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
The Problem of Universals in Contemporary Philosophy
Cambridge Core - Epistemology and Metaphysics - The Problem of Universals in Contemporary Philosophy.
[51]
[PDF] The Nominalist Semantics of Ockham and Buridan
So the fundamental difference between medieval nominalists and moderate realists lies not so much in their respective ontologies, but rather in their different ...
[52]
[PDF] Why Realists Need Tropes - CORE
We argue that if one wishes to be a realist, one should adopt a realist ontology involving tropes instead of a Russellian ontology of property universals ...
[53]
Response To Bridges And van Inwagen | Scholarly Writings
Unfortunately, Bridges greatly misleads his reader by characterizing Thomism as a form of “moderate realism ... Thomas Aquinas is thus what moderns would call a ...
[54]
[PDF] 1. Armstrong and Aristotle There are two main reasons for not ...
ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to establish criteria for designating the Systematic Metaphysics of. Australian philosopher David Malet Armstrong as neo-.
[55]
Thomas Aquinas: Quaestiones disputatae de veritate: English
We can say, therefore, that the divine essence is the idea of each and every thing, understanding, of course, the different proportions that things have to it.Missing: foundation relativism