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Scientific realism

Scientific realism is a philosophical stance in the philosophy of science asserting that the primary aim of science is to develop theories that provide a literally true description of both observable and unobservable aspects of the world, and that acceptance of well-confirmed scientific theories warrants belief in their approximate truth, including the existence of their postulated unobservable entities such as electrons or quarks.^[1] This view posits that successful scientific theories are not merely empirically adequate—saving the observable phenomena—but offer genuine knowledge of a mind-independent reality.^[2] Central to scientific realism is the commitment to semantic realism, which holds that scientific statements possess objective truth conditions independent of human cognition, allowing for meaningful discourse about unobservables.^[2] A key argument supporting this position is the no-miracles argument, famously articulated by Hilary Putnam, which contends that the predictive and explanatory success of mature scientific theories would be an inexplicable "miracle" if those theories were not approximately true, as realism provides the best explanation for why science works so effectively.^[3] Proponents, including philosophers like Richard Boyd and Stathis Psillos, argue that this success justifies epistemic confidence in the reality of theoretical entities described by theories such as quantum mechanics or evolutionary biology.^[3] Opposing scientific realism are anti-realist views, such as Bas van Fraassen's constructive empiricism, which maintains that science aims only for empirical adequacy—accurate prediction of observables—and that belief in unobservables is unnecessary and unwarranted, as acceptance of a theory requires only that it "saves the phenomena" without committing to its full truth.^[1] A prominent challenge to realism is the pessimistic meta-induction, which points to the historical record of science where past successful theories, like the caloric theory of heat or phlogiston, were later abandoned, suggesting that current theories are similarly likely to be false despite their success, thus inducing pessimism about their truth.^[3] The debate has evolved through various forms of realism, including entity realism (focusing on the reality of specific entities rather than entire theories) and structural realism (emphasizing the preservation of mathematical structures across theory change), both attempting to address historical challenges while retaining core realist commitments.^[3] Influential figures like J.J.C. Smart and Wilfrid Sellars have bolstered realist arguments by linking scientific explanation to belief in unobservables, while critics like Larry Laudan and Paul Feyerabend highlight underdetermination and theory-ladenness of observations as reasons to doubt realist claims.^[1] Overall, scientific realism remains a cornerstone of contemporary philosophy of science, balancing the triumphs of scientific progress with rigorous scrutiny of its ontological implications.^[2]

Definition and Core Principles

Characteristic Claims

Scientific realism posits a core thesis that successful scientific theories are approximately true and that the unobservable entities they describe, such as electrons and quarks, exist mind-independently as real components of the world.^[4] This commitment extends to the belief that theoretical terms in well-established sciences genuinely refer to these entities, rather than serving merely as predictive devices.^[5] A key element of this position is the ideal-theory thesis, which holds that mature scientific theories in their respective domains offer increasingly accurate representations of objective reality, capturing essential features of the world through successive refinements.^[4] For instance, in atomic theory, realists maintain that descriptions of subatomic particles provide literal, albeit approximate, insights into the structure of matter, justifying belief in their existence based on the theory's explanatory and predictive power. Complementing this is the convergence thesis, according to which scientific progress involves theories that successively approximate truth, with core elements of successful predecessors retained and built upon in later frameworks. In evolutionary biology, this manifests as an endorsement of mechanisms like natural selection as real processes shaping biodiversity, where accumulating evidence from genetics and paleontology refines but does not discard the foundational realist interpretation of Darwinian theory. Scientific realists further commit to the validity of scientific methodology, particularly inference to the best explanation (IBE), as a reliable means of warranting belief in theoretical entities and structures.^[4] Under IBE, the best explanation for observed phenomena—such as the behavior of radioactive decay—is the literal truth of the underlying theory positing unobservables like protons and neutrons, rather than instrumentalist alternatives that limit claims to observables alone.^[6] Scientific realism occupies a distinct position within the philosophy of science by endorsing the literal truth of scientific theories about both observable and unobservable entities, setting it apart from various antirealist alternatives that either deny or downplay commitments to unobservables.^[7] Unlike antirealisms, which often treat theoretical claims as non-truth-apt or epistemically optional, scientific realism maintains that the success of theories warrants belief in their approximate truth, including posits like electrons or quarks.^[8] A primary contrast lies with instrumentalism, which views scientific theories primarily as tools for prediction and organization of observable data rather than as descriptions of an underlying reality. Instrumentalism, associated with logical positivists like Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel, denies that unobservable entities have referential meaning or exist independently, interpreting theoretical terms as mere calculational devices without truth values.^[7] For instance, in Niels Bohr's interpretation of quantum mechanics, wave functions are seen as instrumental aids for predicting measurement outcomes, not representations of a real quantum state, rejecting any realist commitment to unobservables.^[7] This differs sharply from scientific realism, which insists on the truth-aptness and approximate accuracy of such theoretical claims.^[8] Scientific realism also diverges from constructive empiricism, developed by Bas van Fraassen, which holds that the aim of science is empirical adequacy—saving the observable phenomena—rather than truth about the unobservable world. According to van Fraassen, acceptance of a theory requires belief only in its success regarding observables, remaining agnostic about unobservables like black holes or subatomic particles, even if the theory is empirically successful.^[9] This position, articulated in The Scientific Image (1980), prioritizes epistemic modesty by avoiding metaphysical commitments beyond what direct observation can confirm, contrasting with scientific realism's extension of belief to unobservables as necessary for full theoretical truth.^[9] Van Fraassen argues that empirical adequacy is a weaker, more defensible goal than realism's demand for overall truth, as it aligns with the observable focus of scientific practice.^[9] In relation to metaphysical realism—the broader philosophical doctrine that the world exists mind-independently and is structured independently of our conceptions—scientific realism serves as a specific application focused on the ontology implied by successful scientific theories. While metaphysical realism addresses general questions of external reality and truth, scientific realism narrows this to the approximate truth of scientific descriptions, including unobservables, without necessarily endorsing a comprehensive metaphysics beyond science.^[7] Thus, scientific realism inherits metaphysical realism's commitment to an independent world but grounds it empirically in scientific success rather than abstract ontology.^[8] The debate positions scientific realism on a spectrum from realism to antirealism in the philosophy of science, where antirealist views include fictionalism and pragmatism as further alternatives. Fictionalism treats theoretical entities as useful fictions that guide practice without asserting their existence, akin to viewing models as non-literal stories (e.g., Arthur Fine's natural ontological attitude).^[7] Pragmatism, drawing from figures like Charles Peirce and Henri Poincaré, emphasizes the practical utility and predictive success of theories over their correspondence to hidden realities, adopting theoretical frameworks conventionally for their instrumental value.^[8] These positions form a continuum: realists affirm truth about unobservables, while antirealists range from instrumental prediction (instrumentalism) to agnostic empiricism (constructive empiricism) to outright fictional or pragmatic dismissal of ontological commitments.^[7] A key boundary distinguishing scientific realism from empiricist antirealisms is its acceptance of the explanatory power of unobservables in accounting for observable phenomena. Realists argue that entities like atoms or gravitational waves are indispensable for explanations that go beyond mere correlation, positing their reality as the best account of theoretical success (e.g., via inference to the best explanation).^[7] In contrast, empiricists like van Fraassen limit science to observables, viewing unobservables as optional posits that do not require belief, even if they enhance predictions, thereby avoiding what they see as unwarranted metaphysical inference.^[9] This divide underscores scientific realism's bolder epistemic stance on the scope of scientific knowledge.^[8]

Historical Development

Early Foundations in Philosophy of Science

The roots of scientific realism can be traced to ancient Greek philosophy, where commitments to unobservable structures underpinned explanations of the natural world. Plato's theory of Forms, articulated in dialogues such as the Phaedo and Republic, posits eternal, unchanging entities—such as Beauty Itself or the Good—as the true reality, distinct from the sensible particulars that merely participate in them.^[10] These Forms represent a realist ontology, emphasizing unobservable, mind-independent structures that account for the properties and changes observed in the physical realm, serving as a precursor to later scientific commitments to theoretical entities beyond direct perception.^[10] Aristotle, in contrast, developed hylomorphism in his Metaphysics, conceiving physical entities as composites of matter (hylē) and form (morphē), where form constitutes the essence and actuality of the thing, enabling a moderate realism that grounds universals in particulars without separating them into a transcendent realm.^[11] This framework commits to the reality of formal causes as unobservable principles organizing matter, influencing natural philosophy by prioritizing explanatory depth over mere appearances.^[11] The Scientific Revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries further advanced realist tendencies by positing real entities to explain celestial and mechanical phenomena. Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model, presented in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), rejected geocentric appearances in favor of a physical system where the Earth orbits the Sun, asserting that satisfactory astronomy must describe the actual structure of the cosmos rather than mere predictive instruments.^[12] This shift implied commitment to unobservable mechanisms, such as planetary motions governed by underlying laws, marking an early endorsement of realism over instrumentalism in astronomy.^[12] Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) extended this by introducing absolute space and time as real, independent substances providing a fixed framework for motion, distinguishable from relative perceptions through arguments like the rotating bucket experiment.^[13] Newton's substantival view treated these unobservables as objective entities essential to the laws of mechanics, reinforcing a realist interpretation of scientific theories as descriptions of mind-independent reality.^[13] In the 19th century, debates in chemistry highlighted tensions between realist posits and phenomenological descriptions. John Dalton's atomic theory, outlined in A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), proposed that elements consist of indivisible atoms with specific weights, explaining laws of chemical combination through the real existence of these unobservable particles rather than surface-level observations alone.^[14] This realist approach contrasted with phenomenological methods, such as those of Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who initially used formulas to represent proportions without committing to atoms' physical reality, viewing them as convenient calculational tools.^[14] Over time, accumulating evidence from spectroscopy and valency rules shifted acceptance toward realism, establishing atoms as genuine constituents of matter.^[15] The rise of 19th-century positivism challenged these realist inclinations but indirectly shaped their defense. Auguste Comte's Cours de philosophie positive (1830–1842) advocated the positive stage of knowledge, restricting science to observable phenomena and laws while rejecting unobservable causes or essences as metaphysical remnants.^[16] John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte in his System of Logic (1843), emphasized empirical induction and the uniformity of nature but critiqued overly restrictive positivism, allowing for hypothetical entities if supported by evidence, thus fostering responses that reconciled empiricism with realist commitments to unobservables.^[16] This tension between positivist skepticism and the explanatory power of theoretical structures set the stage for later articulations of scientific realism.^[16]

20th-Century Emergence and Key Figures

The decline of logical positivism in the mid-20th century was significantly accelerated by Willard Van Orman Quine's 1951 essay "Two Dogmas of Empiricism," which critiqued the analytic-synthetic distinction central to verificationism and argued that it relied on unjustified assumptions, thereby undermining the positivist framework for scientific meaning and confirmation.^[17] This critique contributed to a broader post-positivist shift, where philosophers increasingly questioned strict empiricist reductions of scientific theories to observable data.^[18] In this evolving context, Thomas Kuhn's 1962 work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions introduced the concept of paradigms, portraying scientific progress as revolutionary shifts rather than cumulative verification, which challenged positivist ideals of rational theory choice and prompted defenses of realism to preserve the objectivity of scientific knowledge.^[19] Similarly, Paul Feyerabend's 1975 book Against Method advocated epistemological anarchism, arguing that methodological rules hinder scientific innovation and that proliferation of theories is essential, further eroding positivist orthodoxy and necessitating realist responses to affirm the truth-aim of science amid apparent relativism.^[20] A pivotal influence came from Quine's advocacy of naturalized epistemology, which integrated philosophy into empirical science and emphasized ontological commitment to the entities posited by our best scientific theories, as he outlined in works like "Epistemology Naturalized" (1969), thereby providing a naturalistic foundation for realist interpretations of theoretical terms.^[18] This approach shifted focus from a priori verification to the holistic acceptance of scientific webs of belief, bolstering realism by tying existence claims directly to theoretical utility and empirical success.^[21] Key figures in the 20th-century emergence of scientific realism included Hilary Putnam, who in the 1970s developed influential defenses such as the "no miracles" argument, positing that the predictive success of science would be miraculous without the approximate truth of its theories, as articulated in essays like those collected in Mathematics, Matter and Method (1975).^[22] Putnam later refined this into "realism with a human face" in his 1990 collection, emphasizing a commonsense, non-metaphysical realism responsive to scientific practice.^[23] As a foil, Bas van Fraassen's 1980 book The Scientific Image proposed constructive empiricism, advocating belief only in observable aspects of theories for empirical adequacy rather than full truth, which sharpened debates by offering an anti-realist alternative grounded in observational limits.^[9] Surveys among philosophers have reflected the dominance of realist leanings emerging from post-positivist developments; for instance, a 2009 PhilPapers survey of professional philosophers found that 75% accepted or leaned toward scientific realism.^[24] This trend continued in the 2020 PhilPapers survey, where 72% of respondents accepted or leaned toward scientific realism.^[25]

Arguments in Favor

No Miracles Argument

The No Miracles Argument (NMA) constitutes a central defense of scientific realism, asserting that the empirical success of mature scientific theories—particularly their predictive and explanatory achievements—would be an inexplicable "miracle" unless those theories are approximately true about unobservable entities and structures. Formulated most influentially by Hilary Putnam in the 1970s, the argument maintains that realism provides the only non-miraculous explanation for why scientific theories reliably generate novel predictions and facilitate technological applications. Putnam encapsulated this by stating, "The positive argument for realism is that it is the only philosophy that doesn't make the success of science a miracle." At its core, the reasoning unfolds as an inference to the best explanation: scientific theories succeed because they correctly describe the causal powers and interactions of real entities posited in their ontologies, rather than by mere coincidence or instrumental utility. If theories' central terms (such as "electron" or "quark") fail to refer to actual entities, or if their descriptions of unobservables are entirely false, then their capacity to yield accurate predictions about observables—often novel ones unforeseen at the theory's inception—defies rational comprehension. This success encompasses not only empirical adequacy but also the progressive refinement of theories, where later ones retain and extend the explanatory virtues of predecessors, suggesting an approximation to truth.^[26] Illustrative examples underscore this logic. In chemistry, the atomic theory incorporating electrons successfully predicts molecular behaviors and reaction rates, such as the valence electron configurations explaining bonding patterns, which would be fortuitous if electrons were not real particles with the theorized properties. Similarly, Einstein's general theory of relativity posits the curvature of spacetime by mass-energy, leading to precise predictions like the 1919 solar eclipse observation of starlight deflection and the anomalous precession of Mercury's orbit—outcomes that align too closely with reality to attribute to non-referential formalism.^[26] The NMA directly counters instrumentalist alternatives, which treat theories as mere calculational devices for observable predictions without commitment to unobservables' reality, by arguing that such views render success inexplicable: why would non-truth-tracking instruments consistently outperform alternatives unless guided by genuine referential success? Instrumentalism posits no deeper mechanism for this reliability, leaving the alignment between theoretical posits and empirical outcomes as an improbable coincidence.^[27] Originating amid mid-20th-century philosophy of science debates on theory interpretation, the NMA emerged in Putnam's 1975 paper and was refined in his 1976 lectures, amid challenges from logical empiricism and early anti-realist critiques. Contemporary defenses, such as those emphasizing selective confirmation of theory components, have bolstered its resilience against historical counterexamples like theory replacements.

Success and Approximate Truth

One key argument for scientific realism posits that the empirical success of scientific theories, particularly their ability to make novel predictions, provides evidence that those theories are approximately true in their core components. This view holds that successful theories capture partial truths about unobservable entities and mechanisms, and that scientific progress involves the preservation and refinement of these truths across theory changes. For instance, the Bohr model of the atom, despite its ultimate inaccuracies, successfully predicted spectral lines and laid groundwork for quantum mechanics by correctly positing quantized energy levels, which were retained and extended in later formulations.^[28] The concept of approximate truth addresses critiques of realism, such as Larry Laudan's pessimistic induction, which highlighted historically successful but ultimately false theories like phlogiston and caloric theories. Realists respond through selective realism, committing only to the successful, truth-tracking parts of past theories while discarding the rest; for example, while phlogiston theory failed overall, its emphasis on material transformations contributed to the conservation principles preserved in modern thermodynamics. Similarly, the caloric theory's notion of heat as a conserved quantity approximated the first law of thermodynamics, even as the fluid model was abandoned. This selective approach allows realists to maintain that theory succession reveals increasing approximation to truth, rather than wholesale replacement.^[29] (Kitcher 1993, The Advancement of Science) Inference to the best explanation (IBE) further bolsters this position, arguing that the most plausible account of why theories succeed empirically—beyond mere instrumental utility—is their approximate truth about the world. Realists contend that alternatives, such as viewing success as coincidental or purely predictive without ontological commitment, fail to explain the depth and reliability of scientific achievements. Notable examples include Darwin's theory of natural selection, whose core mechanisms of variation, inheritance, and differential survival have been retained and integrated into modern evolutionary biology despite refinements in genetics. In particle physics, gauge theories underlying the Standard Model have yielded precise predictions, such as those in quantum electrodynamics, supporting realist belief in their approximate truth regarding fundamental forces and particles.^[30] Empirical support for these realist inclinations tied to views of success is evident in philosophical surveys; the 2020 PhilPapers Survey found that 76.5% of philosophers of science accept or lean toward scientific realism, often linking this to the explanatory power of successful theories approximating truth.^[31]

Arguments Against

Pessimistic Meta-Induction

The pessimistic meta-induction (PMI) constitutes a major challenge to scientific realism by drawing on the history of science to argue that the success of past theories does not reliably indicate their truth. Formulated most influentially by Larry Laudan in his 1981 paper "A Confutation of Convergent Realism," the argument posits that since numerous historically successful scientific theories were later deemed fundamentally false—often involving non-referring central terms—current theories, despite their predictive and explanatory successes, are likely false in their theoretical claims about unobservables as well.^[29] Laudan contends that this pattern refutes the convergent realism defended by figures like Hilary Putnam, which holds that science converges on approximate truth over time, thereby undermining the inference from empirical success to ontological commitment.^[29] Laudan's case relies on a list of over a dozen historical theories that achieved significant empirical success yet failed to describe reality accurately. For instance, the phlogiston theory of combustion, dominant in the 18th century, successfully explained why metals gain weight upon calcination (attributing it to phlogiston release) and why combustion required air, but phlogiston itself was a fictitious substance discarded by Lavoisier's oxygen theory.^[29] Similarly, the caloric theory of heat, prevalent from the mid-18th to mid-19th century, posited heat as an indestructible fluid (caloric) that accounted for phenomena like thermal expansion, specific heat capacities, and latent heats during phase changes; experiments such as those by Joseph Black on ice melting confirmed its predictions, yet caloric was eliminated without trace in the kinetic-molecular theory of James Prescott Joule and others.^[29] In astronomy, the Ptolemaic geocentric model, incorporating crystalline spheres to carry planets in epicycles, yielded precise ephemerides for over a millennium, enabling accurate celestial navigation and eclipse predictions, but its core ontology of solid, rotating spheres was wholly rejected by heliocentric and Newtonian frameworks.^[29] Another key example is the 19th-century luminiferous ether theory, which successfully explained light propagation as waves in a pervasive medium, aligning with Fresnel's predictions for polarization and refraction, until the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment and Einstein's special relativity rendered the ether unnecessary and false.^[29] These theory replacements demonstrate, according to Laudan, that empirical success often stems from instrumental virtues rather than truth: past theories worked because their mathematical or observational components approximated reality superficially, without their theoretical posits referring to actual entities.^[29] The PMI thus erodes the "no miracles" intuition supporting realism, implying that the convergence of science is toward better prediction, not deeper truth about the unobservable world.^[29] Realists have countered the PMI through strategies emphasizing selective retention and theoretical continuity. Stathis Psillos, in his 1996 analysis, argues that Laudan's examples overstate discontinuity: many central terms from discarded theories (e.g., "force" from Aristotelian to Newtonian mechanics) are retained in successor theories, albeit with altered interpretations, while outright failures typically involve auxiliary hypotheses or idealizations rather than core posits.^[32] For the caloric theory, Psillos notes that while caloric as a substance vanished, the theory's structural insights into heat conservation prefigured the first law of thermodynamics.^[32] Other responses invoke structural realism, positing that the mathematical relations preserved across theory changes—such as Fresnel's equations approximating Maxwell's in optics—indicate realism about structure, if not entities, thereby mitigating the induction's pessimistic scope. The PMI has also been extended to contemporary science, particularly quantum field theory (QFT), where uncertainties about the ontological status of fields, particles, and infinities (e.g., renormalization issues) invite skepticism regarding the literal truth of its unobservables, mirroring historical patterns of revision.^[33] Despite such challenges, the argument continues to fuel debates, with realists refining their positions to accommodate historical evidence without abandoning ontological commitments.^[33]

Underdetermination of Theory by Evidence

The underdetermination of theory by evidence poses a significant challenge to scientific realism by suggesting that the available empirical data can be compatible with multiple incompatible theories, thereby undermining the realist's claim that successful theories reveal the approximate truth about unobservable entities and structures. This issue arises from the holist view that scientific theories are tested not in isolation but as part of a broader web of beliefs, where any apparent falsification can be accommodated by adjusting auxiliary hypotheses rather than the core theory itself.^[34] The core problem is articulated in Willard Van Orman Quine's thesis of global underdetermination, which holds that for any scientific theory compatible with all current evidence, there exists an empirically equivalent rival theory that is logically incompatible but can be constructed by making suitable adjustments to auxiliary assumptions or background knowledge. Quine argued that this underdetermination extends beyond local adjustments to the entirety of our scientific worldview, as the totality of evidence underdetermines the choice among possible theories. This idea builds on the Duhem-Quine thesis, which emphasizes confirmational holism: empirical tests confirm or disconfirm hypotheses only in conjunction with auxiliary assumptions, allowing theories to be "saved" from refutation through modifications elsewhere in the system.^[35]^[34] A classic example is the empirical equivalence between Hendrik Lorentz's ether theory, incorporating length contraction (the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction), and Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity in the early 20th century. Both theories predicted identical observational outcomes for phenomena like the Michelson-Morley experiment, differing only in their commitments to unobservable entities such as the luminiferous ether, yet no evidence at the time could decisively favor one over the other. This holism in confirmation illustrates how underdetermination arises not from insufficient data but from the interconnected nature of theoretical commitments.^[34] For scientific realism, the implications are profound: if multiple empirically equivalent theories are possible, there is no evidential reason to privilege one—presumed to approximate truth—over its rivals, casting doubt on the unique referential success of scientific theories. Underdetermination comes in degrees, distinguished as transient (or local) and permanent (or global). Transient underdetermination occurs when current evidence favors multiple theories, but future evidence may resolve the ambiguity, as in historical cases where one theory eventually prevails. Permanent underdetermination, however, posits that for any theory, rivals can always be devised to match all possible evidence, rendering theory choice irredeemably underdetermined at a fundamental level.^[34]^[36] Realists have countered these challenges by appealing to non-empirical virtues of theories, such as simplicity, explanatory unification, and coherence, which guide rational theory selection beyond strict evidential fit without invoking truth directly. For instance, Einstein's relativity is preferred over Lorentz's ether theory not solely for empirical reasons but because it offers greater theoretical simplicity by eliminating unnecessary posits like the undetectable ether. Additionally, realists often reject the "bad lot" objection—where anti-realists argue that accepted theories are merely the best of empirically inadequate rivals—by contending that such rivals are not genuinely viable or that historical success patterns provide inductive grounds for realism despite potential underdetermination. These responses aim to preserve the idea that theoretical virtues track approximate truth, even if evidence alone cannot uniquely determine it.^[37]^[34]^[38]

Constructive Empiricism and Observability

Constructive empiricism, as articulated by Bas C. van Fraassen in his 1980 book The Scientific Image, maintains that the primary aim of science is not to uncover true descriptions of unobservable entities but to construct theories that save the phenomena—accurately accounting for observable aspects of the world. This position contrasts sharply with scientific realism by limiting rational acceptance of a theory to belief in its empirical adequacy, defined as the theory's capacity to correctly describe all observable events, past and future, while suspending judgment on claims about unobservables. Van Fraassen argues that this empiricist stance aligns with scientific practice, where theories are valued for their predictive success regarding what humans can directly perceive rather than for metaphysical commitments to hidden structures. Central to constructive empiricism is the observability criterion, which delineates between observable and unobservable entities based on human perceptual capabilities. Van Fraassen specifies that an entity is observable if, under suitable circumstances, it can be directly detected by the unaided human senses, such as through vision or touch, without relying on inference or instrumentation that introduces theoretical assumptions. For instance, neutrinos are considered unobservable despite their detection in experiments, as they interact too weakly to produce direct sensory impressions and require indirect evidence from particle tracks or energy deposits. This distinction poses a direct challenge to scientific realism, which posits that unobservable entities like subatomic particles or theoretical fields exist independently and truly, by suggesting that belief in such entities exceeds what empirical adequacy demands. Van Fraassen bolsters constructive empiricism with key arguments, including the reflection principle and the bad lot objection. The reflection principle asserts that upon accepting a theory, a rational agent should believe it is empirically adequate regarding observables but need not extend that belief to unobservables, reflecting a disciplined epistemic attitude that avoids overcommitment.^[39] Complementing this, the bad lot argument critiques realist reliance on inference to the best explanation by noting that the "best" theory among empirically adequate rivals may still be false about unobservables if all contenders in the lot are erroneous in that domain; thus, explanatory superiority provides no warrant for belief in unobservable claims.^[40] In applications to quantum mechanics, constructive empiricism favors interpretations like the Copenhagen view, which emphasizes observable measurement outcomes and wave function collapse without positing unobservable realities, thereby achieving empirical adequacy without realist ontology. In contrast, Bohmian mechanics introduces hidden variables and definite particle trajectories—unobservable entities—to provide a deterministic account, committing realists to truths beyond observables that empiricists deem unnecessary. Van Fraassen's empiricist modal interpretations of quantum mechanics further illustrate this by modeling states in terms of observable possibilities, reinforcing the focus on phenomena over hidden mechanisms. Scientific realists have countered these critiques by emphasizing the indispensable explanatory role of unobservables. Stathis Psillos, for example, argues that entities like electrons are not mere instrumental posits but essential for explaining observable effects, such as spectral lines in atomic spectra, rendering agnosticism about them untenable for a coherent scientific worldview. Realists contend that dismissing unobservables undermines the depth of scientific understanding, as theories without such commitments fail to unify diverse phenomena under common causal structures.

Incompatible Properties Problem

The incompatible properties problem poses a significant challenge to scientific realism by highlighting how quantum mechanics attributes mutually exclusive attributes to the same entities, such as electrons exhibiting both wave-like and particle-like behaviors depending on the measurement context, thereby questioning the existence of definite, mind-independent properties for unobservables.^[41] This issue arises because non-commuting observables in quantum theory, like position and momentum, cannot simultaneously possess definite values, as formalized in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and Kochen-Specker theorem, preventing a complete realist description of quantum objects with consistent intrinsic properties.^[42] A representative example is wave-particle duality in the double-slit experiment, where electrons produce interference patterns indicative of delocalized waves when unobserved, but register as discrete particles upon detection, suggesting no unified ontology for the entity.^[41] Similarly, incompatible models across quantum interpretations—such as the many-worlds view, which assigns definite properties across branching universes, versus objective collapse theories, which introduce non-unitary state reductions—imply contradictory attributions to the same quantum state, further eroding the realist ideal of a single, approximate truth about reality.^[43] The implications for scientific realism are that such incompatibilities undermine the commitment to a coherent ontology, potentially requiring realists to accept either instrumentalism, where theories describe observables only, or a fragmented pluralism that dilutes the mind-independent status of theoretical entities.^[43] In response, some realists advocate modal interpretations of quantum mechanics, which assign definite actual properties to a maximal subset of compatible observables at each moment, treating incompatible ones as merely possible without definite values, thus preserving a realist framework while accommodating quantum indeterminacy.^[44] Contemporary debates extend this problem to quantum gravity, where rival approaches like string theory, positing extra dimensions and vibrating strings, and loop quantum gravity, emphasizing discrete spacetime, yield incompatible descriptions of fundamental reality yet remain empirically indistinguishable at testable scales, intensifying underdetermination and challenging realist confidence in any single ontology.^[43]

Varieties of Scientific Realism

Standard Realism

Standard scientific realism, often referred to as traditional or baseline scientific realism, posits that the mature and successful theories of science provide approximately true descriptions of both observable and unobservable aspects of reality.^[45] This view asserts that theoretical terms in scientific theories genuinely refer to entities that exist independently of our conceptual schemes, and that the relations and properties ascribed to these entities in the theories hold approximately as stated.^[45] For instance, it treats claims about atoms having definite positions and trajectories in classical physics as literally true in the approximate sense relevant to the theory's domain of application. Central commitments of standard realism include the literal interpretation of scientific theories across all their components, encompassing both observational predictions and theoretical posits, and the outright rejection of instrumentalism, which confines scientific claims to empirical adequacy without ontological import for unobservables.^[45] Proponents like Hilary Putnam and Richard Boyd, who developed this position in the 1970s and 1980s, emphasized that realism best accounts for the instrumental reliability of scientific methods, as approximately true theories enable predictive success and methodological progress.^[45] Putnam famously articulated this by stating that "the positive argument for realism is that it is the only philosophy that doesn't make the success of science a miracle," highlighting how realism explains why theories like those in quantum electrodynamics yield precise predictions without invoking coincidence. One key strength of standard realism lies in its ability to underwrite the unification and explanatory power observed in science, such as in particle physics, where entities like quarks are taken as real and contribute to explaining fundamental interactions.^[45] This approach posits that the coherence across disparate phenomena arises because theories capture genuine structures and mechanisms in nature, rather than mere calculational devices.^[45] Regarding criticisms of overcommitment—such as endorsing details in past theories like caloric fluid that later proved false—defenders invoke the notion of approximate truth, arguing that scientific progress involves refining successively better approximations without requiring perfect accuracy from the outset.^[45] Boyd, in particular, maintained that this allows realism to accommodate historical changes while preserving commitment to the core referential success of theoretical terms.^[45]

Structural Realism

Structural realism posits that the success of scientific theories reveals the reality of their structural relations rather than the intrinsic natures of unobservable entities. This view emerged as a response to challenges facing traditional scientific realism, such as the pessimistic meta-induction, by emphasizing the continuity of mathematical structures across successive theories.^[46] It divides into two main variants: epistemic structural realism, which holds that our knowledge is limited to structures, and ontic structural realism, which asserts that structures constitute the fundamental ontology of the world. Epistemic structural realism (ESR), introduced by John Worrall in 1989, maintains that while the intrinsic properties of objects remain unknowable, the mathematical structures posited by successful theories accurately describe relations among phenomena. For instance, in the transition from Fresnel's wave theory of light to Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, the structural equations governing light propagation as transverse waves were preserved, even as the underlying ontology shifted from ether vibrations to electromagnetic fields.^[46] This approach allows realists to endorse the approximate truth of structural content without committing to the full descriptive accuracy of past theories' objects, thereby mitigating the threat of theory replacement. A key example is the enduring symmetries of the electromagnetic field, where Maxwell's classical equations capture relational invariances—such as gauge symmetries—that persist in quantum electrodynamics (QED), despite the shift to quantized fields.^[47] Ontic structural realism (OSR), developed by James Ladyman and Steven French, advances a bolder metaphysical claim: structures are all that exists ontologically, with objects emerging as derivative or illusory nodes within relational networks. In this framework, quantum mechanics supports OSR by revealing phenomena like entanglement, where individual particle identities dissolve into holistic relations, eliminating the need for intrinsic properties. OSR thus reframes reality as a web of structural possibilities, drawing on the relational ontology of modern physics to argue that objects lack independent existence beyond their structural roles.^[48] Structural realism addresses key antirealist challenges through its focus on continuity. It counters the pessimistic meta-induction by highlighting how structures endure amid theoretical change, preserving the realist's explanation of empirical success without endorsing discarded entities.^[49] In quantum contexts, it handles incompatibilities—such as non-local correlations—via a purely relational ontology that avoids classical assumptions about object individuality.^[50] Since 2000, structural realism has gained significant traction in the philosophy of physics, influencing debates on quantum gravity and field theories, with proponents arguing it best reconciles realism with the structural turn in contemporary science.^[51]

Entity Realism

Entity realism, also known as experimental realism, is a selective form of scientific realism that posits the reality of unobservable entities based on their causal roles in experiments, particularly through human manipulation, rather than on the approximate truth of entire scientific theories. Philosopher Ian Hacking introduced this view in his 1983 book Representing and Intervening, arguing that if scientists can intervene with an entity to produce effects or use it to investigate other phenomena, then that entity exists independently of theoretical frameworks. The core slogan capturing this idea is: "If you can spray them, then they are real," referring to the ability to direct entities like electrons in experiments to probe other aspects of nature. This approach advocates for a limited commitment to the ontology of specific entities, without endorsing the full theoretical apparatus surrounding them. For instance, entity realists accept the independent existence of electrons as manipulable objects with properties like charge and mass—termed "home truths"—but remain agnostic about deeper theoretical elements, such as the ontological implications of quantum wave functions in quantum mechanics. This selectivity allows scientists to treat entities as real tools in experimentation, even if the overarching theories evolve or face challenges. Key examples illustrate how manipulation provides evidence for entity reality across scientific domains. In particle physics, electrons become "experimenter's entities" when accelerated and directed through cloud chambers to detect tracks or sprayed onto targets to study weak neutral currents, confirming their causal efficacy without relying on complete theoretical agreement. Similarly, microscopes enable intervention with biological structures, such as observing and manipulating cellular components, while particle accelerators like those at CERN allow physicists to collide and redirect subatomic particles, yielding reliable interactions that affirm their existence. In modern biology, techniques like optogenetics demonstrate manipulation of neural entities, where light-sensitive proteins in neurons are activated to control behavior in living organisms, extending Hacking's microscope argument to molecular interventions.^[52]^[53] One major advantage of entity realism is its resilience against the pessimistic meta-induction, which argues that past successful theories were later falsified, undermining belief in current theories' truth. By committing only to causally efficacious entities rather than requiring theories to be approximately true, entity realism sidesteps this critique, as manipulated entities like electrons persist across theoretical shifts. It also bridges realism and empiricism by emphasizing observable experimental outcomes and interventions, providing a middle ground that validates scientific practice without full theoretical realism.^[7] Despite these strengths, entity realism faces limitations and ongoing debates, particularly regarding the criteria for what qualifies as genuine manipulation. Critics question whether all purported manipulations truly demonstrate independent entity reality; for example, manipulations involving quarks or quasi-particles may rely on theoretical constructs rather than direct causal contact, potentially conflating entity with theory. These discussions highlight the need for clearer boundaries on "manipulation" to avoid overextending commitments to theoretical posits.^[53]

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