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Nominalism

Nominalism is a metaphysical doctrine in philosophy that denies the independent existence of universals—such as qualities, relations, or kinds—and abstract objects, maintaining instead that only concrete particular individuals possess reality, while general terms function merely as names or linguistic conventions for grouping these particulars.^[1] ^[2] This position contrasts sharply with realism, which posits that universals exist objectively either as independent entities (extreme realism) or as inherent in particulars (moderate realism), and it emerged prominently in medieval scholastic debates over the nature of being and knowledge.^[3] ^[4] The doctrine traces its roots to early medieval thinkers, with Roscelin of Compiègne (c. 1050–1125) as one of the first explicit proponents, arguing that universals like "man" or "rose" are nothing more than vocal sounds or words without real counterparts beyond individual instances.^[3] Peter Abelard (1079–1142) advanced a related conceptualist variant, viewing universals as mental concepts derived from resemblances among particulars rather than as mere flatus vocis (breath of the voice), though he is often grouped with nominalists for rejecting their independent ontological status.^[3] Nominalism gained its most influential formulation in the fourteenth century through William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347), who systematized the view that universals are signs in a natural mental language, serving cognitive and linguistic purposes without corresponding extra-mental entities, thereby emphasizing empirical observation of particulars and parsimony in explanations—famously encapsulated in his razor principle that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity.^[5] ^[2] John Buridan (c. 1300–1361) further developed these ideas, contributing to nominalist innovations in logic and semantics during the late Middle Ages.^[5] Beyond metaphysics, nominalism profoundly shaped philosophy by prioritizing sensory experience and individual contingency over abstract necessities, influencing fields like theology—where it challenged doctrines reliant on universal essences—and later empiricism, while sparking ongoing debates about resemblance, natural kinds, and the foundations of science.^[4] Its rejection of Platonist commitments to immaterial forms underscored a turn toward linguistic and psychological analyses of generality, making it a cornerstone of Western philosophical ontology.^[1]

Core Concepts

Definition and Principles

Nominalism is a metaphysical position that denies the independent existence of universals, asserting instead that only individual particulars possess ontological reality.^[6] Universals, such as qualities or properties like "redness" or "humanity," are regarded not as real entities shared among multiple particulars but as mere names or linguistic conveniences used to describe resemblances or groupings of concrete individuals.^[6] This view addresses the longstanding problem of universals by prioritizing the existence of observable, particular objects over any postulated abstract forms.^[6] A central principle of nominalism is ontological parsimony, which favors explanations involving the fewest possible entities, often aligned with the methodological guideline known as Occam's razor.^[6] Nominalists reject abstract entities, such as universals or other non-spatiotemporal objects, on the grounds that they introduce unnecessary complexity into ontology without explanatory necessity.^[6] Language plays a crucial role in this framework, serving as the mechanism for categorizing similarities among particulars through names and predicates, without implying the existence of shared, transcendent properties.^[6] The term "nominalism" derives from the Latin word nomen, meaning "name," reflecting its emphasis on universals as linguistic labels rather than substantive realities.^[7] For instance, the predicate "red" does not denote a universal essence inhering in all red objects but functions as a convenient tag for a collection of particular items that resemble one another in color.^[6]

The Problem of Universals

The problem of universals concerns the metaphysical issue of how multiple distinct particular objects—such as different white objects like a sheet of paper and a cloud—can share the same property or quality, such as whiteness, without invoking abstract entities that exist independently of those particulars.^[8] This question arises because predication, the act of attributing a common descriptor to diverse individuals, suggests a unity or commonality that seems to transcend the individuals themselves, prompting inquiry into whether such shared properties are real entities or mere linguistic conveniences.^[9] Historically, the problem traces its roots to ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Plato's theory of Forms, which posits universals as transcendent, eternal entities existing in a separate realm, with particulars participating in or imitating these Forms to instantiate properties like beauty or justice.^[10] In contrast, Aristotle rejected this separation, arguing that universals are immanent, inhering only within particulars and abstracted by the mind from sensory experience, thus existing only as potentialities realized in concrete substances.^[9] This ancient debate evolved into the medieval quaestio de universalibus, a systematic scholastic inquiry framed around Porphyry's Isagoge and Boethius's translations, which posed whether genera and species (universals) exist in reality, in the mind, or merely as words, influencing centuries of ontological discussion.^[10] A central argument in the debate is Plato's one-over-many argument, which contends that for many particulars to be alike in a given respect—such as multiple acts of justice sharing the quality of justice—there must be a single, unifying universal that each participates in fully, avoiding mere resemblance or coincidence.^[11] Realists respond by affirming either transcendent (Platonic) or immanent (Aristotelian) universals as the explanatory ground for this unity, while the nominalist position, as a form of anti-realism, denies that universals exist as entities of any kind, either separate or inherent, thereby challenging the need for such ontological commitments.^[8] The ontological implications of the problem highlight a distinction between extensional and intensional approaches to shared properties. Extensional views focus on the class or set of particulars that share a predicate, emphasizing membership in collections without positing abstract qualities.^[8] Intensional approaches, conversely, concern the intrinsic nature or meaning of the property itself, such as the abstract quality of redness that defines what it is to be red, raising questions about whether such qualities are fundamental to reality or derivative from particulars.^[8] This bifurcation underscores broader tensions in metaphysics regarding the nature of being, predication, and the inventory of what exists.^[10]

Historical Development

Ancient Greek and Medieval Philosophy

The roots of nominalism in ancient Greek philosophy can be traced to materialist thinkers who rejected the existence of transcendent forms or universals, emphasizing instead the reality of particulars. Pre-Socratic atomists like Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE) posited that the universe consists solely of indivisible atoms moving in the void, denying any independent reality to abstract qualities or universals such as "whiteness" or "humanity," which they viewed as mere names for configurations of atoms. This atomistic approach influenced later schools, including the Epicureans, who, following Democritus, maintained that only concrete bodies and their properties exist, with universals arising as mental impressions from sensory encounters with similar particulars rather than as real entities.^[12] The Stoics, particularly Chrysippus (c. 279–206 BCE), further developed a conceptualist variant, treating universals as "figments of the mind" or common notions derived from impressions of individuals, without granting them separate ontological status beyond linguistic and cognitive tools for categorization.^[13] In medieval philosophy, the debate over universals intensified through the lens of the problem of universals, sparked by Porphyry's Isagoge (3rd century CE), an introduction to Aristotle's Categories that posed whether genera and species—depicted in the "Porophyrian tree" as a hierarchical structure of predicates like substance, body, animal, and human—are real entities, merely conceptual, or names alone.^[14] This framework fueled conflicts between realists, who affirmed the extra-mental existence of universals, and emerging nominalists. Roscelin of Compiègne (c. 1050–1125), often regarded as the first explicit nominalist, argued that universals are nothing more than flatus vocis (a breath of voice), or mere words without corresponding real entities, applying this to challenge Trinitarian doctrine by suggesting the divine persons as distinct substances named "God."^[15] His pupil Peter Abelard (1079–1142) refined this into conceptualism, positing that universals are words signifying common mental concepts (sermones) or status (non-things that cause similar ideas in the mind), thus avoiding both extreme realism and pure verbalism while denying universals any independent reality.^[16] The height of medieval nominalism came with William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347), whose extreme nominalism insisted that only individuals exist, with universals functioning solely as mental terms or signs that refer to singulars without inhering as common forms.^[17] Central to his approach was the principle known as Ockham's razor—"entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity" (pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate)—which urged parsimony in ontology, rejecting realist posits like shared natures in things or divine ideas as superfluous when language and cognition suffice for predication.^[18] This clashed sharply with realists like Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109), who held universals exist eternally in God's mind as archetypes, and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), whose moderate realism saw universals as abstracted essences existing in individuals and the intellect but not separately.^[14] These tensions erupted in institutional conflicts, notably the 1277 Condemnations by Bishop Étienne Tempier of Paris, which targeted 219 theses, including some realist views on divine knowledge and angelic individuation, indirectly bolstering nominalist critiques by curbing excessive metaphysical commitments.^[19] The rivalry culminated in nominalist-realist clashes at the University of Paris, leading to bans on nominalist teachings: in 1339, the arts faculty prohibited the "dogmatizing" of Ockham's doctrines and related moderni views, and in 1395, authorities renewed restrictions to suppress ongoing disputes between the via moderna (nominalist way) and via antiqua (realist way).^[20]^[21]

Modern and Contemporary Philosophy

In the early modern period, nominalism intertwined with empiricism, emphasizing sensory particulars over abstract universals. Thomas Hobbes explicitly endorsed nominalism, asserting that only individual bodies and names exist, with general terms serving merely as collective labels for similar particulars without independent reality.^[22] John Locke advanced this empiricist nominalism by distinguishing real essences—unknowable internal constitutions—from nominal essences, which are abstract ideas formed from observed sensory qualities of particulars, such as the defining features of gold as a yellowish, malleable metal.^[23] George Berkeley's subjective idealism carried nominalist leanings by rejecting abstract general ideas, instead viewing universals as general names applicable to collections of particular perceptions or ideas in the mind, thereby dissolving distinctions between universals and particulars into perceived resemblances.^[24] The Enlightenment and 19th century saw nominalism evolve through critiques of substance and deeper analyses of language. David Hume's bundle theory portrayed objects not as underlying substances but as bundles of perceptions or impressions, denying any universal substratum and reducing identity to relations among sensory particulars.^[25] John Stuart Mill systematized nominalist logic in A System of Logic (1843), treating general names as connotative terms that signify attributes through observed similarities among individuals, while rejecting universals as real entities in favor of empirical generalizations from particulars.^[26] In 20th-century analytic philosophy, nominalism gained ontological rigor through linguistic and logical frameworks. Willard Van Orman Quine's essay "On What There Is" (1948) tied ontological commitment to the quantifiers of formal languages, arguing that abstract entities like universals should be rejected unless indispensable for scientific theory, thus promoting a parsimonious nominalism focused on concrete particulars.^[6] Nelson Goodman elaborated a calculational nominalism in The Structure of Appearance (1951), reconstructing phenomenal qualities via mereological sums of individuals—compounds without sets or classes—to avoid abstracta while accounting for resemblances and qualities.^[27] David Armstrong, though a realist about universals, critiqued pure nominalism but recognized trope variants as promising alternatives, where properties exist as non-transferable, particular tropes instantiating qualities in individuals rather than shared universals.^[28] Post-Kripke and Putnam, who defended essentialist metaphysics of natural kinds via rigid designation and causal theories, nominalism has engaged ongoing debates in modality and kinds, often countering indispensability arguments for abstracts.^[6] David Lewis's concrete modal realism, outlined in On the Plurality of Worlds (1986), posits possible worlds as maximally concrete, spatio-temporally isolated entities, providing a quasi-nominalist semantics for modality that avoids abstract possible worlds or propositions by indexing truth to concrete particulars across worlds.^[29] By 2025, contemporary metaphysics continues to refine nominalist strategies, with trope and resemblance theories addressing challenges from structural realism and the metaphysics of science, emphasizing particular-based explanations over universals.^[6]

Indian and Non-Western Perspectives

In Indian philosophy, positions akin to nominalism emerge prominently in Buddhist thought, particularly within the Madhyamaka school, where Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE) rejects the notion of svabhāva, or inherent essence, as the foundation for universals. Nāgārjuna argues that all phenomena lack independent, intrinsic nature and arise dependently, rendering universals as mere conceptual imputations rather than ontologically real entities; this emptiness (śūnyatā) of svabhāva undermines essentialist views by showing that distinctions like universals and particulars are conventional designations without ultimate reality.^[30] This approach parallels nominalism by prioritizing relational and conceptual frameworks over abstract, mind-independent universals, motivated by soteriological goals of transcending reifying attachments to achieve liberation. Building on Madhyamaka's anti-essentialism, the Buddhist logicians Dignāga (c. 480–540 CE) and Dharmakīrti (c. 600–660 CE) developed the apoha theory, an explicit form of nominalism addressing the problem of universals through exclusion rather than positive shared properties. In Dignāga's Pramāṇasamuccaya, universals are not real entities inhering in particulars but are understood via anyāpoha, the exclusion of what is other—for instance, the concept "cow" denotes all that is not non-cow, allowing generalization without positing a universal essence. Dharmakīrti refines this in his Pramāṇavārttika, integrating apoha with causal efficacy: only unique particulars (svalakṣaṇa) possess real causal power, while universals (sāmānyalakṣaṇa) are mental fictions arising from similar causal effects, thus resolving the "one-over-many" issue by denying universals' independent existence.^[31]^[32] This theory supports linguistic and cognitive function through conventional exclusion, emphasizing epistemological utility over ontological commitment. In contrast to Buddhist nominalism, the Nyāya school adopts a realist stance on universals but incorporates prakaraṇa-vāda, a framework treating universals as qualifiers or modes (prakāra) dependent on particulars, akin to adjectives modifying nouns without independent subsistence. Nyāya philosophers like Uddyotakara (c. 6th century CE) defend universals (jāti) as eternal, partless realities inhering in individuals, yet prakaraṇa-vāda qualifies their relation as non-substantial, serving as relational descriptors that enable predication without reducing to mere names; this nuanced view counters Buddhist critiques by affirming universals' perceptual instantiation while limiting their autonomy.^[33] Parallels in Jainism appear in syādvāda, the doctrine of conditioned predication, which posits that truths are multifaceted and relative (syāt, "in a way"), avoiding absolute universals by emphasizing perspectival judgments on particulars. Jain thinkers like Umāsvāti (c. 2nd–5th century CE) in Tattvārthasūtra integrate syādvāda with anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), viewing reality as an infinite complex of attributes in substances, where universals function conventionally across viewpoints rather than as fixed essences, fostering tolerance and relativism in metaphysical claims.^[34] Beyond Indian traditions, nominalist-like ideas surface in ancient Chinese philosophy through the Mohists (c. 4th century BCE), who emphasize rectifying names (zhèngmíng) to align linguistic designations with actualities (shí). In the Mohist Canons, names (míng) denote kinds based on shared similarities in observable features, such as shape or function, without invoking abstract universals or essences; for example, "horse" refers to entities matching a model through practical comparison, treating universals as conventional tools for social coordination rather than ontological realities. This pragmatic nominalism prioritizes empirical rectification of names to realities, avoiding metaphysical reification in favor of utilitarian clarity in governance and ethics.^[35] These non-Western perspectives differ from Western nominalism in their soteriological and ethical emphases: Indian Buddhist and Jain views seek to dismantle attachments to universals for spiritual liberation, while Mohist nominalism serves moral and political order, contrasting with the primarily ontological focus in European debates.

Varieties of Nominalism

Resemblance and Predication Nominalism

Resemblance nominalism addresses the problem of universals by positing that properties are not shared through abstract entities but through relations of resemblance among particulars. According to this view, a particular possesses a property F if and only if it resembles all and only the F particulars, where resemblance is a primitive relation grounding qualitative classification without invoking universals.^[6] Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra provides a contemporary defense, arguing that resemblance nominalism explains shared properties via exact resemblances across actual and possible temporal slices of particulars, thereby avoiding ontological commitment to universals or tropes.^[36] He incorporates counterpart theory to handle co-extensive properties, ensuring that distinct properties like scarlet and crimson are differentiated by their respective resemblance classes, even if they coincide in the actual world.^[36] A key challenge for resemblance nominalism is the "imperfect community" problem, where particulars resemble each other to varying degrees, potentially forming chains of partial similarities that fail to delineate exact property classes. Rodriguez-Pereyra counters this by introducing a hierarchical structure of resemblance facts, using a primitive relation R* that applies only to relevant ordered pairs, thus restricting imperfect resemblances from conferring properties.^[36] Another objection, raised by Bertrand Russell in his critique of resemblance theories within logical atomism, warns of an infinite regress: if resemblance itself requires a universal resembler, the theory collapses into realism; Rodriguez-Pereyra avoids this by treating resemblance as a non-qualitative, primitive relation without further analysis.^[37] Predication nominalism, in contrast, explains universals through linguistic mechanisms, holding that shared properties arise solely from the true predication of the same terms to multiple particulars, without any underlying real commonality. William of Ockham exemplifies this approach, viewing universal terms like "man" as syncategorematic words that signify similarity among individuals but do not denote any extra-mental entity; instead, predication functions to group particulars linguistically based on observable resemblances.^[17] For Ockham, a proposition like "Socrates is a man" is true because the predicate "man" applies to Socrates and other similar individuals, with universality residing in the term's suppositio (reference) rather than in ontology.^[38] Historical precedents include Peter Abelard's sermocinalism, where universals are mere words (sermones) that serve as signs distributing reference to particulars without signifying a shared essence. Abelard argues that a term like "animal" imposes a status of commonality on diverse individuals through its significative role, conveying concepts of similarity (e.g., rational mortality for humans) but grounded only in language and cognition, not reality.^[16] In the 20th century, echoes appear in Bertrand Russell's logical atomism, which briefly aligns with predication views by analyzing propositions into atomic facts involving particulars and relations, though Russell ultimately leans toward realism about some universals.^[39] These varieties share strengths in parsimony, sidestepping the infinite regress of resemblers or realists' shared entities by reducing universals to relations or language, thus adhering to Ockham's razor.^[6] However, they face weaknesses in circularity: resemblance theories risk begging the question by presupposing the properties they explain (e.g., what grounds the primitive R*?), while predication nominalism struggles with explaining why predicates apply objectively if they are merely linguistic, potentially rendering similarity arbitrary or mind-dependent.^[36]

Trope and Conceptual Nominalism

Trope nominalism posits that properties are best understood as tropes—particularized instances or "abstract particulars" that inhere in objects, rather than as shared universals or mere resemblances among objects. This view treats universals as the compresence or bundling of exactly resembling tropes within individual substances, avoiding the need for abstract entities. D. C. Williams introduced the modern formulation of trope theory in his 1953 paper "On the Elements of Being," arguing that the world consists fundamentally of such trope "concresences," where objects are aggregates of these particular qualities without requiring a substratum substance.^[40] Unlike resemblance nominalism, which explains property-sharing through relational similarities between objects, trope nominalism locates properties directly in the tropes themselves as objective, non-relational constituents of particulars.^[28] A key development in trope theory involves viewing substances as bundles of co-located tropes, unified by spatiotemporal relations or primitive compresence, as elaborated by Keith Campbell in his 1990 work Abstract Particulars. This bundle approach addresses predication by allowing an object to "have" a property through possession of its trope, without invoking classes or universals; for instance, two red objects share the universal "redness" insofar as each contains a trope resembling the other, but these tropes remain distinct particulars.^[28] Such theories solve the problem of universals by grounding qualitative identity in trope resemblance while maintaining nominalist commitments to particulars only.^[38] Conceptual nominalism, in contrast, accounts for universals as mind-dependent concepts or abstract ideas formed through mental operations on particulars, aligning closely with empiricist traditions. John Locke defended this in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), where general terms correspond to abstract ideas that represent clusters of simple ideas without existing as real essences in the world; for example, the concept of "triangle" abstracts common features from particular triangular figures, serving as a nominal essence for classification. This view ties to empiricism by emphasizing that concepts arise from sensory experience, denying independent universals while allowing cognitive universality through mental constructs. Modern interpretations, such as Claude Panaccio's analysis of medieval nominalism in Ockham on Concepts (2017), extend this by portraying universals as mental signs or intentions that signify resemblances among particulars without ontological commitment to abstracts.^[41] The arguments for these varieties highlight their nominalist advantages: tropes provide a concrete ontology for properties, resolving predication via particular instances without classes or relations, while conceptualism bridges empirical observation and idealist tendencies by confining universals to the mind, preserving nominalism's rejection of mind-independent abstracts.^[6] In contemporary metaphysics, trope theory remains active, with debates contrasting tropes against states of affairs as fundamental truth-makers; Jerrold Levinson's 1989 argument in "Why There Are No Tropes" contends that tropes fail to particularize properties coherently without reducing to universals or relations, yet proponents counter that trope bundles better explain object unity and causal powers. For instance, in 2025, Markku Keinänen argued that there are no module or modifier tropes, critiquing Robert K. Garcia's classification and reinforcing trope theory's rejection of primitive inherence through analyses of parthood and co-location.^[42]^[43] As of 2025, these discussions continue in analytic metaphysics, weighing tropes' parsimony against states of affairs' explanatory scope in ontology.^[28]

Mathematical Nominalism

Mathematical nominalism posits that mathematics concerns only concrete particulars, such as physical inscriptions or spatiotemporal structures, rather than abstract entities like numbers, sets, or functions. This view rejects the ontological commitment to immaterial mathematical objects, arguing instead that mathematical discourse can be reformulated to refer solely to observable or constructible entities in the physical world. A seminal defense of this position is Hartry Field's 1980 book Science Without Numbers, which demonstrates how Newtonian gravitational theory can be nominalized by replacing numerical quantities with purely geometric relations in spacetime, thereby eliminating references to abstract numbers while preserving empirical predictions. Key strategies in mathematical nominalism include reconstructive approaches that paraphrase mathematical claims into nominalistic terms. One such strategy draws on finitism, emphasizing finite constructions without infinite totalities, influenced by the constructive ethos of Arend Heyting's intuitionistic logic, which prioritizes verifiable proofs over existential assumptions about abstracts. Structuralism offers another avenue, as articulated by Michael Resnik, who conceives mathematics as the science of patterns or structures definable up to isomorphism, allowing isomorphic copies in concrete systems to serve as proxies for abstract forms without positing their independent existence. Complementing this, Geoffrey Hellman's if-thenism interprets mathematical existence statements as conditionals—e.g., "if there exists a system satisfying certain properties, then it has such-and-such features"—thus avoiding direct commitment to abstracts while accommodating mathematical practice.^[44] Specific reconstructions often replace set-theoretic foundations with alternatives like mereology, the theory of parts and wholes, or plural quantification. For instance, Hellman and others have developed arithmetic in mereological terms, where collections are treated as fusions of concrete parts rather than abstract sets, enabling a nominalistic account of summation and ordering without higher-order entities. Similarly, pluralities allow quantification over groups of concrete objects (e.g., "some strokes") to mimic set operations. An example is the nominalization of Peano axioms for natural numbers using finite cardinals represented by tally strokes or inscriptions, where successor relations apply directly to physical marks, avoiding infinite cardinals or abstract induction. Contemporary debates in mathematical nominalism, extending into the 2020s, center on its compatibility with indispensability arguments and applications in empirical science, with critics challenging whether nominalistic paraphrases fully capture explanatory power. Recent work, such as a 2022 analysis, questions nominalism's ability to account for the apparent objectivity of mathematical truths without invoking abstracts, prompting responses that emphasize deflationary semantics.^[45] In computer science, nominal techniques in type theory explore foundations without traditional universals, using dependent types to model concrete computations, though this remains peripheral to core philosophical disputes.

Criticisms and Debates

Philosophical Objections

One prominent philosophical objection to nominalism centers on the problem of predication, exemplified by statements such as "Socrates is human." David Armstrong's truthmaker argument posits that every truth requires an entity—a truthmaker—that necessitates its truth; for predicative truths, this demands states of affairs involving universals, such as Socrates instantiating the universal humanity. Nominalism, by denying universals and relying solely on concrete particulars, fails to provide such truthmakers, as the mere existence of Socrates does not fully necessitate or explain the predication without additional abstract structure.^[46] A related critique targets nominalism's implications for causation and laws of nature, where Humean-inspired views treat laws as mere regularities supervening on particular facts (Humean supervenience). Michael Tooley argues that this regularity theory cannot adequately specify the truth conditions of nomological statements like "All Fs are Gs," as it lacks relations among universals to ground necessary connections between properties, rendering laws explanatorily impotent and unable to support counterfactuals or causal necessitation.^[47] Resemblance nominalism, which explains shared properties through particular resemblances among objects, faces the charge of infinite regress, originally raised by Bertrand Russell and developed by Armstrong. If two white particulars resemble each other in whiteness, their resemblances must themselves resemble to form a unified class, necessitating further resemblances ad infinitum, with each level requiring explanation without resolution.^[37] Trope nominalism, positing property instances (tropes) as particulars, encounters similar regress issues: bundling tropes into objects via compresence relations demands further bundling of those relations, potentially generating an endless hierarchy; moreover, tropes' exact resemblances risk blurring the nominalist-realist divide, as they function much like repeatable universals in explaining predication and unity.^[48] Nominalists counter the predication objection by treating resemblances as primitive and unanalyzable, halting any regress, or by invoking linguistic conventions and predicates as sufficient for truth without metaphysical universals. Regarding laws, proponents like David Lewis defend Humean supervenience through a "best systems" analysis, where laws emerge as simple, strong regularities in the mosaic of particulars, providing explanatory power without necessitarian relations among universals. These responses, however, often prioritize ontological parsimony over fully addressing the demand for robust metaphysical grounding.^[37]

Historical Origins of the Term

The term "nominalism" (from the Latin nomen, meaning "name") emerged in the mid-18th century, building on earlier uses of related adjectives like nominalis by thinkers such as Leibniz in the late 17th century, as a label employed by critics to denote philosophical views denying the independent reality of universals, often in polemical contexts against perceived heresies or materialist tendencies. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, for instance, used the adjective nominalis in the 1670s to characterize Thomas Hobbes's materialism as "more than nominal," implying an excessive emphasis on names over essences. This coinage reflected a retrospective application to earlier thinkers, including the 11th-century theologian Roscellinus of Compiègne, whose rejection of universals as mere vocal sounds was recast under the nominalist banner by 17th-century scholastics, despite no contemporary medieval evidence of the term itself.^[49]^[50] In medieval philosophy, the doctrine now termed nominalism was not labeled as such; instead, related positions were described using terms like vocales or nominales briefly in the mid-12th century (circa 1150–1175) to denote logicians focusing on the significative role of words, before fading by around 1180. For Peter Abelard, a key figure often associated with these ideas, "terminism" or "conceptualism" better captures his view that universals exist as mental concepts rather than mere names, avoiding the reductive connotation of strict nominalism. Historiographical debates persist over such anachronisms, with scholars questioning whether ancient materialists, such as the Stoic Chrysippus, qualify as proto-nominalists due to their emphasis on particulars and rejection of Platonic forms, though this risks projecting modern categories onto pre-Christian thought.^[51]^[2]^[7] The term saw a significant revival in the 19th century through British philosopher Sir William Hamilton, who in his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic (published posthumously in 1859–60) reframed the nominalism-conceptualism debate as central to epistemology, influencing figures like John Stuart Mill and embedding it in Scottish common-sense realism. By the 20th century, in analytic philosophy, "nominalism" shifted from a pejorative epithet—often linked to skepticism or heresy—to a neutral technical term, as seen in Willard Van Orman Quine's defenses of ontological parsimony and reductive analyses of abstract entities.^[52]^[53]^[6]

Reconstructions in Mathematics and Science

Nominalist reconstructions of mathematics seek to eliminate abstract entities like numbers and sets by reformulating mathematical theories in terms of concrete objects or modal claims, but these efforts face significant challenges, particularly from the Quine-Putnam indispensability argument. This argument posits that since our best scientific theories indispensably quantify over mathematical objects, we ought to accept their existence as part of our ontology, undermining nominalist paraphrases. Hartry Field's seminal attempt in Science Without Numbers (1980) nominalizes Newtonian gravitational theory by replacing quantitative relations with comparative spatiotemporal predicates, demonstrating that mathematics is conservative over such empirical theories—adding no new knowledge about the physical world. However, Field's approach has been critiqued for failing to extend successfully to more advanced mathematics, especially in handling infinite structures, where nominalist finitism often requires dropping the axiom of infinity, limiting the reconstruction's scope and explanatory power.^[54]^[55]^[56] In scientific applications, nominalism denies universals inherent in physical fields and laws, treating them as descriptive fictions rather than objective necessities, yet this leads to tensions with empirical adequacy. For instance, nominalists challenge the reality of universal field properties in electromagnetism, proposing instead particularistic accounts grounded in concrete interactions, but such reconstructions struggle to capture the predictive success of field theories without invoking abstract relations. Nancy Cartwright's critique reinforces this nominalist skepticism by arguing that fundamental laws of physics, such as those in quantum field theory, are idealizations or "fictions" that hold only in ceteris paribus conditions within contrived experimental setups, failing to describe the messy, dappled reality outside laboratories. While this view highlights a success in avoiding ontological commitment to universal laws, it encounters failure in explaining the robust applicability of these fictions across diverse domains without some structural universality.^[6]^[57] Historical attempts at nominalist mathematics, such as John Stuart Mill's 19th-century empiricism, defined arithmetic and geometry through inductive generalizations from concrete aggregates and observations, rejecting a priori universals in favor of experiential definitions like numbers as properties of groups of objects. Mill's approach succeeded in grounding basic arithmetic empirically but failed to account for higher mathematics, including infinite series and non-Euclidean geometries, which resist reduction to finite sensory experience without abstract posits. In the 20th century, nominalist efforts to reconstruct set theory, such as Nelson Goodman's calculus of individuals, avoided sets by using mereology but encountered paradoxes and non-uniqueness issues, ultimately leading to structuralist alternatives that emphasize relational patterns over objects—though these often retain abstract commitments, marking a partial failure of pure nominalism.^[26]^[54]^[58] Contemporary debates, up to 2025, extend these challenges to quantum mechanics, where nominalist reconstructions aim to avoid universals in wave functions by treating superpositions as concrete possibilities, but Field's framework falters here due to the indispensable role of infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces and probabilistic structures. Efforts like modal structuralism reinterpret quantum states as possible constructions without abstract entities, yet they struggle with the measurement problem and infinities in phase space, often conceding pragmatic indispensability. In interpretations like many-worlds, nominalists explore branching concrete worlds to sidestep universal collapse postulates, but this introduces ontological proliferation without fully resolving commitment to abstract Hilbert space mathematics. These attempts underscore ongoing failures in fully nominalizing quantum theory's infinite and structural demands.^[56]^[54]

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The switch from Roscelin's vocalism, a theory of words, to his own nominalism, a theory of names, reflects a more sophisticated understanding of semantics and ...
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(PDF) What is the Problem of Universals About? in advance
Aug 6, 2025 · The Problem of Universals is one of the oldest problems of metaphysics. And still, there is no agreement, neither about its explanandum nor about its explanans.
[9]
[PDF] The Problem of Universals from a Contemporary perspective
Sep 24, 2021 · 3. Klima G. “The Problem of universals and the Subject Matter of Logic." The · Metaphysics of Logic (2014): 189-208. 4. Kagaari, James, John C ...
[10]
[PDF] History of the Problem of Universals in the Middle Ages: Notes and ...
“Henricus de Harclay: Quaestio de significato conceptus universalis,” Franciscan Studies 31. (1971), pp. 178–234; Peter Auriol, Scriptum super primum ...
[11]
Paolo Crivelli, The One-Over-Many Argument and Common Things
Abstract. In On Ideas, Aristotle presents and criticizes an argument for ideas referred to as “the One-over-Many.” On the basis of an uncontroversial fact ...
[12]
Epicurus - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 10, 2005 · These elementary bodies, then, are the atoms, which are indivisible and inalterable, if things are not to dissolve into nothingness. The Letter ...
[13]
Stoicism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 20, 2023 · Stoicism was one of the dominant philosophical systems of the Hellenistic period. The name derives from the porch (stoa poikilê) in the Agora at ...Missing: Democritus | Show results with:Democritus
[14]
The Medieval Problem of Universals
Sep 10, 2000 · The medieval problem of universals is a logical, and historical, continuation of the ancient problem generated by Plato's (428–348 BCE) theory.Missing: Roscelin | Show results with:Roscelin
[15]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Roscelin - New Advent
His share in the history of ideas and especially the value of his Nominalism have been exaggerated, his celebrity being far more due to his theological ...
[16]
Peter Abelard - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 3, 2004 · Abelard maintains that everything in the world apart from God and angels is either form, matter, or a composite of form and matter. The matter ...
[17]
William of Ockham - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 11, 2024 · He is probably best known today for his espousal of metaphysical nominalism. Indeed, the principle known as “Ockham's Razor” is named after him.
[18]
Ockham (Occam), William of - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
In metaphysics, Ockham champions nominalism, the view that universal essences, such as humanity or whiteness, are nothing more than concepts in the mind. He ...
[19]
Condemnation of 1277 - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 30, 2003 · On March 7, 1277, the Bishop of Paris, Stephen Tempier, prohibited the teaching of 219 philosophical and theological theses that were being discussed and ...
[20]
Statute of 1339 (University of Paris) - The Logic Museum
Mar 1, 2015 · The statute of 1339 was a disciplinary statute issued in 1339 by the University of Paris. The first part prohibits the dogmatising of the ...Missing: nominalist bans 1395
[21]
How Many Things Are There? Ways of Counting in Medieval ...
Feb 27, 2015 · Some universities had rules concerning their teaching: Ockham's works, for instance, were first banned from the University of Paris between 1339 ...Missing: debate 1395
[22]
Thomas Hobbes - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 11, 2009 · Hobbes's nominalism ... On the other hand, later empiricist philosophers, in particular Locke and Hume, develop several Hobbesian themes.
[23]
Locke on Real Essence - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 19, 2012 · A nominal essence, on the other hand, is an abstract idea that we make when we identify similar qualities shared by objects; the nominal essence ...
[24]
Thomas Reid - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 28, 2000 · In these and other areas he offers perceptive and important criticisms of the philosophy of Locke, Berkeley and especially Hume. ... nominalism ...
[25]
David Hume - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 26, 2001 · In the Treatise, Hume assumes that Hobbes' theory is no longer a viable option, so that there are only two possibilities to consider. Either ...Hume's Moral Philosophy · Kant and Hume on Causality · On Free Will · On ReligionMissing: nominalism | Show results with:nominalism
[26]
John Stuart Mill (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Summary of each segment:
[27]
Nelson Goodman - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 21, 2014 · Goodman's mature nominalism, from The Structure of Appearance onwards, is a rejection of the use of sets (and objects constructed from them) ...
[28]
Tropes - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 9, 2013 · Trope theory is the view that reality is (wholly or partly) made up from tropes. Tropes are things like the particular shape, weight, and texture of an ...
[29]
David Lewis - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 23, 2009 · The other branch of his metaphysics was his modal realism. Lewis held that the best theory of modality posited concrete possible worlds. A ...Life and Influence · Counterfactuals · Humean Supervenience · Modal Metaphysics
[30]
Nāgārjuna - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 10, 2010 · When Nāgārjuna argues that things are empty of svabhāva it is not this notion of essence he is concerned with. The philosophically more ...
[31]
Apoha: Buddhist Nominalism and Human Cognition on JSTOR
This is a book about the apoha theory of Buddhist nominalism.¹ The apoha theory is first and foremost an approach to the problem of universals–the problem ...
[32]
Dharmakīrti - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 19, 2011 · No doubt the fundamental intuition in Buddhist nominalism, just as in other nominalisms, is that universals are occult pseudo-entities that ...
[33]
Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy
Dec 2, 2010 · In response to Buddhist nominalism, Nyāya philosophers present a defense of realism in the course of which they argue for a theory of real ...
[34]
Syadvada-Theory of Non-Absolutism - Jainworld
Sep 9, 2022 · Syadvada is the doctrine of relativity, where things are viewed from many aspects, and judgments are relative, conditional, and limited, ...
[35]
Mohist Canons - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 13, 2005 · The Mohists regard all words as various types of “names” (míng 名). They draw no distinction between different parts of speech, probably because ...
[36]
Resemblance Nominalism: A Solution to the Problem of Universals
Feb 7, 2004 · Rodriguez-Pereyra recommends a species of resemblance nominalism, the doctrine according to which “what makes any particular scarlet is that it ...
[37]
[PDF] Resemblance Nominalism (§I) and Russell's regress
More precisely, Russell thought that no resemblance theory could avoid postulating a universal of resemblance without falling into a vicious infinite regress.
[38]
Universals | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nominalists, in contrast, are content to leave relations of qualitative resemblance brute and ungrounded. Numerous versions of Nominalism have been proposed, ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly<|separator|>
[39]
Russell's Logical Atomism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 24, 2005 · Metaphysically, logical atomism is the view that the world consists in a plurality of independent and discrete entities, which by coming ...Missing: nominalism | Show results with:nominalism
[40]
On the Elements of Being: I - jstor
Peirce, without the notion of trope, denounces this perfectly intelligible phrase as "words without meaning," Collected Papers, Vol. I, p. 172. Page 16. 18.
[41]
Ockham on Concepts | Claude Panaccio - Taylor & Francis eBooks
May 15, 2017 · Claude Panaccio proposes a richly documented and entirely original reinterpretation of Ockham's theory of concepts ... nominalism, stressing in ...
[42]
Why There Are No Tropes | Philosophy | Cambridge Core
... metaphysics calls tropes. In that earlier paper I distinguished two kinds of attributes, namely, properties and qualities, and argued that ...
[43]
[PDF] Structuralism without Structures
GEOFFREY HELLMAN*. 1. Introduction: Approaches to Structuralism. As with ... and from 'if-thenism'. All sentences of the original mathematical language.
[44]
Nominalism and Mathematical Objectivity | Global Philosophy
Oct 13, 2022 · It serves as a good motivation for the nominalist philosophy of mathematics. But in the end it can lead to a serious challenge to the nominalist ...
[45]
[PDF] Nominalism and Material Plenitude - PhilArchive
Armstrong's Truthmaker Argument against Nominalism. It is far from obvious just what a truthmaker is. Armstrong himself held that the truthmaker of p is an ...<|separator|>
[46]
The Nature of Laws | Canadian Journal of Philosophy
Jan 1, 2020 · This paper is concerned with the question of the truth conditions of nomological statements. My fundamental thesis is that it is possible to ...Missing: nominalist counters critique
[47]
[PDF] Particulars in Particular Clothing: Three Trope Theories of Substance
(3) Tropes may be rejected out offear of an infinite regress. If we have three exactly resembling or equal tropes, then the three consequent relations of ...Missing: vagueness | Show results with:vagueness
[48]
On Leibniz's Description of Hobbes as 'plusquam nominalis', 1670 ...
Feb 28, 2021 · The young Leibniz's 'plusquam nominalis' epithet can be regarded as a 'Hobbist' rehabilitation of Hobbes's 'more-than-nominalism'.
[49]
None
### Summary of Key Information on 'Nominalism' or 'Nominales'
[50]
Mill on Hamilton's Philosophy: Collected Works vol. IX
an examination of sir william hamilton's philosophy is not a widely read work; nor is it very highly regarded, even by those who are most attracted to Mill's ...
[51]
Nominalism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy
Roscellinus of Compiegne (c. 1050 - 1125), a teacher of Peter Abelard, is often regarded as the founder of modern Nominalism. William of Ockham is also ...
[52]
Nominalism in the Philosophy of Mathematics
Sep 16, 2013 · Nominalism about mathematics (or mathematical nominalism) is the view according to which either mathematical objects, relations, and structures do not exist at ...
[53]
Indispensability Arguments in the Philosophy of Mathematics
Dec 21, 1998 · The indispensability of mathematics to empirical science gives us good reason to believe in the existence of mathematical entities.Missing: Daniel conditional
[54]
Mathematical Nominalism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mathematical nominalism can be described as the view that mathematical entities—entities such as numbers, sets, functions, and groups—do not exist. However, ...
[55]
[PDF] FUNDAMENTALISM vs THE PATCHWORK OF LAWS - LSE
NANCY CARTWRIGHT. II. Against fundamentalism. Return to my rough division of law-like items of knowledge into two categories: (1) those that are legitimately ...
[56]
Chapter 16 Nominalism - ScienceDirect.com
Moreover, the nominalist's willingness to drop the infinity axiom witnesses a mis-appreciation of the mathematical value of the intuitive conceptions which are ...