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Neurexin

Neurexins are a family of presynaptic neuronal cell adhesion molecules essential for synapse formation, maturation, and function in the mammalian nervous system.^[1] Encoded by three genes (NRXN1, NRXN2, and NRXN3), they produce α-, β-, and γ-isoforms through alternative promoters, with extensive alternative splicing at six sites generating thousands of variants that confer specificity to synaptic interactions.^[1] Primarily localized at the presynaptic terminal, neurexins mediate trans-synaptic adhesion by binding postsynaptic ligands such as neuroligins, leucine-rich repeat transmembrane proteins (LRRTMs), and cerebellin-1/GluD complexes, thereby organizing synaptic architecture and regulating neurotransmitter release.^[2] Structurally, neurexins are type I transmembrane proteins featuring extracellular laminin-neurexin-sex hormone-binding globulin (LNS) domains interspersed with epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats; α-neurexins contain six LNS domains and three EGF-like domains for broader ligand binding, while shorter β-neurexins have a single LNS domain.^[1] Alternative splicing, particularly at splice site 4 (SS4), modulates ligand affinity—for instance, inclusion of the SS4 insert in β-neurexins prevents binding to neuroligins but allows interaction with other partners like LRRTMs.^[2] This isoform diversity enables neurexins to act as a "molecular code" for synaptic specificity, influencing both excitatory and inhibitory synapse properties across brain regions.^[3] Functionally, neurexins are critical for calcium-dependent neurotransmitter release, postsynaptic receptor trafficking (e.g., AMPA and NMDA receptors), and synaptic plasticity, with knockout studies in mice revealing reduced synapse density and impaired neurotransmission.^[1] They form multiprotein complexes that fine-tune synaptic strength and circuit logic, such as promoting long-term depression (LTD) via cerebellin/GluD2 interactions in the cerebellum.^[2] Dysfunctions in neurexins, including rare mutations and copy-number variations in NRXN1, are strongly associated with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders like autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and intellectual disability.^[3]

Molecular Biology

Gene Structure and Isoforms

In mammals, neurexins are encoded by three principal genes: NRXN1, NRXN2, and NRXN3. These genes are located on human chromosomes 2p16.3, 11q13.1, and 14q24.3-q31.1, respectively, and each spans a large genomic region exceeding 1 Mb, with NRXN1 and NRXN3 around 1.1–1.7 Mb and NRXN2 notably smaller at approximately 0.12 Mb.^[4]^[3] Each gene consists of multiple exons—typically 25–27—interspersed with lengthy introns that contribute to their overall size and complexity.^[5]^[6]^[7] The primary isoform diversity arises from distinct promoter usage within each gene, generating longer α-neurexins, shorter β-neurexins, and the shortest γ-neurexins. The upstream α-promoter initiates transcription for α-isoforms, which include extensive extracellular sequences, while the downstream β-promoter drives β-isoforms with a truncated extracellular region sharing a common C-terminal transmembrane and intracellular domain. A further downstream γ-promoter produces γ-isoforms, which lack the extracellular LNS and EGF domains present in α- and β-forms, featuring only a short extracellular juxtamembrane sequence.^[3]^[8]^[9] Transcription start sites for α-forms are located far upstream, often separated by over 900 kb from the β-promoter in NRXN1 and NRXN3, enabling independent regulation.^[10] Beyond promoter choice, combinatorial alternative splicing at six conserved sites amplifies isoform variety, potentially yielding over 2,000 distinct transcripts per gene, though the focus remains on the foundational α/β/γ distinction that defines neurexin topology.^[11]^[12] This genomic organization supports the generation of a diverse neurexin repertoire tailored to neuronal needs.^[13]

Protein Structure

Neurexins are type I transmembrane proteins characterized by a modular extracellular domain, a single transmembrane helix, and a short intracellular tail. The extracellular region is dominated by laminin-globulin-neurexin-sex hormone-binding globulin-like (LNS) domains, which adopt a β-sandwich fold consisting of two seven-stranded β-sheets forming a jelly roll topology. These domains are interspersed with epidermal growth factor-like (EGF-like) sequences in the longer α-neurexins, contributing to the overall rigidity and flexibility of the protein. The transmembrane domain anchors the protein in the plasma membrane, with the N-terminus facing the extracellular space and the C-terminus located intracellularly.^[14] α-Neurexins, encoded by the upstream promoters of the three neurexin genes (NRXN1, NRXN2, NRXN3), are large proteins typically comprising 1500–1700 amino acids. Their extracellular domain features six LNS domains (LNS1–LNS6) separated by three EGF-like domains (EGF-A, EGF-B, EGF-C), arranged in the order LNS1–EGF-A–LNS2–EGF-B–LNS3–EGF-C–LNS4–5–6. This organization forms an elongated, rod-like structure that spans the synaptic cleft. The LNS domains serve as primary sites for molecular recognition and binding, while the EGF-like domains act as rigid spacers that maintain inter-domain spacing and confer flexibility to the overall ectodomain. Following the extracellular region, a hydrophobic transmembrane helix connects to a ~50–60 amino acid cytoplasmic tail, which includes a C-terminal PDZ-binding motif (typically serine/threonine-X-valine-leucine) for interactions with intracellular scaffolds.^[14]^[15] In contrast, β-neurexins, produced from downstream promoters, are shorter polypeptides of approximately 400–500 amino acids. They share the transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail with their α counterparts but possess a simplified extracellular domain consisting of a single LNS domain (equivalent to α-LNS6) preceded by a short, histidine-rich N-terminal sequence of about 30–40 residues. This minimal ectodomain lacks the additional LNS and EGF-like modules, resulting in a more compact structure suited for specific synaptic roles. The LNS domain in β-neurexins retains the core binding functionality, while the EGF-like elements are absent, emphasizing the streamlined topology. γ-Neurexins are even shorter, sharing the transmembrane and intracellular domains but with a minimal extracellular region limited to juxtamembrane sequences, lacking LNS domains.^[14]^[16]^[9] Structural insights into neurexin domains have been derived from X-ray crystallography and NMR studies. The first crystal structure of a neurexin LNS domain, from rat neurexin-1β, was resolved in 1999 at 2.1 Å resolution, revealing the conserved jelly roll β-sheet architecture with a calcium-binding site in some variants. Subsequent studies elucidated the structure of the second LNS domain (LNS2) from bovine neurexin-1α in 2008, highlighting conformational differences that influence ligand specificity. A landmark 2011 crystal structure of a large fragment from bovine neurexin-1α (encompassing LNS2–LNS6, EGF-B, and EGF-C at 3.0 Å resolution) demonstrated an L-shaped assembly, with the domains forming a curved, extended conformation that positions binding sites optimally for trans-synaptic engagement. These structures underscore the modular nature of neurexins, with no major updates to domain folds reported through 2023.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Alternative Splicing and Modifications

Neurexins exhibit extensive alternative splicing that generates a diverse array of isoforms, contributing to their functional versatility at synapses. The primary splicing sites include SS#4, located in the sixth laminin-neurexin-sex hormone-binding globulin (LNS) domain of α-neurexins, where insertion of a 30-amino-acid sequence reduces binding affinity to neuroligins, such as neuroligin-1, by disrupting key protein-protein interfaces.^[20] SS#5, present in both α- and β-neurexins near the transmembrane domain in the stalk region connecting the LNS domain to the membrane, further modulates isoform diversity without directly altering core ligand-binding domains.^[21] Combinatorial alternative splicing at up to six canonical sites (SS#1–SS#6) produces thousands of potential neurexin variants across the three genes (NRXN1, NRXN2, and NRXN3), though single-molecule long-read mRNA sequencing in the prefrontal cortex identified hundreds of unique isoforms per gene, such as 247 for NRXN1α and 138 for NRXN3α, with over 1,000 distinct combinations in the brain.^[22] These splicing events are independently regulated, enabling precise control of isoform repertoires in a brain region- and cell type-specific manner, as demonstrated by targeted sequencing that revealed 1,364 unique α-neurexin and 37 β-neurexin mRNAs.^[23] Post-translational modifications further enhance neurexin diversity and function. N-linked glycosylation occurs on specific asparagine residues within LNS domains, including N813 in LNS4 (at SS#3) and N1246 in LNS6 of α-neurexin-1, as observed in crystallographic structures where glycans stabilize domain conformations.^[24] Additionally, many neurexin isoforms are modified by attachment of a single heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharide to a conserved serine residue in the stalk region's cysteine-loop, a proteoglycan feature conserved across vertebrates that expands ligand-binding specificity.^[25] This HS modification modulates synaptic adhesion by enhancing interactions with partners like neuroligins and leucine-rich repeat transmembrane proteins (LRRTMs), thereby fine-tuning synapse assembly and stability in a cell-type-specific context.^[25] Regulatory mechanisms ensure tissue-specific splicing patterns, with neuron-enriched RNA-binding proteins coordinating these events to match neurexin variants to developmental and synaptic needs.^[22]

Expression and Localization

Developmental and Tissue Expression

Neurexin genes exhibit dynamic expression patterns during mammalian development, particularly in rodents. In mice, neurexin mRNA is detectable as early as embryonic day 10 (E10), with expression increasing around E12 in the developing nervous system. Expression increases dramatically postnatally, peaking during the second and third postnatal weeks, coinciding with the period of intense synaptogenesis. Alpha-neurexin isoforms predominate over beta isoforms during early development, reflecting their longer structure and broader roles in initial synapse organization.^[26]^[27]^[4] In the adult brain, neurexins show region-specific enrichment, with high expression in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. This distribution aligns with areas critical for cognition, learning, and motor coordination. Isoform specificity further refines these patterns; for instance, NRXN1α is prominently expressed in excitatory neurons across these regions, contributing to targeted synaptic adhesion.^[28] While neurexin expression is predominantly neuronal, levels are low in peripheral tissues such as skeletal muscle and heart, as indicated by tissue profiling data showing brain enrichment. However, recent studies highlight emerging non-neuronal roles, particularly in olfactory sensory neurons, where neurexins synergistically regulate axonal sorting and glomerular formation in the olfactory bulb.^[29] Neurexin expression is tightly regulated to maintain its brain-specific profile. The transcription factor REST (RE1-silencing transcription factor) represses neuronal genes in non-neuronal cells to prevent ectopic expression. Similar patterns are observed in human brain, with high NRXN expression in cortex and hippocampus (GTEx data, as of 2023). In neurons, activity-dependent mechanisms, such as calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase IV signaling triggered by synaptic activity, upregulate neurexin alternative splicing, fine-tuning isoform availability during development.^[30]^[31]

Cellular and Subcellular Localization

Neurexins are predominantly localized to the presynaptic terminals of neurons, where they concentrate at the active zones of synapses. This localization is facilitated by interactions with cytoskeletal and scaffolding proteins, such as CASK, which links neurexins to active zone organizers like liprin-α to stabilize their positioning in an activity-dependent manner.^[32] In hippocampal neurons, neurexins exhibit polarized targeting, with the majority inserting into the axonal and synaptic plasma membrane rather than somatodendritic compartments.^[33] At the subcellular level, neurexins reside primarily on the presynaptic plasma membrane but also maintain intracellular pools within the Golgi apparatus and endosomes, which serve as reservoirs for trafficking to synaptic sites. These intracellular compartments allow for regulated delivery via transport vesicles that colocalize with synaptic vesicle proteins like synaptophysin.^[34] Such pools enable dynamic insertion and removal of neurexins at the membrane, supporting synaptic maintenance.^[33] Isoform-specific differences influence neurexin localization and dynamics: α-neurexins, with their longer extracellular domains, display higher mobility on axonal surfaces (diffusion coefficient ≈ 0.071 μm²/s), suggesting greater flexibility in positioning, while β-neurexins are less mobile on axons (≈ 0.044 μm²/s) but enrich more prominently at excitatory synapses and exhibit faster vesicular transport (1.2–1.7 μm/s).^[34] At inhibitory synapses, α-neurexins show activity-dependent stabilization, whereas β-neurexins demonstrate more rapid turnover.^[35] Neurexin trafficking to synapses involves PDZ-domain interactions at their C-termini, which bind to adaptor proteins like Mint1 for targeted delivery from the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi to presynaptic sites; disruption of this motif leads to retention in intracellular compartments and impairs synaptic insertion.^[33] CASK further aids this process by forming complexes with Mint1 and neurexins during vesicular transport.^[34] Endocytosis of neurexins is regulated to control surface levels, with intracellular sorting mechanisms ensuring axonal polarization and preventing dendritic mislocalization.^[36]

Protein Interactions

Interaction with Neuroligins

Neurexins interact with neuroligins via a trans-synaptic adhesion mechanism, where the laminin-neurexin-sex hormone-binding globulin (LNS) domain of neurexin binds to the extracellular cholinesterase-like domain of neuroligin. This interaction is calcium-dependent and forms a stable complex with high affinity, characterized by dissociation constants (Kd) in the low nanomolar range; for instance, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays report Kd values of approximately 97 nM for neuroligin-1 and 830 nM for neuroligin-2.00965-8) The binding interface involves specific loops and a calcium-binding site on the LNS domain engaging the β-sheet edge of the neuroligin domain, as revealed by crystallographic structures of the neurexin-1β/neuroligin-1 complex.00965-8) Alternative splicing significantly regulates the specificity and strength of this interaction. The splice site 4 (SS4) insertion in neurexins decreases binding affinity to neuroligin-1 and neuroligin-2 by 1.6- to 7.4-fold, as quantified by SPR kinetics showing slower dissociation rates without the insert but overall reduced association in its presence.00427-7) In contrast, β-neurexins, which are shorter isoforms generated by a separate promoter, bind all neuroligins with comparable affinity regardless of SS4 splicing status, enabling broader trans-synaptic pairing compared to α-neurexins.00427-7) The neurexin-neuroligin complex functions as an adhesion bridge across the synaptic cleft, facilitating postsynaptic organization by recruiting the scaffold protein PSD-95. Binding of neurexin-1β to neuroligin-1 specifically triggers tyrosine phosphorylation of neuroligin-1, which preferentially stabilizes PSD-95 association over gephyrin, promoting excitatory synapse maturation.^[37] Recent studies have uncovered additional modulatory elements; for example, a 2024 investigation identified an extracellular sequence in neurexin-3α that stabilizes its interaction with neuroligin-1, enhancing postsynaptic density formation and excitatory synaptic strength.^[38] Furthermore, heparan sulfate glycosylation on neurexins boosts binding affinity to neuroligin-1, with blockade of this modification increasing Kd from 186 nM to 223 nM in binding assays.^[39]

Interactions with Other Binding Partners

Neurexins engage in cis-synaptic interactions on the presynaptic membrane, notably with neurexophilins, which are secreted proteins that bind with high affinity to the LNS2 domain of α-neurexins, primarily at inhibitory synapses such as those between cerebellar Golgi cells and granule cells.^[40] This binding is modulated by alternative splicing at splice site 2 (SS2), where the SS2+ insert increases affinity (from ~300 nM for SS2- to ~50 nM), thereby regulating neurexin availability for other partners.^[40] Dystroglycan, while primarily a trans-synaptic partner, competes with neurexophilins for binding to the LNS domains of α-neurexins (LNS2 more tightly than LNS6), influencing inhibitory synapse assembly in regions like the olfactory bulb and prefrontal cortex, with splicing at SS2 and SS4 restricting interactions to specific variants.^[41] In trans-synaptic complexes, neurexins interact with postsynaptic latrophilins (adhesion GPCRs), forming high-affinity adhesion complexes that promote synapse specificity and intercellular adhesion, dependent on the absence of the insert at splice site 4 (SS4-) in neurexins but regulated by latrophilin oligomerization.^[42] Cerebellins, secreted C1q-like proteins, bridge neurexins (via LNS6 of both α- and β-isoforms, restricted to SS4+) to postsynaptic glutamate delta receptors (GluD1/2), particularly organizing excitatory parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum.^[43] Similarly, leucine-rich repeat transmembrane proteins (LRRTMs, especially LRRTM1-3) bind SS4- neurexins via LNS6, favoring excitatory synapse development while contributing to the excitatory-inhibitory balance through competitive interactions with other ligands.^[44] C1ql proteins (C1q-like 1-4), structurally akin to cerebellins, interact with neurexins to organize cerebellar synapses, modulating maintenance and specificity in inhibitory circuits.^[45] Multi-partner complexes exemplify neurexin's role in synapse organization, such as the tripartite neurexin-cerebellin-GluD2 assembly at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, where cerebellin-1 (Cbln1) simultaneously engages presynaptic neurexins and postsynaptic GluD2 to drive synapse formation and stabilization.^[46] Recent studies highlight neurexin's pleiotropic interactions at GABAergic synapses, including with dystroglycan for cholecystokinin-positive (CCK+) synapse maintenance in the hippocampus and cortex, and neurexophilin-1 for stabilizing GABA_B and GABA_A receptors at thalamic inputs, underscoring region- and cell-type-specific regulation via splicing (e.g., SS4, SS5).^[47] Emerging evidence also emphasizes neurexin's diverse binding partners in synapse maintenance, with analyses of interactomes revealing roles in sustaining synaptic integrity across brain regions.^[48]

Synaptic Functions

Role in Synapse Formation and Maturation

Neurexins function as presynaptic cell adhesion molecules that form trans-synaptic bridges with postsynaptic partners, such as neuroligins and cerebellin-1/GluD2 complexes, to initiate synapse assembly. These interactions promote the recruitment of synaptic vesicles and release machinery to the presynaptic active zone, enhancing Ca²⁺-dependent exocytosis, while postsynaptically organizing the assembly of receptors like AMPA and NMDA subtypes.^[2]^[49] During synapse maturation, neurexins contribute to the structural organization of the presynaptic active zone through interactions with intracellular scaffolds, including the CASK-Mint1 complex, which links neurexins to liprin-α and other active zone proteins to stabilize vesicle docking sites. Additionally, neurexins regulate postsynaptic dendritic spine morphology by maintaining trans-synaptic adhesion, preventing the formation of immature "naked" spines devoid of synaptic specializations.^[32]^[2] Alpha-neurexins primarily drive initial synapse formation by coupling voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels to the exocytotic machinery, whereas beta-neurexins support synapse maintenance by modulating release probability through interactions with ligands like neuroligins. Experimental evidence from knockout models underscores these roles; for instance, triple alpha-neurexin knockout mice exhibit approximately 50% fewer inhibitory synapses in the brainstem, with reductions in cortical inhibitory synapses varying by subtype (e.g., ~30% in parvalbumin interneurons), due to impaired active zone assembly, without major alterations in excitatory synapse density.^[2] Expression of neurexins in neuronal co-cultures induces presynaptic organization, supporting their primary action at the presynaptic terminal.^[50]

Regulation of Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity

Neurexins play a critical role in modulating synaptic transmission by enhancing presynaptic release probability and ensuring synapse-type specificity. Deletion of β-neurexins in hippocampal neurons decreases presynaptic release probability, leading to reduced evoked synaptic strength, as evidenced by a ~50% reduction in synaptic responses in conditional knockouts with a concomitant ~2-fold reduction in presynaptic calcium influx.^[51] Rescue experiments with neurexin expression restore release parameters, including miniature event frequencies, underscoring their facilitatory effect on neurotransmitter release. This regulation exhibits specificity: neurexin-neuroligin-1 interactions preferentially strengthen excitatory synapses by promoting AMPA receptor-mediated transmission, whereas neurexin-neuroligin-2 complexes bolster inhibitory GABAergic synapses, maintaining excitatory-inhibitory balance.^[2] For instance, neurexin-3 deletion reduces excitatory AMPAR responses by ~40% while diminishing inhibitory GABAergic transmission by ~60% in distinct brain regions.^[2] In synaptic plasticity, neurexins contribute through activity-dependent alternative splicing, particularly at splice site 4 (SS4), which dynamically tunes postsynaptic receptor responses. The SS4+ isoform of neurexin-3 suppresses AMPA receptor levels by ~50%, blocking NMDA-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP), whereas exclusion of the SS4 insert (SS4-) facilitates LTP by enhancing AMPAR trafficking.^[52] Activity induces SS4 exon skipping via epigenetic modifications such as increased H3K9me3, as seen in fear conditioning paradigms where decreased SS4 inclusion in neurexin-1 modulates NMDA receptor responses (SS4+ enhances NMDA function by 50-60%; thus, more SS4- reduces this enhancement) and supports memory-associated plasticity.^[52] Neurexins also participate in homeostatic scaling to stabilize network activity; their adhesion complexes mediate compensatory adjustments in presynaptic release and postsynaptic receptor scaling in response to chronic activity changes, preventing destabilization.^[53] Neurexins exhibit pleiotropic effects across synapse types, including regulation of inhibition at GABAergic synapses via complexes with leucine-rich repeat transmembrane proteins (LRRTMs). These interactions, modulated by neurexin alternative splicing, fine-tune inhibitory strength through trans-synaptic signaling involving presynaptic GABAB receptors.^[54] In the olfactory bulb, neurexins facilitate axonal sorting into specific glomeruli by differential isoform expression in olfactory sensory neurons, interacting with postsynaptic neuroligin-1 on mitral/tufted cells; their ablation causes ectopic glomeruli formation, disrupting odor map organization.^[29] Mechanistically, the neurexin cytoplasmic tail interacts with N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) to regulate synaptic vesicle dynamics and short-term depression during high-frequency stimulation, while multi-ligand binding at an extracellular modulatory site stabilizes interactions with partners like neuroligin-1, enhancing release modulation. Recent studies (as of 2025) highlight α-neurexins' role in maintaining long-range cortical connectivity, with deletions impairing behaviors in neurodevelopmental models.^[55]^[38]^[56]

Evolutionary Conservation

Conservation Across Species

Neurexins exhibit remarkable evolutionary conservation, with orthologs present in diverse invertebrate species. In Drosophila melanogaster, a single gene, Nrx-I, encodes the closest homolog to vertebrate neurexins and functions in synaptic organization. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the primary ortholog is nrx-1, which directs partner-specific synaptic connectivity, while additional family members such as nlr-1 and itx-1 belong to the Caspr-like subfamily. Across bilaterian species, key structural features including the laminin-G, neurexin, and sex hormone-binding globulin-like (LNS) domains in the extracellular region, as well as the transmembrane and intracellular domains, remain highly preserved, underscoring their fundamental role in cell adhesion.00613-7)^[57]^[58]^[3] Sequence conservation is particularly strong among mammals, with human and rodent neurexins sharing approximately 99% amino acid identity in the extracellular domains of β-neurexins, facilitating functional interchangeability in experimental models. In contrast, comparisons with invertebrate orthologs reveal lower overall sequence identity, around 16-27% in LNS domains, though functional motifs within these regions are retained. This pattern highlights greater divergence in non-coding and splicing elements while preserving protein architecture essential for interactions.^[59]^[3] The core synaptic functions of neurexins, particularly in promoting adhesion and organizing synaptic specializations, are conserved from invertebrates to vertebrates. For instance, in Drosophila, Nrx-I interacts with neuroligin to facilitate active zone apposition to postsynaptic densities, synaptic growth, and neurotransmitter release, mirroring roles in mammalian synapses. Similarly, C. elegans nrx-1 regulates synaptic transmission and connectivity, demonstrating the ancient origin of these adhesive mechanisms in neural circuit assembly.00613-7)^[58] Phylogenetically, neurexins emerged around 600 million years ago in early metazoans, coinciding with the evolution of complex nervous systems. Gene duplications preceding the vertebrate radiation gave rise to the three paralogs—NRXN1, NRXN2, and NRXN3—expanding isoform diversity while maintaining conserved synaptic roles across jawed vertebrates.^[3]

Species-Specific Variations

In invertebrates, neurexins exhibit simplified structures and functions compared to vertebrates, often lacking the alpha/beta isoform distinction present in higher organisms. In Drosophila melanogaster, a single nrx gene encodes neurexin, which is essential for the maturation of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) by promoting presynaptic active zone organization and postsynaptic differentiation through interactions with neuroligin.00613-7)^[60] Similarly, in Caenorhabditis elegans, the sole nrx-1 gene regulates cholinergic synaptic transmission by directing partner-specific connectivity between motor neurons and muscles, as well as stabilizing postsynaptic structures in GABAergic synapses.^[61]^[62] These invertebrate models highlight neurexin's conserved role in synapse assembly but without the isoform diversity that enables finer regulation in vertebrates.^[63] Non-mammalian vertebrates display expanded neurexin repertoires that support greater neural circuit diversity. In zebrafish (Danio rerio), whole-genome duplication has resulted in six neurexin genes (duplicates of nrxn1–nrxn3, each producing α and β isoforms), allowing for specialized contributions to neural wiring and circuit complexity beyond what a single gene could achieve.^[64] In Xenopus laevis, β-neurexin interacts with neuroligin to drive axonal and dendritic branching dynamics in the retinotectal system, facilitating topographic mapping of visual inputs to the tectum during embryonic development.^[65] These adaptations underscore how gene duplication and isoform usage in non-mammalian vertebrates enable adaptive variations in synapse specification tailored to species-specific sensory processing.^[66] Mammals have undergone further expansion of the neurexin family, with three genes (NRXN1–NRXN3) encoding both α- and β-isoforms, providing a broader molecular toolkit for synaptic diversity.^[67] In humans, this is amplified by unique splicing complexity at sites like SS4, generating thousands of neurexin variants that correlate with the evolutionary expansion of the cerebral cortex and enhanced cognitive functions.^[68]^[12] Recent studies in mice reveal species-specific roles for neurexins in olfactory circuit assembly, where combinatorial expression of Nrxn1–Nrxn3 ensures precise glomerular formation in the olfactory bulb through trans-synaptic interactions.00896-4.pdf) This function is absent in simpler invertebrate olfactory systems, such as Drosophila's antennal lobe, which relies on distinct adhesion molecules without neurexin-mediated glomerular organization.^[69]

Clinical Significance

Genetic Variations and Mutations

Neurexin genes, particularly NRXN1, NRXN2, and NRXN3, harbor various genetic variations, including single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that influence gene regulation and expression. Common variants often occur in regulatory regions, such as promoters or intronic sequences near splice sites, potentially altering splicing patterns. For instance, polymorphisms associated with splice site 4 (SS4) in NRXN1 have been linked to differential inclusion of exons, which modulates neurexin isoform diversity and synaptic partner interactions.^[70]^[71] Pathogenic mutations in neurexin genes predominantly affect NRXN1 and NRXN3, leading to loss-of-function or disrupted protein domains. In NRXN1, deletions and exon skips, such as those in the 2p16.3 microdeletion syndrome, remove critical coding regions, resulting in truncated or absent neurexin-1 proteins that impair presynaptic organization. Similarly, point mutations in NRXN3, including missense variants in the laminin-neurexin-sex hormone-binding globulin (LNS) domains, alter binding interfaces, as demonstrated by a 2024 study characterizing a human NRXN3α mutation that stabilizes interactions with postsynaptic partners like neuroligin-1, enhancing excitatory synapse properties.^[72]^[38] Copy number variations (CNVs), especially heterozygous deletions in NRXN1, cause haploinsufficiency, reducing neurexin-1 levels and consequently diminishing synaptic protein expression and function. These CNVs disrupt the balance of presynaptic adhesion molecules, leading to molecular deficits in synapse assembly without abolishing overall neuronal connectivity.^[73] Most neurexin mutations arise de novo or follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern with incomplete penetrance, contributing to variable expressivity. A 2025 study reported a penetrance of 56.3% (range: 37.5%–88.9%) for the NRXN1 microdeletion phenotype in family studies. A notable sex bias is observed, with affected individuals predominantly male, consistent with the higher prevalence of associated neurodevelopmental conditions in males.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Associations with Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Rare variants in the NRXN1 gene, encoding neurexin-1, have been identified in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with exon-disrupting deletions conferring a threefold increased risk for the condition.^[10] These variants contribute to a broader spectrum of synaptic disorders, including intellectual disability and schizophrenia, primarily through disruption of excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance in neural circuits, a hallmark feature of neurodevelopmental pathologies.^[77] Mutations in neurexin genes impair trans-synaptic adhesion between presynaptic neurexins and postsynaptic partners like neuroligins, resulting in the formation of immature synapses with reduced efficacy.^[78] This leads to altered synaptic transmission, such as decreased postsynaptic AMPA receptor levels relative to NMDA receptors, which exacerbates E/I imbalance and contributes to ASD pathophysiology.^[78] Neurexin variants are commonly detected through whole-exome sequencing in ASD cohorts, revealing both de novo and inherited mutations.^[79] ASD risk is polygenic, with neurexin variants often interacting with those in other cell adhesion molecule (CAM) genes, such as NLGN3 and SHANK3, to amplify synaptic dysfunction.^[80] Therapeutic strategies targeting neurexins remain preclinical, with gene therapy approaches in Nrxn1 knockout mouse models demonstrating restoration of synaptic function and behavioral deficits as of 2023.^[81] Additionally, modulation of alternative splicing at site 4 (SS4) in neurexins holds potential to normalize AMPA/NMDA receptor ratios, informed by studies linking SS4 variants to ASD.^[78]

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Oct 1, 1999 · The crystal structure of neurexin Ibeta, a single LNS domain, reveals two seven-stranded beta sheets forming a jelly roll fold with unexpected structural ...
[17]
Crystal Structure of the Second LNS/LG Domain from Neurexin 1α
The crystal structure of n1α_LNS#2 (the second LNS/LG domain of bovine neurexin 1α) reveals large structural differences compared with n1α_LNS#6 (or n1β_LNS
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The crystal structure of the α-neurexin-1 extracellular region reveals ...
α- and β-neurexins (NRXNs) are transmembrane cell adhesion proteins that localize to pre-synaptic membranes in neurons and interact with the post-synaptic ...Missing: exons introns
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Mutational analysis of the neurexin/neuroligin complex ... - PNAS
Sep 30, 2008 · In contrast, the presence of splice insert 4 in Nrxn (+SS4) shows reduced binding not only to Nlgn1 (Fig. S3), which confirms earlier results ( ...
[20]
Splice form-dependence of β-neurexin/neuroligin binding interactions
The SS5 splice site is in the “stalk” region that connects the β-NRX LNS domain to the transmembrane segment, thus the SS4 site is the only locus of splice form ...
[21]
Cartography of neurexin alternative splicing mapped by ... - PNAS
Neurexins are type I membrane proteins that were discovered as presynaptic receptors for α-latrotoxin (8, 9). Six principal neurexins (Nrxn1α–3α and Nrxn1β–3β) ...Missing: chromosomal | Show results with:chromosomal
[22]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1403244111
[23]
Role of neurexin heparan sulfate in the molecular assembly of ...
Oct 26, 2021 · Here, we discuss possible structure-function relationships of the neurexin polysaccharide and its possible regulation. Neurexin protein ...Role Of Neurexin Heparan... · Neurexin Protein Structure... · Hs--A Rare Glycan...
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Neurexins are differentially expressed in the embryonic nervous ...
Apr 1, 1995 · Expression of the major isoforms of three neurexin genes was analyzed in the developing embryonic nervous system of mice by Northern blot ...
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Neurexin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In mammals, neurexins are encoded by three genes ( NRXN1 , NRXN2 , and NRXN3 ), each controlled by three distinct promoters, giving rise to the α, β, and γ- ...
[26]
Differential Expression of Neurexin Genes in the Mouse Brain - PMC
Neurexins (Nrxns), a family of the presynaptic adhesion molecules, have been characterized as major regulators of synapse development and function.
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REST - RE1-silencing transcription factor - Homo sapiens (Human)
Transcriptional repressor which binds neuron-restrictive silencer element (NRSE) and represses neuronal gene transcription in non-neuronal cells.Missing: neurexin | Show results with:neurexin
[28]
SAM68 regulates neuronal activity-dependent alternative splicing of ...
Neurexins are a highly polymorphic family of synaptic receptors diversified by extensive alternative splicing. Neurexin variants exhibit distinct isoform- ...
[29]
CASK stabilizes neurexin and links it to liprin-α in a neuronal activity ...
CASK creates a regulatory and structural link between the presynaptic adhesion molecule neurexin and active zone organizer, liprin-α.Missing: endophilin | Show results with:endophilin
[30]
Polarized Targeting of Neurexins to Synapses Is Regulated by their ...
Our data indicate that neurexins are delivered to synapses by a polarized and regulated targeting process that involves PDZ-domain mediated interactions, ...
[31]
Regulated Dynamic Trafficking of Neurexins Inside and Outside of ...
Abstract. Synapses depend on trafficking of key membrane proteins by lateral diffusion from surface populations and by exocytosis from intracellular pools.Missing: endophilin | Show results with:endophilin
[32]
Differential dynamics and activity-dependent regulation of α - PNAS
We found that NRX1α and NRX1β are dynamically regulated by distinct mechanisms in developing GABAergic axons, which lead to profound differences in their ...
[33]
SorCS1-mediated sorting in dendrites maintains neurexin axonal ...
The membrane trafficking mechanisms by which neurons control surface polarization of synaptic receptors remain poorly understood. The sorting receptor Sortilin- ...Missing: Mint1 | Show results with:Mint1
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Neurexin-1β binding to neuroligin-1 triggers the preferential ...
Jun 27, 2013 · Adhesion between neurexin-1β (Nrx1β) and neuroligin-1 (Nlg1) induces early recruitment of the postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) scaffold.
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A Systematic Structure-Function Characterization of a Human ...
Oct 9, 2024 · Neurexins (Nrxns) are evolutionarily conserved and essential presynaptic cell-adhesion molecules that play critical roles in synapse function ( ...
[36]
CA10 regulates neurexin heparan sulfate addition via a direct binding in the secretory pathway | EMBO reports
### Summary of Findings on Heparan Sulfate on Neurexin Affecting Binding to Neuroligin
[37]
Neurexin complexes | Stanford Medicine
Neurexins are presynaptic adhesion molecules expressed from three genes (NRXN1-3 in humans, Nrxn1-3 in mice). All neurexin genes contain independent ...
[38]
Dystroglycan Binding to α-Neurexin Competes with Neurexophilin-1 ...
Results: Brain dystroglycan competes with neurexophilin-1 and neuroligins for binding to presynaptic α-neurexins. Conclusion: Competition between α-neurexin ...Missing: neuroexophilin C1ql
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High Affinity Neurexin Binding to Cell Adhesion G-protein-coupled ...
Neurexins and CL1 form a high affinity complex that mediates intercellular adhesion and is regulated by neurexin alternative splicing.Missing: excluding neuroexophilin cerebellin C1ql
[40]
GluRδ2 Assembles Four Neurexins into Trans-Synaptic Triad to ...
Mar 28, 2012 · GluRδ2, a member of the δ-type glutamate receptor (GluR), plays an essential role in vivo in cerebellar Purkinje cell (PC) synapse formation ( ...
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LRRTMs and Neuroligins Bind Neurexins with a Differential Code to ...
Jun 2, 2010 · In neuron cultures, LRRTM2 is more potent than neuroligin-1 in promoting synaptic differentiation, and, most importantly, these two families of ...Missing: excluding neuroexophilin cerebellin C1ql
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Cerebellin–neurexin complexes instructing synapse properties
The domain structure of Cerebellins resembles that of complement factor C1q (C1qA-C), C1ql proteins (C1ql1-4, for 'C1q like'), and adiponectin (Figure 1a) [1].
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Molecular mechanism of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapse formation
Nov 23, 2012 · We found that the trans-synaptic interaction of postsynaptic GluRδ2 and presynaptic neurexins (NRXNs) through cerebellin 1 (Cbln1) mediates PF-PC synapse ...Figure 1 · Figure 2 · Figure 3
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Neurexins and their ligands at inhibitory synapses - Frontiers
In this review, we will discuss how Nrxns and their ligands sculpt synaptic inhibition in a brain-region, cell-type and synapse-specific manner.
[45]
Emerging evidence implicating a role for neurexins in ...
Oct 6, 2021 · Analysis of the identified neurexin binding partners revealed many proteins important in the maintenance and functioning of synapses.
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The role of neurexins and neuroligins in the formation, maturation ...
Neurexins (NXs) and neuroligins (NLs) are transsynaptically interacting cell adhesion proteins that play a key role in the formation, maturation, activity- ...
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Membrane-Tethered Monomeric Neurexin LNS-Domain Triggers ...
Sep 4, 2013 · Our data suggest that neurexins mediate heterologous synapse formation via an extracellular interaction with presynaptic and postsynaptic ligands.
[48]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8492176/
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Cell adhesion and homeostatic synaptic plasticity - PubMed
We will explore how synaptic CAMs regulate two forms of homeostatic plasticity: (i) postsynaptic scaling of synaptic currents to counteract changes in neuronal ...
[50]
Structural and functional characterization of the IgSF21-neurexin2α ...
Here, we focus on a synapse organizing complex formed by immunoglobulin superfamily member 21 (IgSF21) and neurexin2α (Nrxn2α) that regulates GABAergic synapse ...
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https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(15)00826-0
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The Neurexin/N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor (NSF) Interaction ...
Jul 17, 2015 · Our results reveal a previously unknown role of NRX in the regulation of short term synaptic depression upon tetanic nerve stimulation.
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The Neurexin superfamily of Caenorhabditis elegans - PMC - NIH
The most prominent vertebrate neurexin binding partner, the neuroligin protein, is conserved in C. elegans and called NRG-1 (Feinberg et al., 2008; Hunter et al ...Missing: species | Show results with:species
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Neurexin directs partner-specific synaptic connectivity in C. elegans
Jul 24, 2018 · We report that C. elegans nrx-1/neurexin directs divergent connectivity through differential actions at synapses with partnering neurons and muscles.
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Human/Mouse Neurexin 3/NRXN3 Alexa Fluor® 488-conjugated ...
Within comparable regions of the ECD, human Neurexin 3 beta shares 99% aa sequence identity with mouse and rat Neurexin 3 beta. It shares 65% aa sequence ...
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Neurexins and Neuroligins: Recent Insights from Invertebrates
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Neurexin directs partner-specific synaptic connectivity in C. elegans
Jul 24, 2018 · We report that C. elegans nrx-1/neurexin directs divergent connectivity through differential actions at synapses with partnering neurons and muscles.
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Distinct neurexin isoforms cooperate to initiate and maintain ... - Nature
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Kinesin-3 mediated axonal delivery of presynaptic neurexin ...
We show that the presynaptic adhesion protein neurexin/NRX-1 is required for stabilization of postsynaptic structure.
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Structure and evolution of neuronal wiring receptors and ligands
Jun 21, 2022 · In this review, we look at the families of cell surface and secreted molecules with demonstrated functions in axon guidance, synapse targeting, and formation.
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Neurexin-Neuroligin Cell Adhesion Complexes Contribute to ...
Sep 23, 2010 · Using two-photon time-lapse imaging of growing neurons within intact and awake embryonic Xenopus brain, we examine roles of β-neurexin (NRX) and ...
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Neurexin and Neuroligin-based adhesion complexes drive axonal ...
Data on Xenopus tectal neuron dendritic growth revealed a role for Neurexin (Nrx) and Neuroligin (Nlg) in branch dynamics, whereby Nrx-Nlg interactions are ...
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Structure, function, and pathology of Neurexin-3 - PMC
Neurexin-3α contains four alternative splice sites (SS1, SS3, SS4, and SS5). The extracellular region of neurexin-3β contains an SP, an LNS domain and a CHO.
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Complexity and graded regulation of neuronal cell-type–specific ...
Graded, Highly Combinatorial Splicing Regulation across Diverse Neuronal Cell Types. We noted that ∼46% (810 of 1,748) of neuronal class or subclass ...Sign Up For Pnas Alerts · Results · Major Neuronal Cell Types...
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The neurexin gene family regulates olfactory glomerular formation
Neurexins are differentially expressed in distinct populations of OSNs. All murine OSNs expressing the same OR project their axons to a highly stereotyped ...
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A case-control association study of NRXN1 polymorphisms with ...
Apr 11, 2011 · Recent research has implicated that mutations in the neurexin-1 (NRXN1) gene on chromosome 2p16.3 might play a role in schizophrenia, autism, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
Alternative Splicing of Presynaptic Neurexins Differentially Controls ...
Alternative splicing at SS4 is shared by all α- and β-neurexins and involves inclusion or exclusion of a highly conserved 90 bp exon, producing SS4− and SS4+ ...
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Entry - #614332 - CHROMOSOME 2p16.3 DELETION SYNDROME
Deletions at 2p16.3 involving exons of NRXN1 are associated with susceptibility to autism, schizophrenia (SCZD17), developmental delay, intellectual disability, ...
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Copy number variants in neurexin genes: phenotypes and ...
Mar 21, 2021 · The human genome encodes three neurexin genes (NRXN1, 2p16.3; NRXN2, 11q13.1; NRXN3, 14q24-q31.1), which span large genomic regions of up to 1.1 ...
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Landscape of NRXN1 Gene Variants in Phenotypic Manifestations ...
A designation of 1 indicates genes that have been clearly implicated in ASD with at least three de novo likely gene-disrupting mutations reported, each of which ...Missing: dominant | Show results with:dominant
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Autism Spectrum Disorder: Genetic Mechanisms and Inheritance ...
It is an autosomal dominant inherited genetic disorder caused by mutations in one of the TSC1 or TSC2 tumor suppressor genes. Among the genes associated with ...2. Asd Genetics · 3. Asd Inheritance Pattern · 3.2. Modifier Genes<|control11|><|separator|>
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Functional characterization of rare NRXN1 variants identified in ...
Sep 17, 2020 · We characterized missense variants detected in NRXN1, a well-known neurodevelopmental disease-causing gene, from individuals with ASD and SCZ.
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Advances in neurexin studies and the emerging role of ... - PMC - NIH
Feb 27, 2023 · Hence, the aim of this review is to provide a summary of new synaptic insights into the molecular underpinnings of ASD. Keywords: synapses, ...Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance
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Advances in neurexin studies and the emerging role of ... - Frontiers
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Towards a molecular characterization of autism spectrum disorders
Recently, whole exome sequencing (WES) has verified the contribution of de novo variants (DNVs) in ASD, including an increased rate of DNVs associated with aged ...
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Neurexin gene family variants as risk factors for autism spectrum ...
Oct 16, 2017 · Neurexins are presynaptic cell-adhesion molecules that affect the function of synapses and mediate the conduction of nerve signals, and they ...
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Allelic contribution of Nrxn1α to autism-relevant behavioral ...
Feb 27, 2023 · We found that homozygous loss of Nrxn1α resulted in enhanced aggression in males, reduced affiliative social behaviors in females, and significantly altered ...<|separator|>