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Convallarioideae

Convallarioideae is a subfamily of monocotyledonous flowering plants within the family Asparagaceae, encompassing approximately 23 genera and around 600 species that exhibit remarkable morphological diversity across seven tribes. These plants range from small herbaceous perennials, such as the fragrant lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), to larger shrubs and even tree-like forms like dragon trees (Dracaena spp.), with characteristics including simple leaves, often clustered inflorescences, and berries or capsules as fruits. Distributed worldwide from tropical to temperate zones, Convallarioideae members are particularly diverse in Asia, with significant concentrations in regions like Vietnam and Indochina.^[1]^[2] Historically, the taxonomy of Convallarioideae has undergone significant revisions; it was previously recognized as Nolinoideae in the APG III system or segregated into families like Ruscaceae and Convallariaceae before being consolidated under Asparagaceae in APG IV. This subfamily represents one of seven major lineages in the broadly circumscribed Asparagaceae, positioned as sister to Asparagoideae based on molecular phylogenies. Key genera include Dracaena, Ruscus, Maianthemum, Liriope, Ophiopogon, Aspidistra, and Polygonatum, many of which display heterogeneous traits such as varying stigma sizes, style lengths, and fruit textures that have informed tribal delimitations.^[1]^[2] The seven tribes—Convallarieae, Dracaeneae, Eriospermeae, Nolineae, Ophiopogoneae, Polygonateae, and Rusceae—highlight the group's evolutionary complexity, with most tribes monophyletic except for the paraphyletic Polygonateae, where genera like Ruscus nest unexpectedly. Chloroplast genome studies reveal a conserved structure across the subfamily, supporting its monophyly despite morphological heterogeneity. Recent taxonomic discoveries, such as new species described in 2025, continue to refine understanding of its diversity.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Description

Habit and morphology

The subfamily Convallarioideae exhibits a wide range of growth habits, from small herbaceous perennials to large arborescent trees, reflecting its morphological diversity across lineages. Herbaceous forms, such as those in the tribe Convallarieae, are typically rhizomatous perennials that form colonies through underground stems, growing to heights of 10–30 cm. In contrast, woody members, including genera like Dracaena, develop as shrubs or trees that can reach up to 20 m in height, with unbranched or sparingly branched trunks and anomalous secondary growth in stems.^[4]^[5]^[6] Stems in Convallarioideae vary from short, subterranean rhizomes in herbaceous taxa to erect, scandent, or climbing forms in woody ones, often serving for perennation and vegetative propagation. For example, Convallaria produces slender, branched rhizomes with upright buds (pips) that give rise to erect, simple scapes lacking cauline leaves. In Dracaena, stems are typically upright and robust, sometimes thickening irregularly to support tree-like habits. Many species also produce bulbs or tuberous structures for storage and survival in seasonal environments.^[4]^[5]^[6] Leaves in the subfamily are characteristic of monocots, featuring parallel venation and arrangements that are alternate, opposite, or whorled, with forms ranging from linear and grass-like to broad and ovate; they may be evergreen or deciduous depending on the taxon. In Convallaria, 2–3 basal leaves arise from sheathing petioles, with glabrous blades that are oblong to widely elliptic and 5–15 cm long. Sansevieria (now included in Dracaena) displays tough, succulent, sword-shaped leaves up to 120 cm long and 5–9 cm wide, arranged in basal rosettes with a distinctive banded pattern for water storage. These vegetative traits often contain cardiac glycosides, contributing to the plants' toxicity.^[4]^[5]^[7]^[6]

Flowers, fruits, and seeds

The flowers of Convallarioideae are typically bisexual and actinomorphic, featuring six tepals arranged in two whorls of three, which may be free or basally connate into a tube, and are often small, white, greenish, or purplish in color.^[8]^[9]^[10] The six stamens are adnate to the tepals or filaments fused into a tube, with introrse anthers, while the superior, syncarpous ovary is usually three-locular with two ovules per locule, topped by a slender style and capitate or weakly lobed stigma.^[11] Inflorescences vary significantly across genera, including terminal racemes in Convallaria that are lax and one-sided with 5–15 nodding, fragrant, globose-campanulate flowers on recurved pedicels, axillary umbels or racemes in Polygonatum bearing 1–15 pendulous flowers, and spikes or reduced panicles in Ophiopogon with several to many campanulate to flat flowers.^[8]^[9]^[10] Fruits in Convallarioideae are berries derived from the superior ovary, typically globose and pulpy, containing 1–3 seeds per locule, with colors ranging from orangish red in Convallaria to dark blue or black in Polygonatum and blue in Ophiopogon.^[8]^[9]^[10] In some genera like Ophiopogon, the berry bursts irregularly at an early stage, exposing the developing seeds.^[10] Seeds are endospermic, lacking phytomelan in the coat, and are usually smooth, subglobose to angled, and yellowish to brownish in color, with sizes around 3–4.5 mm in Polygonatum.^[11]^[9] Variation in seed traits supports diverse dispersal strategies, though structural details emphasize their adaptation to fleshy fruit consumption.

Taxonomy

Classification history

Prior to the widespread adoption of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, taxa now included in Convallarioideae were recognized in several distinct families within Asparagales, such as Ruscaceae, Convallariaceae, Dracaenaceae, and Nolinaceae, based primarily on morphological characteristics like habit, inflorescence structure, and fruit type. These classifications reflected traditional views that emphasized vegetative and reproductive differences, often placing them under broader Liliaceae or related groups, though some systems treated them as independent families to account for their diversity.^[12]^[13] The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) II classification in 2003 provisionally expanded Asparagaceae sensu lato to include these former families, recognizing their close relationships through preliminary molecular evidence but without formal subfamilial ranks. This lumping aimed to reflect emerging phylogenetic data while allowing flexibility for further resolution. In the APG III system of 2009, the group was formally established as the subfamily Nolinoideae within Asparagaceae, incorporating elements of the previous Ruscaceae and allied families, supported by analyses of multiple chloroplast and nuclear loci that confirmed their monophyly.^[14]^[15] The APG IV update in 2016 retained Nolinoideae as one of seven subfamilies in Asparagaceae, affirming the structure based on expanded phylogenetic sampling. However, in 2023, Tanaka and Nguyen proposed replacing Nolinoideae with Convallarioideae, citing nomenclatural priority under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, as Convallaria-based names predate Nolina-based ones for the clade.^[16] The monophyly of Convallarioideae is robustly supported by molecular data, particularly chloroplast genes rbcL and matK, which highlight shared synapomorphies and resolve its position sister to other Asparagaceae subfamilies.^[13]^[15]

Tribes and genera

The subfamily Convallarioideae is organized into seven tribes: Convallarieae, Dracaeneae, Eriospermeae, Nolineae, Ophiopogoneae, Polygonateae, and Rusceae, reflecting distinct morphological and ecological adaptations within the group.^[1] These tribes encompass a total of approximately 600 species across 23 accepted genera, with recent molecular phylogenetic studies supporting this framework while highlighting some non-monophyletic relationships, such as in Polygonateae.^[1] The tribe Convallarieae comprises herbaceous perennials, primarily distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, often featuring rhizomatous growth and berry fruits. Key genera include Convallaria, with a single temperate species known for its bell-shaped flowers; Polygonatum, encompassing about 70 rhizomatous species adapted to woodland understories; and Maianthemum, with around 45 species of small herbaceous plants bearing racemes of white flowers.^[17]^[18] Other notable genera in this tribe are Disporopsis and Heteropolygonatum, both with rhizomatous herbs from Asian forests. Dracaeneae includes woody taxa, mainly trees and shrubs from tropical regions, characterized by palm-like or arborescent growth forms and often showy inflorescences. Prominent genera are Dracaena, with approximately 120 species of trees and shrubs native to Africa and Asia, valued for their ornamental foliage (including Sansevieria, merged into Dracaena in 2020 based on plastid phylogenomic evidence); and Cordyline, featuring about 24 species from New Zealand and the Pacific, known for their colorful, strap-shaped leaves.^[19] Nolineae consists of arid-adapted species, predominantly from the Americas, with rosette-forming or shrubby habits suited to dry habitats. Representative genera include Nolina and Dasylirion, both with numerous species of fan-leaved perennials or small trees in desert and chaparral ecosystems, featuring capsules as fruit. Additional genera such as Beaucarnea (including former Calibanus species merged in 2014) contribute to this tribe's diversity with their swollen trunks and succulent adaptations. Eriospermeae includes geophytic herbs mainly from southern Africa, with tunicated bulbs and often white or yellow flowers. The primary genus is Eriospermum, comprising about 100 species adapted to rocky or sandy soils. Ophiopogoneae features evergreen herbaceous perennials from Asia and Africa, typically with grass-like leaves and blue-black berries. Key genera include Ophiopogon (around 50 species), Liriope, Aspidistra (over 200 species, many from Indochina), and Rohdea. Polygonateae is a diverse, paraphyletic tribe of mainly rhizomatous herbs from temperate and tropical Asia, with berry fruits and arching stems. It includes Polygonatum (though sometimes segregated), but recent studies nest genera like Ruscus here unexpectedly; however, Ruscus is now often placed in its own tribe. Rusceae comprises low shrubs or herbs with cladodes (flattened stems functioning as leaves), primarily from the Mediterranean and Macaronesia. The main genus is Ruscus (about 7 species), with related Semele. Recent revisions, including the Sansevieria merger and nomenclatural updates, have refined the classification to better align with phylogenetic data.^[1]

Formerly placed genera

Prior to the adoption of the APG III classification in 2009, the taxa now comprising Convallarioideae were distributed across several separate families, including Convallariaceae, Dracaenaceae, Nolinaceae, and Ruscaceae, which were merged into the expanded Asparagaceae based on molecular evidence. This merger reflected the phylogenetic relationships revealed by DNA sequence data, but further analyses highlighted the polyphyly of the traditional Ruscaceae sensu lato, prompting additional refinements to subfamily and generic boundaries.^[20] For instance, Chase et al. (2009) proposed a subfamilial structure for Asparagaceae that incorporated these groups into Nolinoideae (a name later replaced by Convallarioideae to reflect nomenclatural priority).^[16] One significant reclassification involved the genus Calibanus, originally placed within Nolinoideae (now Convallarioideae) following the 2009 merger of Nolinaceae into Asparagaceae. Phylogenetic and morphological studies in 2014 demonstrated a lack of reciprocal monophyly between Calibanus and Beaucarnea, leading to the formal inclusion of Calibanus species (C. hookeri and C. longifolia) as Beaucarnea hookeri and B. longifolia, respectively, within the same subfamily. Molecular phylogenies have also led to inclusions and refinements within Convallarioideae. For example, early studies suggested varied placements for genera like Ruscus and Eriospermum, but subsequent data confirmed Ruscus in Rusceae and Eriospermum in Eriospermeae, both within Convallarioideae. These changes underscore the ongoing refinement driven by phylogenetic evidence to resolve the polyphyletic nature of pre-2009 groupings.^[20]^[1]

Distribution and habitat

Global distribution

The subfamily Convallarioideae exhibits a native range primarily across the temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere, with extensions into parts of the Southern Hemisphere via Pacific islands. Key genera such as Convallaria are confined to temperate Eurasia and eastern North America, while Polygonatum shows a classic disjunct pattern between eastern Asia and eastern North America, reflecting ancient biogeographic connections across the Bering land bridge. In contrast, Dracaena dominates tropical distributions, with the majority of its approximately 190 species occurring in tropical Africa and Madagascar, alongside others in southern Asia and northern Australia.^[21]^[22]^[23] The subfamily is notably absent from most of South America and mainland Australia, though Cordyline extends into Australasia, with about 20 species native to New Zealand, eastern Australia, southeastern Asia, Polynesia, and the Pacific islands. Centers of diversity are concentrated in Asia, where roughly 50% of the approximately 600 species in the 23 genera of Convallarioideae occur, particularly in eastern and southeastern regions; notable examples include Aspidistra with over 200 species endemic to China, Vietnam, and adjacent areas. Tropical Africa represents another hotspot, driven largely by Dracaena's high species richness.^[24]^[1]^[25] Beyond native ranges, Convallaria majalis has been widely introduced and naturalized in temperate zones globally, including parts of North America outside its native eastern distribution, western Europe, and even some southern Hemisphere locations like New Zealand, often through ornamental planting. This introduction has contributed to its expanded presence in gardens and woodlands, though it remains absent from truly tropical or arid regions.^[26]

Habitat preferences

Members of the Convallarioideae subfamily display a wide range of habitat preferences, reflecting the ecological diversity within the group, from temperate forest understories to arid and semi-arid regions. Herbaceous genera in the tribe Convallarieae, such as Polygonatum, Maianthemum, and Convallaria, predominantly occupy shaded woodland environments, where they thrive in the understory of deciduous or mixed forests. These species favor moist, well-drained soils rich in humus and organic matter, often derived from loamy or shallow substrates with neutral to slightly acidic pH. For instance, Polygonatum species prefer partial to full shade with consistent soil moisture, avoiding direct sunlight that could desiccate their rhizomatous growth.^[27]^[28]^[29] Altitudinally, these herbaceous taxa span from sea level to high elevations, with some Polygonatum species extending up to 4000 m in the Himalayan region, where cooler, moist montane climates support their persistence in shaded, rocky slopes or forest edges. In contrast, woody and succulent genera in tribes like Dracaeneae (e.g., Dracaena and Sansevieria) and Nolineae (e.g., Beaucarnea) are adapted to warmer, drier conditions, inhabiting arid scrublands, rocky outcrops, and semi-desert landscapes with poor, nutrient-deficient soils. Sansevieria species, for example, tolerate extreme drought and heat in tropical savannas and rocky terrains, while Beaucarnea grows in low deciduous forests on steep, limestone-derived slopes with minimal water availability. These preferences align with broader patterns of distribution in tropical to subtropical zones, though specific microhabitats emphasize drainage and sun exposure.^[30]^[31]^[32] Key adaptations enhance survival in these varied environments. Rhizomatous underground stems in herbaceous genera like Maianthemum and Convallaria promote shade tolerance by facilitating nutrient storage and vegetative spread in low-light, seasonally variable conditions, allowing persistence in competitive forest floors. Succulent adaptations, such as thick, water-storing leaves in Sansevieria and swollen caudices in Beaucarnea, enable drought endurance in xeric habitats by minimizing water loss and sustaining growth during prolonged dry periods. Dracaena species similarly exhibit tolerance to intermittent moisture in well-drained, sandy soils under tropical climates. These traits underscore the subfamily's versatility across abiotic gradients.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Ecology

Pollination and seed dispersal

Members of the Convallarioideae subfamily exhibit primarily entomophilous pollination, with flowers attracting insect pollinators such as bees and flies. In Convallaria majalis, the fragrant, bell-shaped flowers are cross-pollinated by these insects, promoting genetic diversity through pollen transfer from genetically distinct individuals.^[36] Many species in the subfamily, including Convallaria, display self-incompatibility, a gametophytic system that prevents self-fertilization and enforces outcrossing as the predominant breeding strategy.^[36] Apomixis, or asexual seed production, is rare across Convallarioideae, with sexual reproduction via outcrossing being the norm to maintain variability.^[37] Seed dispersal mechanisms in Convallarioideae vary by genus but often involve animal vectors. In Maianthemum species, such as M. dilatatum and M. canadense, seeds bear prominent elaiosomes—fleshy, lipid-rich appendages that attract ants for myrmecochory, where ants transport seeds to nests and remove the elaiosomes, effectively burying the seeds for germination.^[38] In contrast, genera like Dracaena rely on ornithochory, with birds consuming the vibrant orange or red berries and dispersing seeds through endozoochory, facilitating long-distance colonization.^[39] These biotic interactions enhance reproductive success by reducing competition near parent plants and exploiting suitable microhabitats.

Ecological interactions

Members of the Convallarioideae subfamily, particularly the herbaceous genera such as Polygonatum and Convallaria, commonly form symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to enhance nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus, in nutrient-poor forest soils.^[40] In Polygonatum verticillatum, AMF colonization rates reach 46-52% in roots, supporting spore diversity from genera like Glomus and Acaulospora, which facilitate improved plant growth in Himalayan habitats.^[41] Similarly, Convallaria majalis exhibits high AMF hyphal abundance, up to 77.9% in roots, aiding establishment in shaded woodland environments without evidence of hemiparasitic behaviors in the subfamily.^[42] In trophic interactions, Convallarioideae species serve as food sources for herbivores and frugivores within forest ecosystems. Deer frequently browse on Polygonatum species, such as P. biflorum, exerting pressure that can influence understory dynamics in temperate forests.^[43] The red berries of Convallaria majalis probably attract birds, potentially aiding seed dispersal, though berry production is limited and actual consumption is uncertain in introduced North American ranges.^[44] Certain herbaceous members, like Polygonatum, act as indicator species for forest health, signaling intact, undisturbed woodlands through their presence and abundance in old-growth understories.^[45] Ecological threats to Convallarioideae include habitat loss and overharvesting, particularly in tropical regions, with intensifying climate change impacts such as drought and altered rainfall patterns as of 2025. For Dracaena species, such as D. cinnabari on Socotra, overgrazing by livestock, land conversion for agriculture, and unsustainable resin extraction have reduced populations, exacerbating fragmentation in arid montane habitats.^[46]^[47] Introduced Convallaria majalis exhibits invasive potential in non-native temperate areas, forming dense colonies via rhizomes and seeds that outcompete native flora in moist woodlands of North America.^[48] Conservation status across Convallarioideae varies by genus and region, with many Dracaena species classified as vulnerable or endangered on the IUCN Red List due to trade and habitat pressures. For instance, Dracaena draco is assessed as Endangered from severe fragmentation and declining quality in Macaronesian habitats (as of 2021), while D. serrulata faces similar risks in Omani mountains (as of 2020).^[49] Temperate herbaceous genera like Polygonatum and Convallaria generally fare better but require monitoring for invasive spread and habitat protection to maintain ecosystem roles.

Human interactions

Cultivation and uses

Plants in the Convallarioideae subfamily are widely cultivated for ornamental purposes, particularly in shaded gardens and indoor settings. Convallaria majalis, commonly known as lily of the valley, is a favored groundcover for woodland borders due to its delicate white flowers and ability to form dense mats in moist, shady areas.^[29] Polygonatum species, such as Solomon's seal, are prized in shade gardens for their arching stems, attractive foliage, and subtle bell-shaped flowers, providing texture and interest in naturalistic plantings.^[27] Dracaena species are grown for their striking foliage, often used as focal points in tropical-style gardens or containers, adding vertical accent and vibrancy.^[50] Herbaceous members like Convallaria and Polygonatum thrive in cool, shaded environments with moist, humus-rich, well-drained soils, suitable for USDA hardiness zones 4 to 8, where they prefer partial to full shade to prevent scorching.^[51] Woody genera such as Dracaena require warmer conditions, with well-drained soil and temperatures between 15–25°C, making them ideal for greenhouses or protected outdoor sites in subtropical climates.^[50] Indoor cultivation of genera like Dracaena emphasizes bright, indirect light and moderate watering to maintain their ornamental foliage, while avoiding overwatering to prevent root rot.^[52] Beyond ornamentals, some Convallarioideae plants have practical applications. Polygonatum rhizomes are used in traditional Asian medicine as tonics to nourish yin, boost qi, and support lung and spleen health, with species like Polygonatum sibiricum featuring in Chinese herbal formulations.^[53] Convallaria majalis flowers contribute to the perfume industry, where their fresh, green-floral scent is synthetically replicated or extracted for use in fragrances like Chanel No. 5, with commercial production centered in regions like France on May 1st for cultural significance.^[54] In the Nolineae tribe, genera such as Nolina provide durable leaf fibers traditionally harvested for cordage, basketry, mats, and thatching by indigenous communities in arid regions of North America.^[55] Propagation of Convallarioideae plants commonly involves division of rhizomes or offsets, performed in spring or fall for herbaceous species like Convallaria and Polygonatum to ensure vigorous growth and prevent overcrowding.^[51] Seeds can be sown but often require stratification for germination, while stem cuttings or air layering suit woody types like Dracaena, supporting commercial nursery trade.^[50] Note that while beneficial, some species like Convallaria contain toxic compounds and require careful handling during cultivation.^[29]

Toxicity

Many plants in the subfamily Convallarioideae are toxic due to the presence of cardiac glycosides, saponins, and other compounds that can cause severe physiological effects in humans and animals, though toxicity varies across genera.^[56] In genera like Convallaria, the primary toxins are cardiac glycosides, such as convallatoxin in Convallaria majalis (lily of the valley), which inhibit the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase enzyme, leading to disruptions in cardiac function.^[57]^[58] Saponins, including convallarin in Convallaria, contribute to gastrointestinal irritation, while flavonoids may play a secondary role in overall toxicity.^[56]^[59] Ingestion of these plants can result in nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, heart arrhythmias, disorientation, seizures, and potentially death, particularly in cases of significant exposure.^[58]^[60] The attractive red berries of Convallaria majalis pose a special risk to children and pets, often leading to accidental ingestion.^[56] In Dracaena species, the sap can cause skin irritation and dermatitis upon contact.^[61] Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) is a notorious cause of plant poisoning in Europe, with cases frequently reported due to misidentification or ornamental exposure, though severe human incidents remain relatively uncommon.^[59]^[62] Treatment for cardiac glycoside poisoning involves administration of activated charcoal to reduce absorption, along with cardiac monitoring and supportive care such as electrolyte correction; digoxin-specific antibody fragments may be used in severe cases.^[63] The LD50 for convallatoxin in mammals is approximately 0.08–0.1 mg/kg body weight, highlighting its high potency.^[64] Toxicity levels vary across Convallarioideae genera and plant parts, with higher concentrations of cardiac glycosides often found in flowers and berries of Convallaria, though roots contain the greatest overall amounts.^[56] In contrast, genera like Ophiopogon exhibit lower toxicity, with minimal risks from ingestion beyond mild gastrointestinal upset.^[65]

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Unraveling the Seed Dispersal System of an Insular “Ghost” Dragon ...
Feb 19, 2019 · We aimed to shed light on the seed dispersal system of this plant by studying its fruit size in relation to the feeding behavior of its present dispersers.Missing: Convallarioideae Convallaria Maianthemum
[41]
[PDF] Mycorrhizal Status of Plant Families and Genera
Jun 9, 2020 · Parthenocissus. Creeper. Yes. Vitis. Grapevine. Yes. *Plant species with minimal or no soil (such as air plants) have minimal or no mycorrhizal ...Missing: Convallarioideae | Show results with:Convallarioideae
[42]
[PDF] Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and root colonization in ...
Mar 18, 2022 · Polygonatum verticillatum is little explored for the mycorrhizal association. In present study, mycorrhizal colonization and diversity of AMF ...
[43]
Arbuscular mycorrhizal and dark septate endophyte associations of ...
The abundance of AMF hyphae in roots varied with particular species, ranging from 2.5% (Helianthus tuberosus) to 77.9% (Convallaria majalis). The mycelium ...
[44]
deer | The Green Farmacy Garden, care of CEI
Jun 4, 2024 · Unchecked deer populations tend to apply heavy herbivory pressure to ... * Solomon's Seal, Polygonatum biflorum, in the Holding Plot ...
[45]
Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaria majalis) - Illinois Wildflowers
In Illinois, the European variety of Lily-of-the-Valley has naturalized in such habitats as tamarack bogs, rich deciduous woodlands, pioneer cemetery prairies, ...
[46]
[PDF] Woodland Plants
This selection represents a community of plants, when found abundantly, indicate a healthy forest. Forests that begin to suffer from some of the above noted.
[47]
[PDF] Dragons Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari) - Zenodo
of the trees if not done sustainably, threatening their populations. 2. Habitat Loss: Human activities, such as overgrazing by livestock and land development,.
[48]
lily of the valley: Convallaria majalis (Liliales - Invasive Plant Atlas
Convallaria majalis is a perennial herbaceous rhizomatous plant that grows up to 12 in (30 cm) tall. It is native to Asia and Europe. Some sources list it as ...
[49]
[PDF] Dracaena draco - IUCN Red List
Jan 10, 2021 · The species is assessed as Endangered (EN B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)) as a result of the restricted area of occupancy, severe fragmentation, and the ...
[50]
How to grow cordyline - RHS
Use tender forms as houseplants or focal points in summer bedding, and give hardier cordylines pride of place in a warm sheltered spot.Missing: ornamental | Show results with:ornamental
[51]
How to Grow and Care for Lily of the Valley - The Spruce
Apr 9, 2025 · Lily of the valley will grow vigorously in almost any spot with some shade. Gardeners commonly use it under trees where many other plants won't ...
[52]
Dracaena | Home & Garden Information Center - Clemson HGIC
Mar 16, 1999 · Dracaenas are best grown in normal house temperatures of 60 to 70 °F during the day. Ideally, night temperatures should be about 10 °F cooler.Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[53]
Pharmacological properties of Polygonatum and its active ...
Jan 2, 2024 · Polygonatum is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with a variety of pharmacological applications and biological activities, such as antioxidant activity.
[54]
Lily-Of-The-Valley As An Essential Component Of Fragrances
Sep 28, 2020 · Lily-of-the-valley is used in some of the most famous fine perfumes such as Chanel #5 and many others over time. Alpha Aromatics And Our Use Of ...
[55]
Palmilla (Nolina) fiber: a native plant industry in arid and semi-arid ...
Leaves of two wild Nolina species, locally called 'palmilla', are harvested for fiber on both sides of the U.S./Mexico boundary.Missing: traditional | Show results with:traditional
[56]
Lily of the valley - Guide to Poisonous Plants
All parts of lily of the valley are poisonous, especially the roots and red berries, which are a common source of poisoning in children.
[57]
Convallatoxin, the primary cardiac glycoside in lily of the valley ... - NIH
Convallotoxin (CNT), present in lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), is a toxin that causes food poisoning among humans and companion animals.Missing: Convallarioideae convallarin
[58]
Convallatoxin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Convallatoxin produces cardiac toxicity by inhibiting the enzyme Na + /K + -ATPase. Overdose causes intoxication, sinus tachycardia, heart block and ...Missing: Convallarioideae | Show results with:Convallarioideae
[59]
Digitalis Intoxication Induced by an Acute Accidental Poisoning by ...
Feb 28, 2012 · Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis). The short period of possible exposure probably explains why cases of human poisoning are rare. These ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[60]
Lily of the Valley | ASPCA
Clinical Signs: Vomiting, irregular heart beat, low blood pressure, disorientation, coma, seizures. If you suspect your pet may have ingested a potentially ...
[61]
Dracaena fragrans - Plant Toolbox - NC State University
A slow-growing, broadleaf evergreen, perennial shrub in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae). Its native home is tropical Africa.
[62]
Epidemiology of intoxication of domestic animals by plants in Europe
Aug 10, 2025 · ... Lily of the valley is considered a notorious poisonous plant among veterinarians because drinking water from a vase containing this plant ...
[63]
Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning Treatment & Management
Jan 16, 2024 · Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning Treatment & Management. Updated ... To prevent further absorption, oral administration of activated charcoal is ...
[64]
Lily of the Valley - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
There are over 30 glycosides and convallatoxin is the most toxic with an LD50 of 0.08 mg/kg body weight (Fenton, 2002).Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[65]
Is mondo grass or ophiopogon poisonous to my labrador - JustAnswer
Jul 8, 2010 · Mondo grass (Ophiopogon) is generally considered non-toxic to dogs, including Labradors. However, ingestion of any plant material can cause mild ...