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Oruanui eruption

The Oruanui eruption was a cataclysmic supereruption at Taupō Volcano in New Zealand's Taupō Volcanic Zone, occurring approximately 25,500 years ago and ranking as the planet's most recent VEI 8 event.^[1]^[2] This explosive outburst ejected over 530 km³ of dense rock equivalent (DRE) magma, predominantly rhyolitic with minor mafic components, alongside roughly 1,100 km³ of tephra, forming the modern 35 km × 35 km Lake Taupō caldera through widespread ground collapse.^[1]^[3]^[2] The eruption unfolded in at least 10 distinct phases over several days to weeks, beginning with intense phreatomagmatic activity involving magma-water interactions that generated wet pyroclastic flows and surges, transitioning to dominantly dry Plinian columns producing vast fallout deposits.^[3] These phases yielded approximately 430 km³ of pyroclastic fall material and extensive ignimbrite sheets covering much of central North Island, with ash layers blanketing much of New Zealand's North Island and detectable over 5,000 km away in Antarctic ice cores.^[3]^[4]^[2] Locally, the event devastated ecosystems across central North Island, burying landscapes under tens of meters of pumice and ash, triggering massive lahars, and reshaping river systems through voluminous sedimentary responses.^[5]^[6] Globally, it injected substantial sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, likely causing short-term cooling during the Last Glacial Maximum, while serving as a key stratigraphic marker for correlating paleoclimate records in the Southern Hemisphere.^[2] As part of Taupō's long history of rhyolitic activity, the Oruanui highlights the volcano's capacity for repeated large-scale events, with post-eruption resurgence shaping its current structure.^[6]^[1]

Geological Context

Taupo Volcanic Zone

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a major rift zone located in the central North Island of New Zealand, representing the back-arc region of the Hikurangi subduction system where the Pacific Plate is subducting westward beneath the Australian Plate.^[7] This tectonic setting drives extensional forces that facilitate back-arc spreading, resulting in a volcano-tectonic depression characterized by high rates of rhyolitic volcanism.^[8] The zone's formation and evolution are closely tied to oblique subduction and associated rollback of the subducting slab, which has promoted crustal thinning and magma ascent over millions of years.^[9] Stretching approximately 350 km in length from near Mount Ruapehu in the southwest to the offshore Bay of Plenty in the northeast, the TVZ measures about 50 km in width and encompasses a diverse array of volcanic centers, including stratovolcanoes, calderas, and geothermal fields.^[10] Prominent features include the Taupo Volcanic Centre, which hosts Lake Taupo and has been a focal point for significant eruptive activity.^[11] The zone's structure is defined by northeast-trending normal faults and rift segments, creating a graben-like morphology that influences the distribution and style of volcanism.^[8] Volcanic activity in the TVZ has persisted for over 2 million years, with the zone producing the majority of New Zealand's Quaternary volcanism through repeated episodes of rhyolite-dominated eruptions.^[12] The total erupted volume is estimated at 15,000–25,000 km³, making the TVZ one of the most voluminous rhyolitic provinces globally, with the Oruanui eruption representing one of its largest events at approximately 1,170 km³ bulk volume.^[8] This long-term output reflects episodic flare-ups, including a hyperactive period in the late Pleistocene that contributed substantially to the zone's magmatic budget.^[13] Extensional tectonics within the TVZ play a critical role in crustal preparation for supereruptions by creating pathways for repeated magma intrusions, which weaken and modify the lithosphere over time.^[8] Magma accumulation in shallow crustal reservoirs, facilitated by this rifting, allows for the buildup of large, crystal-poor rhyolitic bodies capable of driving cataclysmic events.^[9] Such processes underscore the zone's potential for high-impact volcanism, sustained by ongoing plate boundary dynamics.^[7]

Pre-Eruption Conditions

Prior to the Oruanui eruption, dated to approximately 25,675 ± 90 years BP by radiocarbon calibration and confirmed by 2022 Greenland ice core correlations at ~25,718 years BP, the Taupo-Reporoa Basin hosted a large freshwater lake known as Lake Huka.^[14] This lake, fed by the ancestral Waikato River, occupied much of the basin and represented a significant hydrological feature in the central North Island.^[5] The lake's presence was influenced by the ongoing rifting within the Taupo Volcanic Zone, which created a subsiding basin conducive to water accumulation.^[15] The pre-eruption topography around Taupo Volcano consisted of low-lying basin floors surrounded by higher rims formed by earlier volcanic and tectonic activity, with Lake Huka filling the central depression to depths estimated at 150–185 m based on the modern Lake Taupō system.^[16] During the late Pleistocene, the regional climate was cool and dry, characteristic of the lead-up to the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting predominantly grassland and shrubland vegetation across the lowlands rather than dense forests.^[17]^[18] These environmental conditions reflected periglacial influences, with sparse herbaceous cover adapted to reduced temperatures and lower precipitation.^[17] Geological evidence suggests pre-eruption unrest, including magma accumulation and possible seismicity, over centuries to millennia prior.^[1] The substantial volume of water in Lake Huka positioned it as a key factor in potential interactions between ascending magma and surface hydrology, setting the stage for phreatomagmatic processes through magma-water contact during volcanic unrest.^[19] This lake-dominated landscape underscored the integrated role of tectonic subsidence and fluvial inputs in shaping the pre-eruption setting at Taupo Volcano.^[5]

Eruption Dynamics

Magma Evolution

The Oruanui supereruption was preceded by the rapid assembly of a large silicic magma body beneath Taupō Volcano over approximately 2,000–5,000 years.^[20] This reservoir developed in a shallow crustal setting at depths of 4–8 km (corresponding to pressures of 100–200 MPa), where it reached a pre-eruptive volume of about 530 km³ dense rock equivalent (DRE).^[3] The assembly involved incremental injections into mush zones with efficient convection, resulting in a relatively homogeneous reservoir by the time of eruption. Geochemical evidence from zircons and other minerals indicates deeper origins for much of this silicic magma in the middle to lower crust (9–14 km depth, or 250–380 MPa), where it was extracted from mush zones before ascending to the shallower storage level with limited modification; precursor activity may trace back to around 70,000–100,000 years ago.^[3] The magma was dominantly high-silica rhyolite, with SiO₂ contents ranging from 71.8 to 76.7 wt%, and was notably crystal-poor, containing only 3–13 vol% phenocrysts such as quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase.^[3] This uniformity suggests efficient convection within the chamber, which homogenized compositions and minimized differentiation gradients. Recent studies, including thermodynamic modeling of phase assemblages, support the limited modification during ascent. There is no substantial evidence for significant mixing with more mafic magmas, as mafic components constitute less than 1% (~3–5 km³) of the total erupted volume and show no systematic incorporation into the rhyolitic melts. Key evolutionary processes included fractional crystallization, which drove the progressive enrichment in silica and incompatible elements, alongside volatile accumulation that enhanced the magma's explosivity. Melt inclusions in quartz and plagioclase crystals record pre-eruptive water contents of 3.8–5.2 wt% (averaging ~4.5 wt%), with some estimates reaching up to 5–6 wt% in less degassed samples, indicating saturation with a H₂O-dominated fluid phase.^[3] Minimal recharge events during the later stages limited thermal rejuvenation, allowing overpressure to build from volatile exsolution and thermal contraction of the surrounding crust. The primary trigger for chamber rupture appears to have been regional tectonic extension within the Taupō Volcanic Zone (at rates of ~7–8 mm/year), which weakened the brittle roof rock and facilitated mechanical failure without requiring substantial mafic influx.^[21]

Eruption Sequence

The Oruanui eruption, dated to approximately 25.4 ka, was classified as a VEI 8 supereruption, one of the largest in Earth's recent history, with a total erupted volume of ~530 km³ dense rock equivalent (DRE) magma and >1,100 km³ of pyroclastic material over several months.^[22]^[23] This prolonged, episodic event unfolded in 10 distinct phases, beginning with highly explosive activity and progressing to major pyroclastic flows and caldera collapse.^[23] The eruption's intensity was driven by the high-silica composition of the rhyolitic magma, which favored violent explosive fragmentation, augmented by phreatomagmatic interactions.^[4] The sequence commenced with Phase 1, an initial Plinian eruption phase that produced a towering eruptive column and deposited approximately 25 km³ (DRE) of fine ash and pumice as widespread fall material.^[23] This phase marked the onset of intense magmatic degassing, with ash dispersal influenced by prevailing winds that carried tephra across the North Island and beyond.^[4] Following a possible hiatus, Phases 2 through 4 transitioned to phreatomagmatic explosions, where interactions between rising magma and external water generated ~100 km³ (bulk) of tephra, including surge and fall deposits with characteristic accretionary lapilli and vesiculated textures.^[23] These phases reflected episodic vent interactions with groundwater or surface waters, contributing to the eruption's spasmodic nature.^[4] The eruption escalated in Phases 5 through 8, dominated by ignimbrite-forming pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) that emplaced ~410 km³ (DRE) of material, forming thick, widespread ignimbrite sheets across the landscape.^[23] Multiple vents, distributed over an area of ~20 km², fed these currents, with shifting wind patterns directing finer ash plumes variably to the east, north, and west.^[4] The PDCs were highly energetic, traveling tens of kilometers and depositing layered sequences of pumice and ash.^[23] The final Phases 9 and 10 involved intracaldera processes, including ~300 km³ (bulk) of collapse-related deposits as the roof of the magma chamber subsided, forming the initial Taupō caldera structure.^[23] This collapse accompanied waning eruptive vigor, with localized surges and falls marking the end of the main activity.^[4] Stratigraphically, the eruption is best characterized by the Kawakawa Tephra, the principal marker horizon corresponding primarily to the Plinian and early phreatomagmatic phases, with fall deposits up to 1.8 m thick near the source area.^[4] These deposits thin distally, providing a key chronological and compositional fingerprint for the sequence.^[23]

Unusual Features

The Oruanui eruption exhibited an ultra-Plinian style characterized by exceptionally high eruption columns exceeding 50 km, driven by intense explosive activity that facilitated widespread ash dispersal.^[4] This style was punctuated by episodic phreatomagmatic bursts resulting from the interaction of ascending magma with a precursor Lake Taupō, leading to rapid vaporization of lake water and the generation of unusually fine-grained pyroclastic fall deposits.^[24]^[4] Despite its multi-phase nature spanning several months, the eruption evacuated a remarkably uniform rhyolitic magma body with consistent composition (71.8–76.7 wt% SiO₂) across all stratigraphic units, suggesting rapid extraction from a well-mixed reservoir without substantial intermediate recharge or differentiation.^[3] Pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits from the Oruanui were distinctive in their widespread distribution, forming thin-bedded ignimbrites that reached up to 200 m thick in proximal areas but thinned to millimeter- and centimeter-scale veneers distally, with minimal welding throughout—contrasting with the thicker, more extensively welded flows typical of many other supereruptions.^[4] The eruption demonstrated strong tectonic-volcanic linkage, with evidence indicating possible initiation triggered by regional earthquakes along the Taupō Rift, while the event itself induced significant extensional strain and fault movements extending up to 50 km beyond the caldera margins.^[21]

Immediate Impacts

Local Effects

The Oruanui eruption culminated in the collapse of the Taupo Volcano's magma chamber, forming a large caldera that measured approximately 30 km by 40 km, with the central structural collapse reaching depths of up to 3 km and marginal areas subsiding by hundreds of meters, along with prominent fault scarps and landslide blocks along its margins.^[25] This structural collapse created a central depression of about 140 km², extending to 2.5–3 km deep in places due to the evacuation of over 530 km³ of magma. The event completely destroyed the pre-existing Lake Huka, a significant water body in the Taupō-Reporoa Basin, by draining and infilling the area with roughly 420 km³ of intracaldera ignimbrite and fall deposits from pyroclastic density currents and plinian phases.^[26] The eruption triggered massive lahars and buried landscapes under tens of meters of pumice and ash, devastating local ecosystems.^[5] Phreatomagmatic interactions during early eruption phases further contributed to the lake's disruption by generating explosive steam-driven activity that fragmented and dispersed surrounding sediments.^[23] The massive influx of pyroclastic material blocked and rerouted local drainage systems, notably diverting the Waikato River from its longstanding northward path through the Hinuera Gap toward the Hauraki Plains. Post-eruption, the newly formed caldera rapidly filled with water, reaching a highstand of about 500 m above sea level before a catastrophic breach released around 80 km³ of water, establishing the river's modern southward course through the Hamilton Basin and forming the precursor to present-day Lake Taupō.^[25] This diversion was driven by extensive aggradation, with up to 200 m of volcaniclastic sediments accumulating in proximal areas of the Waikato catchment, fundamentally reshaping the regional hydrology within 100 km of the volcano.^[26] Widespread subsidence and fracturing accompanied the caldera collapse, permanently altering the local topography through differential settling and rift-related faulting in the Taupō Volcanic Zone.^[27] These deformations buried pre-eruption soils and landscapes under thick layers of tephra and ignimbrite, preserving them in outcrops while creating a rugged, sediment-choked terrain that influenced subsequent erosion and deposition patterns.^[25] The resulting ground changes, including localized uplifts along fault scarps and broad subsidence basins, extended the impacts of the eruption across the immediate volcanic vicinity for millennia.^[25]

Regional Effects

The Kawakawa-Oruanui tephra, the primary fallout deposit from the Oruanui eruption, blanketed more than 30,000 km² across the North Island of New Zealand and adjacent areas, with thicknesses up to 1.8 m near the Taupō source and decreasing to 18 cm on the Chatham Islands approximately 850 km eastward. Trace amounts of this tephra have been identified as cryptotephra in eastern Australia, over 2,000 km from the vent.^[28]^[23] Isopach maps of the tephra reveal a dominant northeastward dispersal pattern, driven by prevailing winds during the eruption, with the primary lobe extending across the central and eastern North Island and secondary lobes toward the south and west; the total volume of these fall deposits is estimated at 430 km³.^[3] Pyroclastic density currents generated ignimbrites that covered approximately 20,000 km², ponding in paleotopographic depressions up to 50 km from the source and filling valleys with deposits exceeding 200 m thick in proximal regions.^[29]^[4] These widespread deposits immediately smothered vegetation and buried soils across the central North Island, rendering surfaces infertile in the short term by blanketing landscapes in fine ash and disrupting nutrient cycles and water infiltration.^[26]

Broader Consequences

Climate and Environmental Effects

The Oruanui eruption released over 130 Tg of sulfur into the atmosphere, equivalent to approximately 390 Tg of sulfate aerosols, much of which was injected into the stratosphere where it formed a reflective veil capable of altering global radiative balance. This substantial loading, one of the largest recorded in ice cores over the past 60,000 years, is evidenced by prominent sulfate spikes in Antarctic ice cores, such as the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide (WAIS Divide) record, where deposition reached about 193 kg km⁻². The aerosols likely induced short-term global cooling through enhanced albedo, with radiative forcing estimates around -13 W m⁻², comparable to 1.5 times that of the 1257 CE Samalas eruption but scaled to the supereruption's magnitude. Due to the eruption's location in the Southern Hemisphere, the cooling may have been more pronounced in southern latitudes, though hemispheric transport of aerosols contributed to Northern Hemisphere effects lasting several years.^[30]^[31]^[31] The eruption's timing at approximately 25,718 ka b2k, refined through 2022 updates to Antarctic ice core chronologies using tephrochronology and sulfate signals, places it near the onset of intensified cooling associated with the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 25,000 years BP. While orbital forcings were the primary driver of glacial cooling, the Oruanui event may have contributed a transient pulse, exacerbating regional temperature declines and potentially influencing conditions during Greenland Stadial 3. However, its overall role remains debated, as the sulfate forcing, though significant, is considered minor relative to Milankovitch cycles and other feedbacks. Distal ash layers in Antarctic cores further corroborate the eruption's bipolar reach and timing.^[32]^[14] Environmentally, the stratospheric sulfate led to widespread acid rain, acidifying precipitation and surface waters across the Southern Hemisphere and potentially stressing aquatic ecosystems through lowered pH. Terrestrial biomes in New Zealand and surrounding regions faced disruption from thick ash fallout, which smothered vegetation, altered soil fertility, and hindered post-eruption recovery for decades to centuries. Oceanic impacts included possible fertilization of surface waters by trace metals in the ash, though the rhyolitic composition limited iron enrichment compared to more mafic eruptions; sulfate deposition may have indirectly influenced marine chemistry via acidification. No human populations were affected, as the event predated the first Polynesian settlement of New Zealand by over 24,000 years.^[30]^[32]

Scientific Significance

The Oruanui eruption represents a pivotal benchmark in volcanology as the most recent supereruption on Earth, classified as Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 8 with an erupted volume of approximately 530 km³ dense rock equivalent (DRE), positioning it among the largest events in the past 70,000 years since the Toba supereruption.^[3] This caldera-forming event offers key insights into rhyolitic explosivity and magma reservoir dynamics, with analyses of its deposits demonstrating the rapid evacuation of a compositionally zoned, crystal-mush-dominated system that informed early models of silicic magma mobilization and collapse mechanics.^[3] Its youthfulness—dated to around 25,500 years ago—enables detailed stratigraphic and geochemical studies that benchmark processes in other Quaternary supereruptions, emphasizing the role of volatile-rich, wet magmas in driving extreme explosivity.^[33] Advancements in research, notably the 2024 study by Bindeman et al., have elucidated the deep crustal origins of the Oruanui magma system, revealing a rift-base silicic source that produced high-δ¹⁸O, homogeneous rhyolites through protracted fractional crystallization at depths exceeding 20 km, challenging prior shallow-melt models for the Taupō Volcanic Zone.^[34] Comparative analyses highlight Oruanui's distinctions from Yellowstone's Lava Creek eruption (~1,000 km³ DRE) and Toba (~2,800 km³ DRE), where it exhibits lower overall volume but superior tephra dispersal—owing to its phreatomagmatic phases—resulting in widespread ash layers across the southwest Pacific, unlike the more regionally confined fallout at Yellowstone.^[2]^[35] These contrasts underscore Oruanui's value in refining eruption plume simulations and understanding latitudinal effects on ash transport in southern hemisphere supereruptions.^[2] For hazard assessment at Taupō Volcano, Oruanui provides critical lessons in forecasting pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) and tephra fallout, with probabilistic models simulating future VEI 8 events based on its sequence to predict ash thicknesses exceeding 1 m regionally and disruptions to aviation, agriculture, and power infrastructure.^[36]^[1] Lacking direct archaeological traces due to its occurrence amid sparse Last Glacial Maximum populations, the eruption acts as a paleoecological proxy, with its tephra layers enabling high-resolution reconstructions of vegetation shifts and faunal responses in post-eruptive landscapes.^[2]^[37] Persistent research gaps center on enhancing climate models to capture Oruanui's sulfate aerosol forcing and hemispheric cooling, as current simulations vary in predicting temperature drops of 1–3°C, necessitating integration with refined chronologies like Bayesian-calibrated radiocarbon ages to synchronize it with global paleoclimate proxies such as Antarctic ice cores. As of 2025, ongoing studies including simulations of Oruanui-like supereruptions and zircon geochemistry analyses continue to refine understandings of climatic impacts and magma reservoir construction.^[38]^[2]^[39]^[40]

Post-Erption History

Caldera Formation

The Oruanui eruption culminated in the formation of a large caldera through piston-cylinder-style subsidence, primarily during its climactic phases 9 and 10, as approximately 530 km³ of rhyolitic magma was evacuated from a shallow chamber, leading to gravitational collapse of the overlying roof. This process involved the downward movement of a coherent piston-like block along a ring fault system, with the collapse mechanics driven by the rapid decompression and volume loss in the magma reservoir. Primary intracaldera deposits, totaling around 420 km³, accumulated from fallback of ejecta and pyroclastic surge materials, partially filling the nascent depression and mitigating some structural instability during subsidence.^[4]^[3] The resulting caldera exhibits an irregular morphology, with a central structural collapse zone of approximately 140 km² concealed beneath modern Lake Taupō, surrounded by a broader peripheral collapse area spanning 25–30 km in diameter and characterized by nested fault blocks and downwarping. This nested fault structure reflects piecemeal subsidence along multiple ring faults, creating a complex boundary rather than a simple circular rim, and set the stage for the eventual formation of Lake Taupō as a post-collapse lake basin. The caldera's outline partially defines the modern lake's irregular shoreline, which occupies much of the depression today.^[41]^[4] Geophysical investigations reveal prominent ring faults bounding the central collapse, imaged via seismic reflection profiles that show a deep "hole" 2.5–3 km beneath the lake floor, indicative of significant volume loss. These data also highlight moat-like deposits of unconsolidated pyroclastic material along the inner margins, formed by surge and fallback processes during collapse. Net subsidence reached 300–500 m across the central block, establishing the foundational depression that influenced local river systems by redirecting drainage into the new basin.^[41]^[25] In the immediate aftermath, within months of the eruption's end, the caldera experienced initial infilling through hydrothermal activity, including steam-driven explosions that ejected minor volumes of breccia and altered material from shallow aquifers interacting with hot residual magma. These phreatic events contributed to early sediment accumulation and lake precursor formation, stabilizing the post-collapse landscape before broader fluvial and lacustrine sedimentation dominated.^[5]^[42]

Subsequent Activity

Following the Oruanui supereruption approximately 25,500 years ago, Taupo Volcano experienced a period of quiescence lasting about 5,000 years, during which no significant eruptive activity occurred.^[43] This dormancy was followed by resurgence around 20,500 calibrated years before present, marked by the initiation of smaller eruptions and dome-building events that rebuilt the magmatic system.^[43] Over the subsequent millennia, at least 28 eruptions took place, primarily producing pyroclastic deposits with volumes ranging from 0.01 to over 44 km³, interspersed with repose intervals of 20 to 6,000 years; three of these included lava extrusions, contributing to localized dome formation within the caldera.^[43] The post-Oruanui activity culminated in the buildup to the Hatepe eruption in 232 CE, a VEI 7 event that ejected approximately 120 km³ of material (dense-rock equivalent ~35 km³) and caused additional caldera collapse in the northeastern sector, shaping the modern configuration of Lake Taupō.^[25] This eruption sequence represented the most recent major explosive activity at the volcano, with no large-scale events since. Ongoing seismicity beneath Taupō, including swarms detected in recent decades—such as the heightened unrest episode from May 2022 to May 2023 involving increased seismicity and ground deformation that subsided without an eruption—reflects persistent magmatic processes at depths of 5–15 km, while extensive geothermal systems—such as those at Wairakei and Broadlands—indicate active hydrothermal circulation driven by residual heat from the magmatic system.^[44]^[45] Over the past 25,000 years, the Oruanui caldera has undergone significant evolution through structural uplift and extensional faulting associated with rifting in the Taupō Volcanic Zone, partially offsetting initial collapse and influencing lake basin morphology.^[21] Lacustrine sediments have accumulated within the basin to thicknesses of around 100 m in places, comprising fine-grained silts, clays, and volcaniclastic layers deposited in the evolving lake environment.^[46] Contemporary monitoring by GNS Science integrates Oruanui and post-eruption data into probabilistic hazard models, which assess eruption frequencies and volumes based on the volcano's 25,000-year record; these models indicate no elevated risk of an imminent supereruption, with annual probabilities for events exceeding 100 km³ remaining below 1 in 10,000.^[47] The network includes seismographs, continuous GPS stations, and lake-level gauges to detect unrest precursors, supporting long-term hazard mitigation in the region.^[6]

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[34]
Temporal-volume probabilistic hazard model for a supervolcano
Apr 15, 2020 · Taupo volcano hosted the youngest known supereruption (VEI8), the c. 1100 km3 Oruanui (Kawakawa) eruption at 25.4 ka BP. Eruptions from Taupo ...Missing: lessons | Show results with:lessons
[35]
Legacy of supervolcanic eruptions on population genetic structure of ...
Aug 8, 2022 · Manville, C.J.N. Wilson. The 26.5 ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: a review of the roles of volcanism and climate in the post-eruptive ...
[36]
Severe Global Cooling After Volcanic Super-Eruptions? The Answer ...
By evaluating the range of aerosol size scenarios, we demonstrate that eruptions may be incapable of causing more than 1.5°C cooling no matter how much sulfur ...
[37]
Gravity, magnetic and seismic surveys of the caldera complex, Lake ...
The general relationship between the evolutionary stage of a caldera and its d/s (diameter/subsidence) ratio allows such a quantification, with stage 1 ...
[38]
Hydrothermal eruption dynamics reflecting vertical variations in host ...
Nov 14, 2020 · Hydrothermal eruptions are characterised by violent explosions ejecting steam, water, mud, and rock ... eruption deposit: Oruanui, New Zealand.
[39]
Stratigraphy, chronology, styles and dynamics of late Quaternary ...
Taupo has an average magma output rate of 0.2 m3 s-1 over the past 65 000 years, and is one of the most frequently active and productive rhyolite volcanoes ...
[40]
Volcanic Unrest at Taupō Volcano in 2019: Causes, Mechanisms ...
Jun 7, 2021 · In 2019 Taupō volcano underwent a period of volcanic unrest, indicated by multiple seismic swarms and ground deformation Earthquakes define ...
[41]
[PDF] Hydrogeology Of Lake Taupo Catchment - Waikato Regional Council
Lacustrine sediments (in part volcaniclastic) that directly underlie the Oruanui eruption deposits in an area around and north of Taupo township. These ...
[42]
Temporal-volume probabilistic hazard model for a supervolcano
Apr 15, 2020 · Temporal-volume probabilistic hazard model for a supervolcano: Taupo, New Zealand. Author links open overlay panel. Mark S. Bebbington. Show ...