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Paraffin

This article is about paraffin wax. For other uses, see [[Paraffin (disambiguation)]]. Paraffin wax is a soft, white or colorless, odorless, and translucent solid derived primarily from petroleum fractions, consisting of a complex mixture of predominantly straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules with carbon numbers greater than 20, such as C₃₆H₇₄.^[1] It exhibits a melting point range of 46–68 °C (115–154 °F), a density of 0.88–0.92 g/cm³, and is insoluble in water, making it a versatile, combustible material with low reactivity under normal conditions.^[2] Produced through dewaxing processes applied to lubricating oil fractions from crude petroleum, paraffin wax is obtained via solvent crystallization, where solvents selectively dissolve lower-melting components, or the sweating process, which involves gradual heating to separate wax layers by melting point; alternatively, it can result from the catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.^[1] These methods yield a high-purity product that is refined further for specific applications, with global production historically tied to advancements in petroleum refining, such as the 1876 process developed by Herman Frasch for extracting wax from petroleum residues.^[3] Paraffin wax finds extensive use across industries due to its hydrophobic properties, stability, and ease of formulation; it serves as the primary material in candles for its clean-burning characteristics, in cosmetics as an emollient and barrier agent, in pharmaceuticals for similar purposes,^[4] in food packaging as a waterproof coating for paper products like milk cartons,^[5] and in polishes, crayons, lubricants, and chewing gum bases.^[6] Additionally, it is employed in electrical insulation,^[7] phase-change materials for thermal energy storage,^[8] and even experimental rocket fuels, though concerns over potential emissions of volatile organic compounds during combustion have prompted exploration of bio-based alternatives.^[9]

Definition and Chemistry

Chemical Composition

Paraffin encompasses a class of hydrocarbons primarily composed of straight-chain (normal) and branched (iso) alkanes, with the general molecular formula C_nH_{2n+2}, where n typically ranges from 20 to 40 in the case of waxes.^[10]^[11] These saturated hydrocarbons feature only single bonds between carbon atoms, which accounts for their chemical inertness and stability.^[10] The name "paraffin" derives from the Latin phrase "parum affinis," translating to "slight affinity," a reference to the compounds' low reactivity with other substances.^[12] This etymology highlights their reluctance to form chemical bonds beyond their stable alkane structure. Paraffin wax specifically refers to the solid variant, formed from high molecular weight hydrocarbons that are predominantly straight-chain alkanes.^[10] A representative example is n-eicosane (C_{20}H_{42}), a straight-chain alkane commonly found in paraffin wax compositions.^[13] Liquid paraffin, also termed mineral oil, differs by comprising lower molecular weight alkanes (generally n = 15 to 30), yielding a colorless, odorless liquid at ambient temperatures.^[14] Paraffin oil, in turn, denotes a refined petroleum distillate akin to liquid paraffin, consisting of similar mixtures of saturated hydrocarbons but optimized for specific viscosities.^[14]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Paraffin substances, primarily consisting of long-chain alkanes, exhibit a range of physical properties that make them versatile in industrial applications. Paraffin wax typically has a melting point between 46°C and 68°C, allowing it to transition from solid to liquid at relatively low temperatures.^[15]^[16] Its density generally falls within 0.88 to 0.92 g/cm³ at room temperature, contributing to its lightweight and buoyant characteristics in various media.^[10] Paraffin is insoluble in water due to its non-polar nature but readily dissolves in organic solvents such as benzene, toluene, and xylene.^[15]^[16] Chemically, paraffin demonstrates high stability and low reactivity, remaining unaffected by most common acids, bases, and reagents under standard conditions.^[15]^[17] This inertness stems from its saturated hydrocarbon structure, which resists oxidation and chemical alteration. Paraffin is flammable, with a flash point around 199°C for wax forms, enabling its use as a combustible material while requiring careful handling to prevent ignition.^[18] Additionally, its low thermal conductivity, typically 0.19–0.35 W/m·K, positions it as an effective thermal insulator in applications like packaging and coatings.^[19] Properties vary significantly by type. Liquid paraffin, often used in lubricants and cosmetics, has a kinematic viscosity of 17–24 cSt at 40°C, providing smooth flow without excessive thinning.^[20] Kerosene-grade paraffin, a lighter distillate, boils in the range of 150–300°C, suitable for fuels and solvents.^[21] Purity grades further influence observable traits. Fully refined paraffin is highly pure, with oil content below 0.5%, resulting in a white, translucent appearance and minimal odor, ideal for food-contact and pharmaceutical uses.^[22] In contrast, technical or semi-refined grades contain higher oil levels (up to 6%), often exhibiting a yellowish tint, slight odor, and reduced clarity due to residual impurities.^[23]^[22]

Production and Sources

Natural Sources

Paraffin hydrocarbons originate primarily from crude petroleum, a fossil fuel formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms such as plankton and algae that were buried under layers of sediment millions of years ago. This organic matter undergoes diagenesis to form kerogen, an insoluble organic material, which then matures into hydrocarbons through catagenesis—a process driven by increasing heat and pressure from deeper burial over geological timescales spanning tens to hundreds of millions of years. In this maturation, kerogen breaks down to generate paraffinic crude oils, particularly in sedimentary basins where conditions favor the production of straight-chain and branched alkanes. Paraffinic crudes, characterized by their high content of these hydrocarbons (typically 15–60% by weight), are notably abundant in regions such as the Middle East and the North Sea, where source rocks like the Jurassic Tuwaiq Mountain Formation or Kimmeridge Clay have undergone optimal thermal maturation.^[24] These paraffinic crudes are prevalent in major producing areas with favorable geological histories. Beyond petroleum, paraffin-like hydrocarbons occur in other natural deposits, including ozocerite, a mineral wax mined from rock fissures in locations like the Carpathian Mountains and Utah's Uinta Basin; it consists mainly of solid paraffinic hydrocarbons (C20–C50 alkanes) formed through similar diagenetic processes in bituminous shales.^[25] Shale oil deposits, derived from kerogen-rich oil shales such as the Green River Formation in the western United States, also yield high concentrations of paraffinic hydrocarbons upon natural or induced maturation, often comprising up to 72% saturated aliphatics including waxes.^[26] Natural waxes from biological sources provide additional, albeit minor, origins for paraffin hydrocarbons, though they differ in composition from petroleum-derived paraffins. For instance, plant-derived waxes like those in ozocerite exhibit paraffinic profiles, while animal sources such as beeswax contain approximately 14% hydrocarbons, including high-carbon paraffins (e.g., hentriacontane), produced by bees from glandular secretions metabolized from pollen and honey; however, beeswax is not considered a true paraffin due to its complex ester and fatty acid components.^[27] These biological waxes represent unprocessed reservoirs of alkane-like molecules, contrasting with the vast geological accumulations in petroleum.

Industrial Manufacturing

Paraffin wax is primarily produced through industrial processes in petroleum refineries, beginning with the extraction of paraffin-rich fractions from crude oil. The initial step involves fractional distillation, where crude oil is heated and separated under vacuum conditions at temperatures ranging from 200–400°C to isolate the heavy lubricating oil distillate containing waxes.^[28] This process exploits the differing boiling points of hydrocarbons, yielding a feedstock known as bright stock or slack wax that is rich in straight-chain alkanes.^[29] Refining follows to purify and separate the wax from impurities and oils. Dewaxing is achieved via solvent extraction, typically using methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) or propane, where the mixture is chilled to induce crystallization of the wax, followed by filtration to produce slack wax with 5–30% oil content.^[30] Hydrogenation, or hydrofinishing, then treats the slack wax under high temperature and pressure with hydrogen gas to remove sulfur, nitrogen, and other polar compounds, resulting in semi-refined or fully refined paraffin wax.^[31] Additionally, the sweating process involves controlled heating and cooling to crystallize and separate oil from wax layers without solvents, enhancing purity through repeated melting and solidification cycles.^[32] Alternatively, paraffin wax can be produced synthetically through the Fischer-Tropsch process, which involves the catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide to generate long-chain hydrocarbons from synthesis gas (a mixture of CO and H₂ derived from natural gas, coal, or biomass). This method yields high-purity paraffin waxes suitable for specialty applications.^[1] Global production of paraffin wax was approximately 2.3 million metric tons in 2024, with China and India as leading producers due to their extensive refining capacities.^[33] China is a major contributor, with production exceeding 1.2 million tons annually.^[34] India plays a significant role through integrated refineries such as those operated by Indian Oil Corporation.^[35] The manufacturing of paraffin wax is integrated into broader petrochemical refinery operations, where lighter distillation fractions serve as feedstocks for producing olefins via cracking and aromatics through reforming processes.^[36] Byproducts such as slack wax from dewaxing are repurposed for applications like asphalt modification, while deoiled residues contribute to fuel oil production.^[30]

Applications

In Fuels and Lubricants

Paraffin wax has been explored as a fuel in experimental hybrid rocket motors due to its high energy density and clean combustion properties.^[9] In lubricant applications, paraffin wax serves as an additive to improve viscosity and act as a pour point depressant in some formulations, enhancing performance in cold temperatures. Historically, the development of paraffin wax production in the 19th century contributed to the broader shift away from whale oil in petroleum-based products.^[37]

In Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals

Paraffin wax is widely incorporated into cosmetic formulations due to its emollient properties, which help create a protective barrier on the skin to prevent moisture loss and enhance texture. In lip balms, it is typically used at concentrations of 5% to 20% to provide structure, smoothness, and occlusion, allowing the product to form a flexible film that seals in hydration while resisting cracking. For creams and lotions, paraffin wax concentrations range from 1% to 10%, where it improves spreadability, imparts a silky feel, and acts as an occlusive agent to lock in active ingredients, often comprising up to 20% in barrier creams for dry or irritated skin. Additionally, liquid paraffin, a more fluid derivative, serves as the primary base in baby oils, offering gentle hydration for sensitive skin without irritation, as it forms a non-comedogenic layer that mimics the skin's natural oils. In pharmaceuticals, liquid paraffin functions as an emollient laxative, softening stools by lubricating the intestinal tract and facilitating passage, with typical adult doses ranging from 10 to 30 mL administered orally once daily or in divided doses. It is also a key component in topical ointments, where it contributes to a semi-occlusive skin barrier that protects against environmental irritants and promotes healing, particularly in formulations like white soft paraffin combined with liquid paraffin for conditions such as eczema or minor wounds. Petroleum jelly, which often includes liquid paraffin as a base, exemplifies this use by creating a thick, impermeable layer that retains moisture and shields damaged skin. Regulatory standards ensure safety, with USP-grade liquid paraffin requiring purity levels exceeding 99% to minimize impurities, as verified through tests for identity, acidity, and residue on ignition. Microcrystalline variants of paraffin wax are employed in advanced drug formulations for controlled release, leveraging their low-melting-point properties to enable temperature-sensitive matrices that regulate drug delivery around body temperature, as demonstrated in wax matrix systems for sustained oral therapies. Global consumption of liquid paraffin, used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other sectors, reached approximately 1.25 million tons annually in the 2020s.^[38] However, there is a growing shift toward bio-based alternatives in cosmetics due to environmental concerns.

In Histology and Other Industrial Uses

In histology, paraffin wax is the standard embedding medium for preparing biological tissues for microscopic analysis, as it provides rigid support while preserving cellular morphology during sectioning. Tissues are dehydrated, cleared, and infiltrated with molten paraffin at temperatures around 58–60°C, allowing the wax to penetrate and encase the sample without causing distortion.^[39] Once solidified, the paraffin block is sectioned using a microtome to produce ribbons of tissue slices typically 4–10 μm thick, which are then mounted on slides for staining and examination.^[40] This technique, refined since the late 19th century, enables high-resolution imaging of tissue architecture and is preferred over frozen sections for its stability and detail retention.^[41] Beyond histology, paraffin wax finds extensive use in industrial waterproofing, particularly as a coating for paper and cardboard to repel moisture and enhance durability in packaging applications. Emulsions of paraffin are applied to create a barrier that reduces water vapor transmission, making it ideal for food wraps and corrugated boxes.^[42] In candle production, paraffin dominates as the primary raw material, accounting for approximately 48.7% of the global candle market in 2025 due to its clean burn, ease of molding, and cost-effectiveness, though soy and other bio-based waxes are gaining share.^[43] For electrical insulation, its low dielectric constant of 2.1–2.5 allows it to serve as a reliable non-conductive material in capacitors and wiring, minimizing energy loss in high-voltage applications.^[44] Paraffin also supports niche industrial roles, such as binding pigments in crayons to ensure smooth application and color vibrancy, forming part of the chewable base in gum to provide elasticity and texture, and acting as an anti-ozone protectant in tire manufacturing to prevent surface cracking.^[45]^[46]^[47] Synthetic alternatives, including Fischer-Tropsch wax derived from gas-to-liquids synthesis, increasingly substitute for traditional paraffin in these uses, offering comparable hardness and melting behavior with lower impurities.^[48] Industrial grades of paraffin wax are characterized by a needle penetration index of 15–25 tenths of a millimeter at 25°C (per ASTM D1321), indicating their firmness for processing and application stability.

Health, Safety, and Environmental Aspects

Toxicity and Health Effects

Paraffin, particularly in its liquid form such as mineral oil, exhibits low acute oral toxicity, with an LD50 greater than 5 g/kg in rats, indicating it is not highly poisonous when ingested in small amounts. However, inhalation of vapors from kerosene, a distillate fraction of paraffin hydrocarbons, poses significant risks, primarily through aspiration leading to chemical pneumonitis or aspiration pneumonia, characterized by lung inflammation, coughing, and potential respiratory distress.^[49] This inert chemical nature of paraffin reduces direct reactivity in the body but allows it to persist in lung tissues if aspirated.^[50] Chronic exposure to paraffin, especially through overuse of liquid paraffin as a laxative, can result in exogenous lipoid pneumonia, where aspirated oil accumulates in the lungs, causing inflammation, fibrosis, and impaired gas exchange over time.^[51] Skin contact with paraffin-based products generally causes minimal irritation due to its non-reactive properties, though prolonged occlusion under dressings or in sensitive individuals may lead to occlusion dermatitis, involving trapped moisture, bacterial overgrowth, and secondary irritation.^[52] In occupational settings, exposure to paraffin oil mists is regulated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), which recommends a time-weighted average limit of 5 mg/m³ and a short-term exposure limit of 10 mg/m³ to prevent respiratory irritation and other health effects.^[53] Regarding carcinogenicity, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies highly refined paraffinic mineral oils as Group 3, meaning there is inadequate evidence to assess their carcinogenicity in humans.^[54] Children represent a particularly vulnerable group to paraffin-related toxicity, with accidental kerosene ingestion being a common cause of poisoning in developing regions, often resulting in aspiration pneumonia due to inadequate storage and supervision of household fuels.^[55] These incidents are exacerbated in low-resource areas where kerosene is commonly used for lighting and heating.^[56]

Environmental Impact and Regulations

Paraffin waxes, being non-polar hydrocarbons with low water solubility, exhibit limited bioaccumulation potential in aquatic organisms due to their tendency to partition into sediments rather than dissolve in water or tissues.^[57] However, when released through oil spills, paraffin hydrocarbons contribute significantly to marine pollution by coating shorelines, smothering benthic habitats, and persisting in sediments where they can disrupt microbial communities and food webs. Combustion of paraffin-based fuels like kerosene releases approximately 2.6 kg of CO2 per liter, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change impacts on marine ecosystems.^[58] Regulatory frameworks address potential environmental risks from paraffin impurities and uses. Under the European Union's REACH regulation, restrictions limit polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in paraffinic waxes, particularly for food contact materials, to minimize contamination in environmental releases.^[59] In the United States, petroleum-derived paraffin waxes are listed on the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) inventory, subjecting them to reporting requirements for manufacturing, processing, and environmental releases to monitor potential hazards.^[1] Additionally, liquid paraffin, used historically as a laxative, faces restrictions in several countries due to risks of anal leakage and aspiration; for instance, it is not recommended for routine use in the UK and has been phased out in pediatric formulations in parts of Europe and Australia.^[60] Sustainability initiatives seek to mitigate paraffin production's fossil fuel dependency through bio-based alternatives derived from plant oils, such as those produced via hydrotreatment of vegetable feedstocks like palm or soy oil, which offer comparable properties with lower carbon footprints.^[61] These bio-paraffins reduce reliance on petroleum refining and support circular economy goals, though recycling rates for paraffin wax products, including candles and coatings, remain low due to contamination challenges in waste streams. The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, releasing over 10 million gallons of crude oil containing paraffin hydrocarbons into Prince William Sound, Alaska, underscored their environmental persistence, with n-alkane fractions detectable in intertidal sediments more than 30 years later, affecting long-term ecosystem recovery.

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