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Cardboard

Cardboard is a versatile, heavy-duty material derived from paper products, primarily used for packaging and structural applications, and typically composed of layered paper fibers sourced from wood pulp or recycled paper.^[1]^[2] It encompasses a range of forms, from solid paperboard to corrugated fiberboard, which features a fluted middle layer sandwiched between flat liners to provide strength and cushioning.^[2]^[1] The development of cardboard traces back to the early 19th century, with the first recorded cardboard box produced in England in 1817.^[3] Corrugated paper emerged in the 1850s initially as a liner for top hats, but by the 1870s, it evolved into shipping containers following accidental innovations in carton folding by printer Robert Gair.^[3] The material gained prominence in the late 19th century for food packaging, such as Kellogg's cereal boxes, and by 1900, it largely replaced wooden crates for shipping due to its lightweight and cost-effective properties.^[3] Cardboard production begins with pulping wood chips or recycled paper into a slurry of fibers mixed with water, which is then formed into sheets on large papermaking machines that drain and press out moisture.^[1] For corrugated varieties, a corrugator machine creates wavy flutes from a middle sheet and glues them between two linerboards, with flute profiles varying from large A-flutes (about 3/16 inch high) for cushioning to smaller E-flutes for printing surfaces.^[1]^[2] Global production reached approximately 400 million tonnes of paper and paperboard in 2012, with over half dedicated to packaging; as of 2023, this figure stood at about 401 million metric tons, the majority for packaging uses.^[2]^[4] Key types include solid paperboard for items like cereal boxes and frozen food trays, and corrugated board available in single-, double-, or triple-wall configurations for enhanced durability in shipping.^[1] Common uses span retail packaging, such as boxes for electronics and groceries, protective inserts, and even architectural elements like temporary structures.^[2]^[3] Its recyclability—often termed old corrugated containers (OCC) in waste streams—supports circular economies, though it remains vulnerable to moisture without treatments like wax coatings; in the United States, recycling rates reached 71-76% as of 2023.^[2]^[5] Cardboard's properties, including high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal insulation, and shock absorption, make it ideal for e-commerce and logistics, while its biodegradability and sourcing from sustainably managed forests underscore its environmental benefits.^[1]^[2] In the United States, more trees are planted annually for pulp production than harvested, ensuring renewable supply chains.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Terminology

Cardboard is a generic term for heavy-duty paper-based materials that are thicker than regular paper, typically exceeding 0.25 mm in thickness, and are primarily used for packaging, structural support, and other protective applications.^[6] These materials are engineered for durability, offering greater rigidity and resistance compared to standard paper products.^[7] In contrast to regular paper, which is generally thin (under 0.25 mm) and suited for writing, printing, or lightweight wrapping, cardboard functions as a composite or thick sheet designed for load-bearing and protective roles.^[6] This distinction arises from cardboard's denser fiber structure and manufacturing processes that prioritize strength over flexibility.^[8] The terminology surrounding cardboard can be imprecise in everyday use. "Cardboard" serves as an informal synonym for paperboard, a broad category of stiff paper products, while terms like "corrugated cardboard" specifically denote materials with fluted or wavy inner layers for enhanced cushioning.^[8] Etymologically, the word "cardboard" first appeared in 1839, derived from "card" (referring to stiff paper) and "board," describing a rigid sheet material.^[9] Common misconceptions include the belief that all cardboard is uniformly recyclable or shares the same composition. In fact, recyclability varies based on factors like contamination, coatings, or soiling, and compositions differ widely depending on the intended application, with some variants incorporating additives or laminates that affect processing.^[10]^[11]

Physical Properties

Cardboard, as a heavy-duty paper material with a grammage typically exceeding 250 g/m², possesses physical properties that dictate its structural integrity and application versatility.^[12] Thickness typically ranges from 10 to 40 points (0.25 to 1 mm) for solid paperboard grades, while corrugated variants achieve 2 to 5 mm due to integrated flute structures that enhance cushioning. Grammage, or basis weight, spans 150 to 600 g/m², with common liners at 115 to 300 g/m² and flutes at 90 to 175 g/m², directly influencing rigidity and load-bearing capacity.^[13]^[14]^[7]^[15] Mechanical strengths vary by composition and testing direction. Tensile strength measures resistance to pulling forces, typically 15 to 45 MPa in the machine direction, dropping to 30-50% in the cross direction for anisotropic fiber alignment. Burst strength, evaluated via the Mullen test in pounds per square inch (psi), averages 200 psi for standard single-wall corrugated board, indicating puncture resistance under uniform pressure. Compression resistance is quantified by the edge crush test (ECT) in pounds per inch, with 32 lb/in common for everyday packaging grades, reflecting stacking durability. These metrics are standardized under ASTM D828 for tensile properties, TAPPI T810 for burst, and ISO 3037 for ECT, alongside ISO 536 for basis weight determination.^[16]^[17]^[14]^[18]^[19]^[20] Properties are modulated by fiber content and environmental factors. Virgin fibers yield superior tensile and burst strengths compared to recycled fibers, which lose integrity after 5-10 cycles due to shortened fiber length. Moisture absorption reaches an equilibrium of 6-9% at 50-60% relative humidity, but can climb to 10% or more, softening fibers and reducing compression by up to 50%. Thermal insulation stems from low conductivity (approximately 0.05 W/m·K for corrugated board), amplified in corrugated boards by air-trapping flutes for better heat resistance than solid variants.^[21] Printability hinges on surface smoothness and coatings, with clay-coated boards enabling sharper ink adhesion and color fidelity than uncoated recycled stocks. Solid, high-density boards prioritize tensile and burst performance for flat applications, whereas low-density corrugated structures excel in compression and impact absorption for protective uses.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[14]

Types

Paperboard

Paperboard refers to flat, thick sheets of paper-based material, typically ranging from single-layer to multi-ply constructions, produced primarily from wood pulp or recycled fibers, and designed for applications such as folding cartons that require moderate strength and printability.^[26] Unlike lighter papers, paperboard is denser and heavier, with thicknesses generally between 0.25 and 1 mm, enabling it to provide structural support while remaining flexible for folding and forming.^[27] Its composition often involves multiple plies, including outer liner layers for surface quality and inner medium layers for bulk and rigidity, sourced from chemical or mechanical pulps.^[28] Key subtypes of paperboard include chipboard, solid bleached sulfate (SBS), and folding boxboard (FBB), each tailored for specific performance needs. Chipboard, a low-grade variant made predominantly from recycled paper fibers, features a basic, often uncoated structure that prioritizes economy over aesthetics or high strength; it is commonly used as backing or dividers in packaging.^[29] In contrast, SBS is a premium, fully bleached product derived from virgin chemical wood pulp, resulting in a brilliant white core and surface ideal for high-quality printing; it typically includes clay coatings on one or both sides for enhanced graphics.^[30] FBB, a multi-ply board, combines a central layer of mechanical pulp for bulk with outer layers of bleached chemical pulp for smoothness and whiteness, often coated on the top side; its thicknesses range from 210 to 650 μm, providing high stiffness at lower densities.^[31] These paperboard types offer advantages such as lightweight construction, cost-effectiveness, and versatility in processing, making them suitable for everyday packaging like cereal boxes and retail displays.^[27] SBS excels in visually demanding applications, such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, due to its superior print fidelity and hygienic properties.^[26] FBB is favored for food packaging, including confectionery and frozen goods, where its foldability and product protection are critical.^[28] Chipboard, while less premium, supports budget-oriented uses like shoeboxes or tea cartons, often enhanced with liners for better appearance.^[29]

Corrugated Fiberboard

Corrugated fiberboard is a rigid, layered material composed of a fluted corrugated medium sandwiched between two flat linerboards, which are adhered together to create a strong, lightweight structure ideal for protective packaging. The corrugated medium provides cushioning and rigidity, while the linerboards offer a smooth surface for printing and stacking. This construction enhances the material's ability to absorb shocks and resist compression, making it suitable for demanding shipping environments.^[7] The material is classified by the number of flute layers, with single-wall corrugated fiberboard featuring one fluted sheet between liners for general-purpose use, and double-wall versions incorporating two fluted sheets for greater strength in heavier applications. Flute profiles vary to balance cushioning, stacking strength, and printability: A flute, at approximately 5 mm thick with 36 flutes per foot, excels in impact absorption; B flute, about 3 mm thick with 47 flutes per foot, supports finer printing and smaller packaging; and C flute, around 4 mm thick with 39 flutes per foot, offers versatile performance for standard boxes. Strength is often measured by the edge crush test (ECT), where single-wall boards typically achieve 32 ECT, indicating resistance to 32 pounds of force per linear inch before edge failure.^[7]^[32] Compositionally, corrugated fiberboard is predominantly made from paper fibers, with liners often using kraft (virgin) or test (recycled) paper and the medium derived from semi-chemical or waste-based pulp; on average, it contains about 52% recycled content in the United States, promoting resource efficiency. Standard sheet dimensions commonly measure 48 by 40 inches, facilitating conversion into boxes and pads. While versatile, it is most prominently previewed here for forming durable shipping boxes that protect goods during transit, with broader applications detailed elsewhere.^[33]^[34]

Other Card Stocks

Other card stocks encompass a range of specialized paperboard variants designed for niche applications, often incorporating multi-layer constructions, coatings, or structural enhancements to meet specific performance needs beyond standard packaging. These materials typically represent a minor portion of global paperboard production, accounting for less than 10% of the total market, which is dominated by folding boxboard and corrugated types.^[35]^[36] Duplex board, a two-ply composite with one side often coated for printability and the other grey-backed for economy, is widely used for book covers, rigid boxes, and high-end packaging such as jewelry or cosmetics. Available in grammages from 230 to 450 gsm, it offers recyclability and basic moisture resistance due to its layered structure, making it suitable for consumer goods requiring aesthetic appeal and moderate durability.^[37]^[38] Greyboard, produced from densely compressed recycled fibers, provides a sturdy, economical substrate for modeling, prototyping, and bookbinding. Its high density ensures rigidity and strong adhesion, ideal for slotted constructions in boutique boxes or as a base for laminated surfaces, with typical thicknesses supporting applications in crafts and light structural uses.^[39]^[40] Millboard, a solid, high-grammage paperboard exceeding 600 g/m², is calendered for a smooth, glossy finish and valued for its hardness and stiffness in bookbinding and protective covers. Historically derived from rope or tar fibers but now often from chemical or mechanical pulps, it serves in binding boxes, shoe components, and archival applications where dimensional stability is critical.^[41]^[42] Honeycomb board features a cellular core of expanded paper cells sandwiched between liner sheets, delivering exceptional strength-to-weight ratio for lightweight panels and protective packaging. Stronger than traditional corrugated in compression while offering thermal insulation, it is employed in furniture components, automotive interiors, and void-filling dunnage for fragile goods like electronics or white appliances.^[43]^[44]^[45] Coated boards enhance moisture resistance through applied layers such as wax, polyethylene, or specialty films, tailored for food contact or humid environments. These variants, including metallized PET-laminated types, provide barrier properties and visual effects for premium packaging like cosmetics or perishables, without compromising recyclability in many formulations.^[46]^[47] Laminated cardboard integrates foil, plastic films, or additional paper layers for hybrid functionality, serving as an eco-friendly alternative to pure plastics in flexible packaging or structural panels. With options for moisture barriers and flat shipping, it finds niche uses in retail displays and insulated containers, balancing sustainability with enhanced protection.^[48]^[49]

Manufacturing

Production Processes

The production of cardboard commences with the pulping stage, where raw materials like wood chips or recycled paper are processed into fiber suspensions. In chemical pulping, the dominant Kraft process involves cooking wood chips in a digester with white liquor—a mixture of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na₂S)—at temperatures of 155–175°C and pressures around 8 bar to dissolve lignin and liberate cellulose fibers, yielding strong pulp ideal for paperboard. This method accounts for over 80% of chemical pulp production worldwide and includes a chemical recovery cycle where black liquor is concentrated, combusted in a recovery boiler to generate steam and recover inorganics as green liquor, then causticized to regenerate white liquor. Mechanical pulping, by contrast, grinds debarked wood logs against rotating stones or disks to mechanically separate fibers, producing a higher-yield but less durable pulp often blended for corrugated applications. Following pulping, the fiber slurry undergoes forming, refining, and drying to create base sheets. For paperboard, the Fourdrinier machine forms continuous sheets by ejecting diluted pulp from a headbox onto a moving endless wire mesh, where initial drainage occurs; the wet web then passes through press sections to remove water, followed by multi-cylinder drying and calendering for smoothness and density. This process efficiently produces flat, uniform sheets used as liners or solid board. Corrugated fiberboard production specifically utilizes a corrugator to assemble layered structures for enhanced rigidity. The process begins in the single facer, where a paper medium is preheated, fed between corrugating rolls to form flutes, and immediately glued (typically with starch adhesive) to one linerboard, creating a single-face web. This web is then conveyed to the double backer, where a second liner is glued to the exposed flutes under heat and pressure to form complete single-wall board; additional layers can be added for double- or triple-wall variants. The assembled board is cooled, cut to width via slitting, and scored or cut to length for further conversion. Global production of paper and paperboard, encompassing cardboard types, totaled approximately 420 million metric tons in 2023, with estimates for 2024 indicating growth to around 425 million tons driven by packaging demand. Energy consumption in cardboard manufacturing varies by process and material but averages 7–11.5 GJ per ton of output, primarily for pulping, drying, and recovery operations. As of 2025, projections suggest continued modest growth to approximately 430 million tons annually.^[4]

Materials and Sustainability

Cardboard production primarily relies on two key raw materials: virgin wood pulp derived from softwood and hardwood trees, and recycled paper fibers. Softwood pulps, such as those from pine trees, are favored for their long fibers that provide enhanced strength and durability in cardboard structures.^[29] Hardwood pulps from deciduous trees contribute shorter fibers for improved smoothness and printability, often blended in varying ratios depending on the end product's requirements.^[50] In modern cardboard manufacturing, recycled paper constitutes 60-80% of the fiber content, significantly reducing the demand for virgin resources while maintaining structural integrity through processes like deinking and repulping.^[51] Sustainable sourcing of these materials emphasizes responsible forestry practices to mitigate environmental degradation. Forest certification schemes, such as those established by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), ensure that virgin pulp originates from well-managed forests that balance timber harvesting with biodiversity conservation and community rights.^[52] FSC standards require third-party audits to verify chain-of-custody from forest to mill, promoting traceability and preventing illegal logging.^[53] However, pulp production remains water-intensive, typically requiring 30,000–70,000 liters (30–70 m³) per ton of pulp to facilitate processes like washing and refining, though advanced mills aim to reduce this through effluent recycling.^[54]^[55] Efforts to enhance sustainability in cardboard production include integrating closed-loop recycling systems, where post-consumer and industrial paper waste is collected, processed, and reintroduced directly into manufacturing cycles to minimize waste and resource depletion.^[56] The adoption of bio-based adhesives, derived from renewable sources like starch or plant proteins, replaces petroleum-derived alternatives, improving recyclability and reducing fossil fuel dependency in corrugation and lamination steps.^[57] To combat deforestation, industry initiatives align with regulatory frameworks, such as the European Union's Packaging and Packaging Waste Regulation (PPWR), which entered into force in February 2025 and applies from August 2026, promoting reduced use of primary raw materials like virgin fibers through recycling targets and bans on excessive packaging.^[58] Despite these advancements, cardboard production faces significant challenges related to energy intensity and chemical usage. The pulping and drying stages consume substantial energy, often accounting for over 50% of a mill's total power needs, primarily from fossil fuel-based sources that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.^[59] Bleaching processes, essential for achieving desired whiteness in certain grades, rely on chemicals like chlorine dioxide or hydrogen peroxide, which can generate hazardous byproducts if not managed properly, necessitating advanced effluent treatment to prevent water pollution.^[60]

Uses

Packaging Applications

Cardboard serves as a cornerstone material in protective and containment packaging due to its lightweight, durable, and cost-effective properties, enabling efficient transport and storage of goods across industries. It is widely used for shipping boxes, which provide cushioning and structural support during transit, particularly benefiting from the strength of corrugated fiberboard as detailed in its dedicated section. In the United States, approximately 40 billion cardboard shipping boxes are produced annually in recent years, reflecting fluctuations driven by logistics demands.^[61] Beyond shipping, cardboard finds extensive application in retail displays and food containers, enhancing product visibility and safety. Retail point-of-purchase displays, often custom-designed for promotional purposes, leverage cardboard's versatility to create eye-catching structures in stores. Food packaging, such as pizza boxes, utilizes grease-resistant coatings on cardboard to maintain hygiene and prevent leakage, with global production exceeding 10 billion units yearly. These uses highlight cardboard's adaptability for both e-commerce fulfillment and consumer-facing presentations. Key design features of cardboard packaging include die-cutting for precise custom shapes and creasing for easy folding and assembly, which optimize material use and assembly efficiency in production lines. Additionally, its inherent stackability facilitates space-efficient logistics, allowing pallets of boxes to be transported without excessive weight or volume penalties. These attributes make cardboard ideal for scalable packaging solutions in supply chains. Packaging applications dominate cardboard consumption, accounting for about 80% of global production, a figure underscored by the e-commerce surge following 2020 that boosted demand by roughly 15% through 2025. Innovations in this domain include smart packaging integrations, such as embedding QR codes for traceability or sensors for monitoring conditions like temperature and humidity during shipping, enhancing supply chain transparency and product integrity.

Non-Packaging Applications

Cardboard finds extensive application beyond packaging due to its structural versatility, lightweight nature, and recyclability. Its rigidity, derived from corrugated layers, enables the creation of durable forms suitable for various innovative uses.^[62] In furniture design, cardboard supports flat-pack constructions that prioritize sustainability and ease of assembly. For instance, the Wikkelhouse utilizes multiple layers of corrugated cardboard to form modular mini-homes designed to last for at least 50 years and are fully recyclable.^[63] Similarly, Room in a Box's Bed 2.0 assembles in seconds without tools, supports up to 300 kg, and folds compactly for transport. These designs highlight cardboard's capacity to bear heavy loads while minimizing material waste.^[64] Architectural models often employ cardboard for its affordability and precision in visualizing designs. Conceptual models use simple cardboard forms to explore early ideas and iterate quickly, while working models detail specific elements like facades for refinement. Presentation models incorporate textures and miniatures for client demonstrations, leveraging cardboard's ease of cutting and gluing with tools such as X-Acto knives and PVA adhesives. Digital methods like laser cutting further enhance accuracy in these non-structural representations.^[65] Bookbinding relies on specialized cardboard stocks, such as chipboard or Davey board, for creating rigid covers that protect contents and allow decorative embellishments. Chipboard provides economical support for short-term projects, whereas acid-free Davey board ensures longevity in archival bindings by resisting degradation. These materials are cut, scored, and covered with fabrics or papers to form durable hardcovers.^[66] Temporary housing solutions, particularly in disaster relief, utilize cardboard for rapid-deployment shelters. The TECH project developed prototypes like TECH 05, offering 17.4 m² of usable space with a 10-year lifespan and improved thermal performance (U-value of 0.27 W/m²K) through honeycomb panels and protective coatings. These cellulose-based structures assemble easily without professional skills, addressing needs for 123.2 million displaced persons as of 2024, and emphasize low environmental impact via recyclability.^[67] Creative applications include art installations and costumes that exploit cardboard's malleability. Installations, such as those by James Grashow, transform cardboard into dimensional sculptures like Baroque fountains, combining it with paper mache for intricate, large-scale works. In education, students at Strode College craft elaborate costumes from cardboard, fostering design skills through upcycled transformations into wearable art. Cardboard also serves as an accessible medium for school projects, where teachers use it for 2D and 3D models to teach concepts like geometry and creativity, often sourced from recycled boxes at no cost.^[68]^[69]^[70] Industrially, cardboard forms insulation panels by aggregating recycled fibers with binders like corn starch or clay, achieving thermal conductivity values suitable for building envelopes. Protective barriers in construction, such as temporary floor pads, shield surfaces during renovations by providing durable, non-slip coverage over large areas like foyers and stair landings.^[62]^[71] Emerging trends in 2025 emphasize cardboard's role in sustainable fashion and prototyping. In fashion, upcycled cardboard appears in accessories like bags and jewelry, aligning with slow fashion principles that favor timeless, eco-friendly pieces over fast trends. For prototyping, cardboard enables low-fidelity mock-ups in product design, outperforming early 3D prints for human factors testing due to its tactile feedback and cost-effectiveness, with costs ranging from minimal for basic models to higher for refined iterations.^[72]^[73]

Environmental Impact

Recycling and Recovery

The recycling of cardboard begins with collection from households, businesses, and commercial sources, often through curbside programs or dedicated drop-off points.^[74] Once gathered, the material is transported to material recovery facilities (MRFs), where it undergoes sorting to separate cardboard from other recyclables using automated screens, optical sorters, and manual labor to ensure quality.^[75] The sorted cardboard is then baled for efficiency and shipped to mills for processing.^[76] At the mill, the baled cardboard is repulped by shredding it into small pieces and mixing with water and chemicals to break it down into a slurry of fibers, a process that includes de-inking to remove inks and adhesives, and screening to filter out contaminants like staples or plastics.^[77] The cleaned pulp is refined, blended if necessary with virgin fibers to maintain strength, and reformed into new sheets through pressing, drying, and rolling.^[78] Recent studies suggest cardboard fibers can be recycled up to 25 times or more with little loss of integrity, though practical cycles may vary by quality and require blending with fresh fibers after multiple uses.^[79] Recycling rates for cardboard remain high, reflecting its economic value. In the United States, the American Forest & Paper Association reported a cardboard recycling rate of 69% to 74% in 2024, with over 33 million tons recovered.^[80] Globally, paper and cardboard recycling averages around 60%, though rates vary by region, with the European Union achieving higher collection for packaging at over 80% in recent years.^[81] For corrugated cardboard specifically, older U.S. estimates reached 93% under traditional methodologies, underscoring its recoverability compared to other materials.^[82] Key challenges in cardboard recycling include contamination, which reduces material quality and increases processing costs. Food grease, residues, or excessive tape can render cardboard unrecyclable by embedding oils into fibers that hinder repulping, leading to rejection at facilities. Economic incentives, such as rebates for high-volume commercial recycling or market premiums for clean bales, help mitigate these issues by encouraging proper preparation, though deposit-refund systems are more common for beverage containers than cardboard.^[83] Recycling cardboard offers substantial benefits over virgin production. It consumes up to 70% less energy, primarily by avoiding the resource-intensive harvesting and pulping of new wood fibers.^[84] Additionally, diverting cardboard from landfills prevents methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas produced during organic decomposition, thereby reducing environmental impacts.^[85] The fibrous composition of cardboard, derived mainly from renewable wood pulp, facilitates efficient repulping and supports multiple reuse cycles.^[86]

Broader Ecological Effects

The production and use of cardboard contribute to greenhouse gas emissions throughout its lifecycle, from raw material sourcing to disposal, with estimates ranging from 300 to 900 kg of CO2 equivalent per ton depending on production methods and regional practices.^[87]^[88] Pulping processes, in particular, generate effluents that can pollute water bodies with organic matter, suspended solids, and chemical residues, potentially harming aquatic ecosystems by reducing oxygen levels and introducing toxins.^[89]^[90] The paper and cardboard sector accounts for approximately 13-15% of global wood consumption, linking it to deforestation pressures in regions with unsustainable harvesting.^[91] Despite these challenges, cardboard offers ecological advantages over many alternatives, biodegrading in soil within 2-5 months under suitable conditions, in contrast to plastics that may persist for centuries.^[92]^[93] Forests managed for cardboard production can sequester carbon during growth, temporarily storing it in biomass and products, thereby offsetting some emissions if harvesting is sustainable.^[94] As of 2025, bans or restrictions on single-use plastics in over 60 countries have accelerated the shift toward cardboard alternatives, reducing plastic pollution while increasing demand for fiber-based packaging.^[95] Recent studies highlight cardboard's role in avoiding microplastic generation, as it breaks down without fragmenting into persistent particles that contaminate soils and waterways.^[96]^[97] Mitigation efforts include certifications like PEFC, which promote sustainable forest management to minimize deforestation and biodiversity loss in supply chains.^[98] Circular economy models in the industry have reduced reliance on virgin fiber to below 20% in high-recycling regions like Europe, enhancing overall resource efficiency.^[99]

History

Early Development

The development of cardboard traces its roots to ancient papermaking techniques, which served as essential precursors to the material's evolution. In ancient China, paper was invented around 105 AD by Cai Lun, a court official during the Han Dynasty, who refined a process using mulberry bark, rags, and hemp to create a thin, flexible sheet suitable for writing and wrapping.^[100] This innovation laid the groundwork for later stiff variants, though early papers were not rigid enough for structural uses. By the 16th century in Europe, advancements in papermaking led to the production of thicker, stiffened paperboards, initially employed for book covers and bindings to provide durability and protection against wear. These early boards, often made from layered rags and sized for rigidity, marked the transition from flexible sheets to more robust forms, gaining popularity with the rise of printing presses.^[101] In 1817, the first recorded cardboard box was produced in England for packaging hats and bonnets.^[3] The 19th century brought pivotal inventions that directly shaped modern cardboard. In 1856, English inventors Edward Healy and Edward Allen patented the first corrugated paper, a process that pleated flat paper into waves sandwiched between liners to create a lightweight yet sturdy material; initially designed as a liner for tall hats to offer cushioning and breathability.^[102] This corrugation technique enhanced the structural integrity of paper, setting the stage for packaging applications. Later that century, in 1879, Scottish immigrant Robert Gair, operating a paper factory in New York City, accidentally discovered a method for mass-producing pre-cut, flat-foldable paperboard boxes when a misaligned die-cutting machine sliced through stacks of seed bags, allowing them to fold neatly without glue.^[103] Gair refined this into a deliberate process, enabling efficient production of boxes from paperboard sheets. Early adoption of cardboard focused on niche protective uses, gradually expanding into consumer goods. By the 1890s, paperboard boxes began appearing for shoe packaging, replacing wooden crates with lighter, more cost-effective alternatives that facilitated retail display and transport.^[104] Mass production accelerated after 1900, notably with the Kellogg brothers in Battle Creek, Michigan, who introduced cardboard cartons for their corn flakes cereal, initially enclosing the product in wax-paper bags within the boxes to preserve freshness and appeal to health-conscious consumers.^[3] Key milestones included the establishment of the first dedicated cardboard box factory in 1914 by the Robert Gair Company, which scaled manufacturing through mechanized cutting and folding.^[105] Despite these advances, by the 1920s, cardboard accounted for only a limited share of overall packaging as wooden and metal alternatives dominated shipping.^[106]

Modern Advancements

The 20th century marked a pivotal era for cardboard, particularly with the surge in corrugated board production during World War II, when it became essential for shipping military supplies and equipment, leading to a dramatic increase in output during the 1940s as demand for lightweight, durable packaging replaced heavier alternatives like wooden crates.^[107] This wartime necessity not only boosted production volumes but also spurred innovations such as wet-strength boards to withstand humid conditions in theaters like the South Pacific.^[106] By the 1950s, the industry experienced explosive growth in consumer goods packaging, accompanied by a boom in automation, including the introduction of semi-automated corrugators and gluing machines that enhanced efficiency and scaled manufacturing processes.^[108] In the post-2000 period, the rise of e-commerce profoundly accelerated cardboard adoption, with global production of corrugated case material increasing nearly 30 percent over the decade from 2010 to 2020, largely attributed to the "Amazon effect" where online retail demanded vast quantities of reliable shipping boxes.^[109] This growth transformed cardboard into a cornerstone of logistics, with companies like Amazon driving innovations in customizable, recyclable packaging to meet surging volumes. Sustainability efforts also advanced, exemplified by the development of water-based barrier coatings that provide moisture and grease resistance without petroleum-derived plastics, enabling fully recyclable food-grade cardboard while reducing environmental impact.^[110] By 2025, emerging trends include 3D-printed cardboard structures for on-demand, intricate packaging designs, with the market for 3D-printed paper and paperboard projected to grow at over 9 percent annually, offering customization and waste reduction.^[111] Advancements in fiber strength, particularly in recycled variants, have improved cardboard durability through process and chemical innovations.^[112] Global corrugated board production reaches approximately 205 million metric tons annually as of 2025.^[113] Economically, industry leaders like International Paper, which produces about one-third of U.S. cardboard boxes, have shifted toward higher recycled content, with many operations incorporating over 70 percent recycled fibers in regions like Asia and Europe to align with circular economy goals.^[114]^[115]

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[22]
Types of Cardboard Packaging: Thickness, Durability, and Uses
May 12, 2025 · Surface Finish: Available in coated or uncoated options, enabling enhanced printability for branding or resistance to environmental factors.1. Corrugated Cardboard · 2. Solid Cardboard... · 3. Folding Carton
[23]
Understanding Paperboard Packaging Material Selection - Rohrer
Solid Bleached Sulfate (SBS): This high-quality paperboard material is bleached throughout, providing a clean white appearance throughout the entire substrate.Missing: FBB authoritative
[24]
Types of Paperboard - SBS vs FBB - PG Paper
May 8, 2025 · Both are high-quality, virgin fibre boards widely used in industries that demand durability, excellent printability, and visual appeal.Missing: authoritative sources
[25]
None
### Summary of Paperboard Grades (SBS, FBB, Chipboard)
[26]
An overview of paper and paper based food packaging materials - NIH
Chipboard is one of the inexpensive paperboard whose appearance and strength can be improved by using white board as a liner and mainly used in cartons of tea ...
[27]
https://www.pgpaper.com/types-of-paperboard/
[28]
Folding boxboard | Explore paperboard - Metsä Group
Folding boxboard, uncoated, hard sized, OBA free. Folding boxboards. MetsäBoard Prime FBB Bright · Product specifications. Thickness: 210 - 650 μm. Grammage: ...
[29]
Edge Crush Test: Definition, How It Works, Advantages, and ...
Feb 8, 2024 · The edge crush test determines the capacity of a material, usually corrugated or paperboard materials, to withstand edge loading forces.
[30]
Corrugated is Recyclable - Fibre Box Associaton
Corrugated “cardboard” is recycled more than any other packaging material in the US. Plus, the average corrugated box is made with 52 percent recycled content.Missing: fiberboard | Show results with:fiberboard
[31]
Corrugated Sheets & Pads | Layer Pads & Pallet Liners - Anchor Box
In stockCorrugated sheets & pads in 8-1/2x11, 24x36, 36x48, 40x48, 48x96. Durable, 1/8" thick protection for shipping & storage. No-minimum Houston pickup—order ...
[32]
Paperboard Market Share, Size, Trends | Global Industry Report, 2025
The global paperboard market is segmented on the basis of product and application. The product segment is categorized as coated unbleached Kraft Board, cup ...
[33]
Paper Honeycomb Market Size, Share, Trends & Growth Forecast ...
Jul 7, 2025 · The Paper Honeycomb Market is expected to reach USD 5.01 billion in 2025 and grow at a CAGR of 5.21% to reach USD 6.46 billion by 2030.
[34]
Coated Duplex Board for Packaging - Recyclable & Durable
Out of stock Rating 4.1 (49) Coated Duplex Board with Grey Back for Packaging Consumer Box Hand Bag Name Card Raw Material 230-450gsm Grey Back Duplex Paper. Recyclable, moisture proof.
[35]
Types of Duplex Board - Spento Papers
Grey back duplex paper boards, also called HWC Duplex Paper Boards, are made from different kinds of fiber materials, with the top layer made of virgin recycled ...Missing: specialized stocks honeycomb laminated density pressed
[36]
Grey cardboard paper and coated duplex board manufacturers
Our grey board has strong adhesion, the product is suitable for V-type slotted, can be widely used in various kinds of. boutique box, jewelry box, ...Missing: specialized stocks honeycomb density pressed
[37]
Grey Chipboard, Book Binding Board supplier & Wholesale
Grey Chipboard · Book Binding Board · Gray Paperboard · Laminated Grey Board · Grey Cardboard · Grey Paper Roll · Strawboard Paper · Carton Gris.Missing: stocks honeycomb density pressed
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Millboard - MFA Cameo - Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Nov 10, 2024 · Millboard is calendered between rollers to produce a smooth, glossy surface. They have been used to make book covers, binding boxes, shoe soles, ...
[39]
Millboard – Transport Informations Service - TIS GDV
Millboard is a solid paperboard, often transported in rolls, and requires protection from moisture, with a best temperature range of 0-25°C.
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Benefits of honeycomb cardboard over corrugated | PALLITE
Its structural design makes it an ideal choice for lightweight construction materials, offering excellent thermal insulation properties.
[41]
Paper Honeycomb Board | Discover the benefits for packaging
Oct 9, 2025 · Common uses for paper honeycomb board · Protective packaging for furniture, white goods, and fragile products · Construction solutions for ...
[42]
Honeycomb Packaging - Signode
Honeycomb is a durable, highstrength packaging material made from custom-engineered kraft paper. It is stronger than corrugated cardboard and less expensive ...
[43]
Coated Cardboard: What is it and When Should You Use it?
In the past, wax coated cardboard was the most popular choice for meat, poultry, and vegetable packaging, but other specialty coatings have recently come to ...
[44]
4 Types of Coated Paperboard Options
Nov 9, 2022 · Most popular coated paperboard types: · Coated recycled board · Bleached paperboard · Coated unbleached kraft (CUK) · MET-PET board (giving the box ...
[45]
Laminated Paperboard: An Alternative to Custom Plastic Packaging
Sep 11, 2024 · Space saving – Ships and stores flat. Moisture resistance – Multiple coating options can be added to an already stable moisture barrier. Put ...
[46]
Cardboard and Corrugated Laminating: A Comprehensive Guide
Jun 16, 2025 · Applications of Cardboard and Corrugated Laminating. Packaging: This is the most common application. Laminated corrugated cardboard is used ...
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[PDF] Wood Pulp and Waste Paper - usitc
) Recycled pulp is used either alone or mixed with virgin pulp to manufacture paper, paperboard, and other wood fiber products.23. Industry Structure. The ...
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[PDF] Life cycle assessment of paper products based on recycled and ...
Virgin wood fibers and recycled paper are the two main raw materials used to make paper (Grossmann et al., 2014). The pulp comprises lignocellulosic materials, ...
[49]
Paper & Packaging | Forest Stewardship Council
Every FSC label stands for sustainable sourcing that puts forests and ... Our rigorous forest certification standards are the foundation of the FSC system.
[50]
Certification - FSC US - Forest Stewardship Council
FSC certification ensures that products come from responsibly managed forests that provide environmental, social and economic benefits.Become Certified · FSC Project Certification · Forest Management Certification
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Water Use in Pulp & Paper Mills
Manufacturing pulp and paper requires a substantial amount of water. The US benchmark for water use within pulp and paper mills is approximately 17,000 gallons ...
[52]
The link between forestry and sustainable cardboard packaging
Combined with sustainable forest management, this creates a closed loop where trees are harvested responsibly, while cardboard is produced, used, recycled, and ...
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How Innovative Adhesive Technology and Manufacturing Practices ...
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The rules aim to minimise the quantities of packaging and waste generated while lowering the use of primary raw materials and fostering the transition to a ...Regulation - EU - 2025/40 · Access to European Union law · Here
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Energy efficiency challenges in pulp and paper manufacturing
Thermomechanical pulping of spruce, pine, cedar, and a blend of chips in two-stage refining was found to require about 2 to 10 GJ/tonne to achieve optimal fiber ...
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This work presents a review of the literature, with a particular focus on the bleaching area and its relevance in reducing water use.
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Thermal insulation panels for buildings using recycled cardboard
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What Are Architectural Cardboard Models and How Do They Work?
Feb 9, 2025 · Architectural cardboard models include conceptual models for early design ideas, working models for refining details, and presentation models ...Missing: bookbinding temporary housing
[61]
Davey vs. Chipboard: Which One is Better for Bookbinding? - A Guide
Davey board is high quality, acid-free, and good for long-lasting projects. Chipboard is lower quality, not for support, and better for short-lived projects.
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Implementation of Paper-Based Materials in Emergency Architecture
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Dimensional Cardboard Art by James Grashow - All Things Paper
James Grashow creates dimensional art from cardboard, chipboard, and paper mache, including a Baroque fountain, menagerie, and Cardbirds. He also does ...<|separator|>
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Students Design Amazingly Creative Cardboard Costumes
Feb 28, 2013 · Every year, art and design students at Strode College in the UK are instructed to design and construct costumes out of cardboard.
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CARDBOARD: An Art Teacher's Best Friend - Pop Up Art School
Jul 14, 2025 · We like to call cardboard “an art teacher's best friend”. That's because it's free, readily available and it can be utilized for 2-D and 3-D projects.Missing: costumes models
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Cardboard Mock-Ups Vs. 3D Printing for Rapid | StarFish Medical
These low-fidelity mock-ups have turned out to be more suitable than 3D prints or high-fidelity models for human factors evaluations in the early design stages.
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Beyond the Bin: The Lifecycle of Cardboard Recycling
Oct 5, 2023 · Cardboard recycling involves collection, sorting, cleaning, pulping, and then using the recycled material to create new products like boxes and ...
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Deep Dive: Sorting Recyclables at a Modern MRF - Atlantic Packaging
A materials recovery facility, or MRF, is a solid-waste management plant that receives, sorts, separates, and prepares recyclable paper and packaging materials.
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Understanding Commercial Cardboard Recycling Processes
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How Corrugated is Recycled: The Repulping Process - Allen Field
May 8, 2024 · Corrugated cardboard is recycled by pulping, breaking it into fibers, then cleaning, refining, forming into new sheets, and finishing.Missing: cycles | Show results with:cycles
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Jul 19, 2021 · How is cardboard and paper recycled step by step? · 1. Collection · 2. Separation by Type and Grades · 3. Cleaning and Filtering · 4. Processing · 5.
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May 6, 2025 · Fibers shorten each time, limiting recycling to about 5-7 cycles before new fiber is needed for strength. The journey of a recycled cardboard ...
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How Much Cardboard is Recycled?|2024 Statistics|AF&PA
In 2024, more than 33 million tons of cardboard was recycled, resulting in a cardboard recycling rate of 69% -74%. That's about 90,000 tons per day—a staggering ...
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50+ Recycling Facts & Stats for 2025 | Plastic, Glass & More
Nov 8, 2024 · Global plastic recycling rates have yet to reach two digits in 2024. ... The recycling rate of paper and cardboard packaging in the EU has ...
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OCC recycling rate reaches 93% — depending on who you ask
Aug 11, 2023 · The 93.6% cardboard recycling rate in 2022 was a 2.4% increase over 2021's 91.4%, and 34 million tons were recycled. AF&PA said OCC is the most ...
[78]
Cardboard Contamination: A Growing (and Expensive) Problem for ...
Sep 9, 2021 · “Cardboard contamination” really describes two problems. Cardboard that's greasy, wet, moldy, has food debris attached or is otherwise dirty ...
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Energy savings of recycled materials as compared with virgin ...
Table 2 shows the energy savings of various recycled materials [1]; for instance, producing aluminum and copper from scrap results in 95% and 85% less energy ...Missing: cardboard | Show results with:cardboard
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Recycled vs. Virgin Paper: Cost Breakdown
Jan 17, 2025 · Recycled paper costs more upfront due to extra processes like de-inking, but it uses 70% less energy, 35% less water, and saves 17 trees per ton compared to ...<|separator|>
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NREL Research Quantifies Losses From Cardboard, Paper Waste
Dec 18, 2023 · In addition to the energy expended for manufacturing and the lost economic value, landfilling paper and cardboard contributes to methane ...
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Paper - BIR
Recycling cardboard requires only 75% of the energy required to make new cardboard. The European Paper Recycling Council reports an increase in the continent's ...
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Cardboard packaging and its carbon footprint
According to the results, an average of 326 kg of CO2 is emitted per ton of cartonboard packaging produced in Europe. A comparison with previous estimates shows ...
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Carbon Footprint of a Cardboard Box - Consumer Ecology
The cradle to grave carbon footprint of a cardboard box is 0.94 kg CO2e / kg. The cradle to grave carbon footprint of flat cardboard is 1.53 kg CO2e / kg.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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A systematic review of industrial wastewater management
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A review of pulp and paper industry practices and opportunities
The main pollutants discharged to water streams nowadays are solids and organic matter. In general, pulp and paper mill effluents contain a complex mixture of ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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Pulp and paper | WWF - Panda.org
Every year, around 405 million tonnes of paper and paperboard are produced, totaling rougly 13-15% of total wood consumption. With demand for paper products ...
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Measuring biodegradability - Science Learning Hub
How fast do things biodegrade ; Plastic-coated paper milk cartons. 5 years ; Leather shoes. 25–40 years ; Nylon fabric. 30–40 years ; Tin cans. 50–100 years.
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Feb 3, 2020 · This Perspective summarizes the existing literature on environmental degradation rates and pathways for the major types of thermoplastic polymers.
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Carbon sequestration in wood and paper products
The main nonhuman sources of atmospheric CO2 are animal respiration and decay of biomass.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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A running list of action on plastic pollution | National Geographic
More than 60 nations have taken steps to reduce single-use plastics by imposing bans or taxes, according to a United Nations report published last year.D.C. Plastic Straw Ban... · Plastic Fact Named Stat Of... · Photos Of Animals And...<|control11|><|separator|>
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NIST Study Shows Everyday Plastic Products Release Trillions of ...
Apr 20, 2022 · They found that when the plastic products are exposed to hot water, they release trillions of nanoparticles per liter into the water. The NIST ...
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Oct 8, 2018 · From plastics in our waterways to the toxic byproducts of manufacturing, the environmental impact of food packaging is enormous.
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Expert Survey on the Impact of Cardboard and Paper Recycling ...
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Study and characterization of paper bookbindings from 16 to 18th ...
Jun 28, 2024 · First introduced in Europe in the sixteenth century, paper bookbindings gained rapid popularity thanks to the invention of the printing press.
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The origin of corrugated cardboard - - DS Smith
Dec 12, 2018 · It all began in 1856, in England, when Edward G. Healy and Edward E. Allen patented a process with which they pleated paper, giving it a wavy shape.
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Boxed Up - Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation
Mar 3, 2016 · Attributed to a factory mistake, the folding carton came on the scene in 1879 courtesy of the Robert Gair Company of Brooklyn, New York.
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The history of the humble shoe box - SATRA
Shoe boxes evolved from simple cardboard in the 1800s, to corrugated board, and became essential for point-of-sale packaging, with demand for different sizes ...
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A Brief History of Corrugated Fiberboard - Fruit Growers Supply
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History of Corrugated board manufacturing
Jan 11, 2023 · During World War II, corrugated cardboard played an important role in the war effort, as it was used to pack military supplies and equipment ...
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The Past, Present and Future of Corrugated Die Cutting
Jul 15, 2024 · In the 1950s and 1960s, the corrugated industry experienced a boom in automation and machinery, leading to more efficient die-cutting ...
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Water-Based Barrier Coatings (WBBC) - Pando
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3D Printed Paper & Paperboard Packaging Market Size Report, 2034
3D printed paper & paperboard packaging market was valued at USD 345.4 million in 2024 and is estimated to grow at a CAGR of over 9.7% from 2025 to 2034 ...Missing: cardboard | Show results with:cardboard
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Why strength is a key challenge in recycled board production - Kemira
... fiber-based packaging materials. In this webinar, our experts introduce new and developing biobased technologies for improving strength in paper and board.
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Corrugated comeback? Fiber's yearslong slide could be easing
Sep 16, 2025 · So far in 2025, containerboard producers have announced or completed closures totaling approximately 3.9 million tons, or 9.5% of North American ...
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The Circular Life of a Cardboard Box - International Paper
With each cycle, however, wood fibers become shorter and more brittle. Eventually, they become unusable for making new paper. On average, the fiber in ...Missing: shortening | Show results with:shortening
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Statistics on paper and board recycling in 2020
Aug 24, 2022 · Asia incorporated more than 71% of recycled content into its paper and board production in 2020 owing to its leading role as a cardboard ...