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Moisture

Moisture refers to the water content present in various media, including the atmosphere where it exists primarily as water vapor, in soil as liquid water held between particles, and in materials as absorbed or adsorbed water.^[1] This water is typically in small quantities and can exist in liquid, vapor, or even solid forms, influencing physical, chemical, and biological processes across environments.^[2] In the atmosphere, moisture plays a pivotal role in the Earth's water cycle and climate system, originating from sources such as evaporation from oceans and transpiration from vegetation.^[3] It drives weather phenomena like cloud formation, precipitation, and storms, with absolute humidity measuring the actual amount of water vapor regardless of temperature.^[4] As a potent greenhouse gas, atmospheric water vapor amplifies global warming by absorbing and re-emitting infrared radiation, creating a feedback loop that intensifies climate effects.^[5] Soil moisture, defined as the total amount of water—including vapor—in unsaturated soil, is essential for agriculture, hydrology, and ecosystems, representing approximately 2% of global freshwater.^[6] It regulates plant growth by facilitating nutrient uptake and transpiration, affects drought conditions, and influences land-atmosphere interactions that impact regional weather patterns.^[7] Variations in soil moisture content, often expressed as a percentage of soil volume or mass, are monitored using satellite data and ground sensors to predict crop yields and flood risks.^[8] In materials and biological systems, moisture content determines stability, quality, and durability; for instance, in food science, it affects shelf life and microbial growth, while in building materials, excess moisture can lead to corrosion, mold, and structural decay.^[9] Precise measurement techniques, such as drying methods or Karl Fischer titration, are used to quantify moisture levels, ensuring applications from industrial processing to environmental management.^[10] Overall, managing moisture is critical for sustaining life, mitigating hazards, and advancing technologies in fields like meteorology, agriculture, and materials engineering.^[11]

Fundamentals

Definition and Sources

Moisture refers to the presence of water in its liquid, vapor, or solid (ice) forms in small quantities within a substance, environment, or material, distinguishing it from larger bodies of bulk water such as oceans or rivers.^[12]^[13] This encompasses adsorbed or absorbed water that influences the physical state of the host medium without forming free-standing accumulations.^[1] The primary natural sources of moisture arise from geophysical and biological processes that transfer water into the atmosphere or materials. Evaporation from oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist soil surfaces accounts for the majority of atmospheric water vapor, driven by solar energy and temperature gradients.^[14] Transpiration from plants releases significant moisture through stomatal openings, contributing approximately 64–90% of terrestrial evapotranspiration globally.^[15] Sublimation from ice caps, glaciers, and snowfields provides additional vapor, particularly in polar and high-altitude environments.^[16] Artificial sources of moisture stem from human activities that inadvertently or intentionally release water vapor into the environment. Combustion in industrial processes and power plants, such as the burning of fossil fuels, produces water vapor as a byproduct alongside carbon dioxide.^[17] Irrigation practices enhance evaporation from agricultural lands, representing the largest direct anthropogenic contribution to atmospheric moisture.^[18] Humidification in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems and evaporation from wastewater treatment facilities also add localized moisture.^[19] Humans have recognized the importance of moisture sources since ancient times, particularly in arid agriculture. Around 2000 BCE, communities in regions like ancient Israel constructed low circular walls to collect dew and fog around plants, harnessing nocturnal condensation as a vital water supplement in drylands.^[20]

Physical Properties

Moisture manifests in three primary phases within various environmental and material contexts: vapor, which facilitates diffusion through gases or porous media; liquid, often present as thin adsorbed films on surfaces; and solid, where water is bound through hygroscopic interactions forming hydrates or ice-like structures.^[21]^[22] These phases influence moisture's behavior, with transitions between them governed by temperature, pressure, and surrounding conditions.^[23] Key thermodynamic properties of moisture, particularly in its vapor phase, include the latent heat of vaporization, which represents the energy required to change liquid water to vapor at 100°C and is approximately 2260 kJ/kg.^[24] The specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) of water vapor, indicating the energy needed to raise its temperature by 1 K, is approximately 1.86 kJ/kg·K at 25°C under standard conditions.^[25] These properties underscore the significant energy exchanges during phase changes, affecting processes like evaporation and condensation.^[26] Hygroscopicity refers to the tendency of certain substances to attract and retain water molecules from the surrounding environment through adsorption on surfaces or absorption into the bulk material.^[27] This property arises from intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonding, enabling materials like salts or polymers to equilibrate with ambient humidity by holding water in multilayer or dissolved forms.^[28] Surface tension plays a critical role in how moisture interacts with porous materials, driving capillary action where liquid water rises or is drawn into narrow spaces against gravity. This phenomenon is described by the Young-Laplace equation:

\Delta P = \frac{2\gamma}{r}

where \Delta P is the pressure difference across the curved interface, \gamma is the surface tension of the liquid, and r is the radius of the capillary.^[29] For water, this results in heightened pressure gradients in fine pores, enhancing moisture retention and transport within substrates like soils or fabrics.^[30]

Atmospheric Moisture

Humidity and Vapor Pressure

Humidity in the atmosphere refers to the presence of water vapor in the air, quantified through various measures that describe the amount and capacity for moisture. Absolute humidity is defined as the mass of water vapor per unit volume of moist air, typically expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/m³).^[31] This metric directly indicates the density of water vapor but is less commonly used in meteorology due to its dependence on air volume, which varies with temperature and pressure.^[32] Vapor pressure represents the partial pressure exerted by water vapor in the air, a key concept for understanding moisture dynamics. The saturation vapor pressure, denoted as e_s, is the maximum vapor pressure possible at a given temperature, beyond which air becomes saturated. This quantity's temperature dependence arises from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which describes the relationship between vapor pressure and temperature during phase equilibrium:

\frac{d e_s}{dT} = \frac{L_v e_s}{R_v T^2}

where L_v is the latent heat of vaporization, R_v is the gas constant for water vapor, and T is the absolute temperature.^[33] An empirical approximation to this equation, known as the Tetens formula, provides a practical way to compute e_s over liquid water for temperatures between 0°C and 50°C:

e_s = 6.11 \times 10^{\frac{7.5 T}{237.3 + T}} \quad \text{(in hPa, } T \text{ in °C)}

This formula facilitates calculations in atmospheric models and observations.^[34] Relative humidity (RH) measures the air's moisture content relative to its saturation capacity at the current temperature, expressed as a percentage. It is calculated as the ratio of the actual vapor pressure e to the saturation vapor pressure e_s:

\text{RH} = \left( \frac{e}{e_s} \right) \times 100\%

High relative humidity indicates near-saturation conditions, influencing comfort, weather patterns, and condensation potential, while low values suggest drier air.^[32]^[35] The dew point temperature is the temperature at which air, when cooled at constant pressure and moisture content, reaches saturation, causing water vapor to condense into liquid. It serves as an absolute indicator of moisture, independent of air temperature; for instance, a dew point of 10°C corresponds to approximately 9.4 g/m³ of water vapor near sea level.^[36] Dew points above 20°C are associated with muggy conditions, while those below 0°C indicate potential for frost formation upon further cooling.^[37]

Condensation and Precipitation

Condensation occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere cools to its dew point, reaching saturation where relative humidity exceeds 100%, leading to the phase change from gas to liquid or solid.^[38] This process begins with nucleation, primarily heterogeneous nucleation on aerosol particles known as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), such as dust, sea salt, or sulfates, which lower the energy barrier for droplet formation and enable cloud development at relative humidities slightly above 100%.^[39] When saturation is achieved near the Earth's surface, condensation forms fog, a suspension of tiny water droplets that reduces visibility, whereas in the free atmosphere, it produces clouds through the uplift and cooling of moist air parcels. Precipitation arises when condensed water droplets or ice crystals in clouds grow large enough to overcome atmospheric updrafts and fall to the ground. Rain forms primarily through the collision-coalescence process in warm clouds above the freezing level, where smaller droplets collide and merge into larger ones that eventually precipitate.^[40] In colder clouds, snow develops via the Bergeron-Findeisen process, where ice crystals grow by vapor deposition from supersaturated air relative to ice, causing surrounding droplets to evaporate and sublimate onto the crystals, which then aggregate and fall as snowflakes if temperatures remain below freezing throughout descent.^[40] Hail, a form of solid precipitation, forms in severe thunderstorms where strong updrafts carry supercooled water droplets into regions below -20°C, freezing them layer by layer as they cycle through the storm's cold core, accumulating ice until their weight exceeds the updraft strength.^[41] Various lifting mechanisms drive the cooling necessary for condensation and subsequent precipitation. Orographic lift occurs when moist air masses are forced upward by topographic barriers like mountain ranges, causing adiabatic expansion and cooling that promotes condensation on the windward side, resulting in enhanced precipitation, while the leeward side experiences a rain shadow with drier conditions due to descending, warming air.^[42] Frontal systems, such as warm fronts where lighter warm air rises over denser cold air, or cold fronts with rapid uplift along the leading edge, similarly cool moisture-laden air to saturation, often producing widespread precipitation bands; for example, the Sierra Nevada mountains in California create a prominent rain shadow, with wetter conditions west of the range and arid deserts to the east.^[43] Condensation and precipitation play a central role in the global water cycle by transferring atmospheric moisture back to Earth's surface, sustaining ecosystems, rivers, and groundwater recharge. Globally, annual precipitation averages approximately 786 mm over land surfaces, distributing essential freshwater while influencing regional climates and weather patterns.^[44] This process closes the hydrological loop, with precipitation volumes balancing evaporation inputs over long timescales, though variations driven by atmospheric circulation contribute to phenomena like monsoons and droughts.^[45]

Moisture in Materials and Biology

Absorption and Desorption

Absorption refers to the process by which moisture is taken up into the bulk volume of a material or biological entity, often leading to changes in structure such as swelling. In polymeric materials, this uptake typically follows Fick's laws of diffusion, where the flux J of water molecules is proportional to the concentration gradient \nabla C, expressed as J = -D \nabla C, with D as the diffusion coefficient.^[46] This Fickian behavior is observed when polymer relaxation is faster than diffusion, allowing for predictable modeling of moisture ingress.^[47] In biological systems, such as plant tissues or date pits, water absorption also adheres to Fick's second law, enabling finite element analysis to predict saturation times based on tissue porosity and environmental humidity.^[48] Adsorption, in contrast, involves moisture binding to the surface of materials via physical or chemical forces, without penetrating the bulk. Physical adsorption occurs through van der Waals interactions, forming multilayer films on hydrophilic surfaces, as seen in silica gel where water vapor adheres in layers up to several molecules thick.^[49] Chemisorption, a stronger form, involves covalent bonding, though it is less common for water and typically limited to active sites. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model quantifies this multilayer adsorption, calculating monolayer capacity from isotherm data in the relative pressure range of 0.05 to 0.35, providing insights into surface area and adsorption energy.^[50] In biological materials like grains or seeds, surface adsorption contributes to initial moisture capture, influenced by the hygroscopic nature of cellular components such as proteins and starches.^[51] Desorption is the reverse process, where bound moisture is released from materials or biological entities under conditions of elevated temperature or reduced humidity, often exhibiting hysteresis in sorption isotherms. Hysteresis arises because desorption paths differ from adsorption, with materials retaining higher moisture content during release due to capillary effects in pores or structural rearrangements.^[52] For example, in wood, desorption from saturated states follows a lower isotherm branch, requiring heat to overcome binding energies, while the BET model extends to describe multilayer desorption kinetics.^[53] In biological tissues, such as during drying of plant materials, desorption involves sequential release from bound (to macromolecules) and free water states, with hysteresis impacting rehydration efficiency.^[54] The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) represents the state where absorption and desorption rates balance, determined by the surrounding relative humidity (RH) and temperature for a given material. Hygroscopic materials, including biological ones like wood or seeds, achieve EMC when their internal moisture matches environmental conditions, preventing net gain or loss.^[55] For wood, at 65% RH and 20°C, EMC stabilizes around 12%, reflecting its cellulose-based hygroscopicity and serving as a benchmark for storage in temperate climates.^[51] This equilibrium varies across materials; for instance, silica gel reaches higher EMC due to its porous structure, while plant tissues like date pits equilibrate at levels influenced by osmotic potentials.^[48]

Effects on Materials

Moisture significantly impacts the integrity and functionality of non-biological materials by facilitating chemical reactions, inducing physical deformations, and altering electrical properties, often leading to accelerated degradation and reduced lifespan. In metals, moisture acts as an electrolyte in electrochemical corrosion processes, promoting oxidation and the formation of corrosion products that compromise structural strength. For hygroscopic materials like wood and concrete, absorbed moisture causes volumetric expansion or contraction, resulting in internal stresses and potential cracking. Additionally, in insulators such as paper and polymers, moisture enhances ionic mobility, increasing conductivity and risking short circuits in electronic applications. These effects are particularly pronounced in industrial settings, where uncontrolled moisture can trigger biological degradation like mold in building materials and mechanical weakening in advanced composites. Corrosion in metals, particularly iron and steel, is primarily driven by moisture enabling electrochemical reactions between the metal surface, oxygen, and water. The process begins with the anodic oxidation of iron: Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻, followed by the cathodic reduction of oxygen: O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ → 4OH⁻, leading to the formation of iron hydroxide intermediates that further oxidize to rust (Fe₂O₃·nH₂O).^[56] This rusting is negligible below 60% relative humidity but accelerates significantly in the presence of moisture films or contaminants like salts, which lower the activation energy for electron transfer.^[57] For instance, in atmospheric environments, a thin water layer on steel surfaces facilitates the overall reaction 4Fe + 3O₂ + 6H₂O → 4Fe(OH)₃, producing expansive rust that flakes off and exposes fresh metal to further attack.^[58] Such corrosion not only reduces material thickness but also weakens load-bearing capacity, as seen in infrastructure like bridges where moisture-induced pitting can initiate fatigue cracks.^[59] Dimensional changes in porous materials arise from moisture absorption and desorption, which alter the volume of the material matrix and can lead to structural failures. In wood, as moisture content decreases below the fiber saturation point of approximately 30%, tangential and radial shrinkage occurs, with volume changes up to 8-10% from green (high moisture) to oven-dry states, often resulting in warping, checking, or splitting.^[60] For example, a change in equilibrium moisture content from 12% to 6% can cause up to 4% linear shrinkage in oak, inducing stresses that exceed the wood's tensile strength and promote cracks.^[61] Similarly, in concrete, drying shrinkage due to moisture loss from the cement paste leads to volumetric contraction of 0.04-0.08%, generating tensile stresses that cause microcracking, especially in restrained elements like slabs.^[62] These cracks not only reduce durability by allowing deeper moisture ingress but also compromise impermeability, accelerating further degradation in environments with fluctuating humidity.^[63] Moisture ingress into insulating materials dramatically increases electrical conductivity by providing pathways for ion migration, transforming dielectrics into partial conductors and leading to failures in electronic systems. In paper-based insulators, absorbed water dissociates into hydronium and hydroxide ions, boosting conductivity from 10⁻¹⁴ S/m in dry conditions to over 10⁻⁸ S/m at 50% relative humidity, which can cause dielectric breakdown or tracking in capacitors and transformers.^[64] For instance, in printed circuit boards with paper or polymer substrates, moisture-induced conductivity rises can short circuits, as the relative permittivity increases from 3-4 to 80 for water-saturated regions, altering signal integrity and risking arcing.^[65] This effect is exacerbated in humid environments, where even trace moisture (e.g., 1-2% by weight) lowers insulation resistance by orders of magnitude, contributing to reliability issues in consumer electronics and power devices.^[66] In industrial applications, moisture levels above critical thresholds promote mold growth and material degradation, particularly in building envelopes and advanced composites. For wood-based building materials like oriented strand board (OSB), moisture contents exceeding 16% by weight create favorable conditions for fungal colonization, as this level sustains spore germination and mycelial growth, leading to rot and loss of structural integrity within weeks.^[67] This threshold aligns with relative humidities over 80% at material surfaces, where mold enzymes break down cellulose, reducing compressive strength by up to 50%.^[68] In modern fiber-reinforced polymer composites used in aerospace and automotive sectors, moisture absorption (often 1-3% by weight) causes matrix swelling, interfacial debonding between fibers and resin, and up to 20-30% reduction in interlaminar shear strength due to plasticization of the polymer.^[69] For example, epoxy-carbon composites exposed to 85% RH exhibit hydrolytic degradation at the fiber-matrix interface, accelerating fatigue under cyclic loading and limiting service life in humid climates.^[70] These effects underscore the need for moisture-resistant formulations in high-performance materials to mitigate long-term performance losses.^[71]

Role in Biological Systems

Moisture is indispensable for biological systems, serving as a medium for metabolic reactions, a solvent for nutrients, and a regulator of physiological processes in organisms from single-celled microbes to complex ecosystems. In living systems, water constitutes a significant portion of biomass and facilitates essential functions such as osmosis, transport, and temperature regulation, while imbalances can lead to stress or pathology.^[72] In plants, moisture governs water movement through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum via water potential, defined as \Psi = \Psi_s + \Psi_p + \Psi_m, where \Psi_s is solute potential, \Psi_p is pressure potential, and \Psi_m is matric potential; this gradient drives transpiration from leaves and nutrient uptake from roots.^[73] Transpiration pulls water upward, maintaining turgor for cell expansion and photosynthesis, while nutrient ions like nitrates and phosphates dissolve in soil moisture for active and passive absorption.^[74] When soil moisture is depleted to below about 20% of the available water capacity (AWC), plants experience severe drought stress, characterized by stomatal closure, reduced photosynthesis, and wilting, which impairs growth and yield.^[75] In humans and animals, moisture is critical for hydration, comprising about 60% of adult body weight, where it supports cellular functions including enzyme activity, nutrient transport, and waste removal across membranes.^[72] Dehydration disrupts electrolyte balance and protein folding, leading to impaired cognition and organ function. In thermoregulation, sweat production enables evaporative cooling, with rates up to 2 liters per hour during intense exercise in hot conditions, dissipating heat through latent heat of vaporization to prevent hyperthermia.^[76] At the ecosystem level, soil moisture modulates microbial activity, which drives carbon cycling by influencing decomposition rates and organic matter turnover; optimal moisture levels enhance enzyme secretion and respiration, releasing carbon dioxide while immobilizing carbon in biomass.^[77] Fluctuations in soil moisture alter microbial community structure, with drier conditions suppressing activity and wetter ones promoting anaerobic processes that affect methane emissions. Climate change exacerbates these dynamics by reducing soil moisture through higher evaporation and altered precipitation, accelerating desertification in arid regions and disrupting carbon sequestration.^[78] Excess moisture in biological systems can foster pathological conditions, particularly fungal infections in warm, humid microenvironments. For instance, Tinea pedis (athlete's foot), caused by dermatophytes like Trichophyton species, thrives in moist skin folds, leading to itching, cracking, and secondary bacterial infections if untreated.^[79]

Measurement and Control

Detection Methods

Gravimetric methods represent a fundamental approach for quantifying moisture content in solids, liquids, and semi-solids by measuring the mass loss upon drying. In the oven drying technique, a sample is weighed before and after heating in a controlled oven, typically at 105°C until constant weight is achieved, with the moisture content calculated as the loss on drying (LOD), expressed as LOD = \frac{(m_i - m_d)}{m_i} \times 100%, where m_i is the initial mass and m_d is the dry mass.^[80] This method, standardized in pharmacopeias like the United States Pharmacopeia (USP <731>), provides high accuracy for total volatile matter, including water, but requires destructive sample preparation and extended drying times of 3–24 hours depending on the material. It is widely used in food, pharmaceutical, and soil analysis for its simplicity and reliability as a reference standard.^[81] Electrical methods detect moisture through changes in the electrical properties of materials, offering rapid, non-destructive in-situ measurements suitable for soils, building materials, and industrial processes. Resistance probes measure the electrical resistivity between electrodes inserted into the sample, which decreases with increasing moisture due to water's conductivity; however, this approach is sensitive to soil salinity and temperature variations. Capacitance probes, conversely, exploit the dielectric constant of water (approximately 80) compared to dry soil (around 4) or air (1), where the probe's capacitor incorporates the sample as its dielectric, allowing volumetric moisture estimation via frequency-domain reflectometry.^[82] These sensors, such as time-domain reflectometry (TDR) variants, achieve accuracies within 1–2% in field applications and are calibrated against gravimetric standards for specific media.^[83] Chemical indicators provide qualitative or semi-quantitative detection of moisture, particularly in air or on surfaces, through reversible color changes driven by hydration reactions. Cobalt(II) chloride-impregnated paper, a classic example, appears blue in its anhydrous form but turns pink upon absorbing water vapor to form the hexaaquacobalt(II) complex, enabling visual assessment of relative humidity above 50% or direct liquid contact.^[84] This low-cost method is employed in laboratory tests for leak detection and transpiration studies, though it requires careful storage to avoid premature activation and offers limited precision compared to instrumental techniques.^[85] Remote sensing techniques enable non-contact moisture detection over large areas or without sample disruption, leveraging optical and thermal signatures. Infrared thermography identifies surface moisture by capturing evaporative cooling effects, where wet areas appear cooler (up to 5–10°C difference) on thermal images due to latent heat loss, making it effective for building envelopes and agriculture under diurnal temperature gradients.^[86] For deeper or non-surface analysis, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (700–2500 nm) measures overtone and combination bands of O-H stretching in water, correlating absorbance at key wavelengths (e.g., 1940 nm) to moisture content via chemometric models like partial least squares regression, with root mean square errors below 0.5% in non-destructive applications for foods, pharmaceuticals, and wood.^[87] These methods, supported by portable spectrometers, facilitate real-time monitoring but demand calibration for material-specific interferences like particle size.^[88]

Control Techniques

Control techniques for managing moisture encompass a range of engineered strategies designed to mitigate excess water in air, materials, and soils across industrial, building, and agricultural applications. These methods focus on absorption, removal, and prevention to maintain optimal environmental conditions and prevent damage such as corrosion, mold growth, or crop stress.^[10] Desiccants serve as a primary tool for moisture absorption in enclosed spaces, packaging, and air conditioning systems. Silica gel, a porous form of silicon dioxide, is widely used due to its ability to adsorb up to 40% of its weight in water vapor at high relative humidity levels, making it effective for protecting sensitive equipment and goods during storage or transport.^[89] Molecular sieves, synthetic zeolites with uniform pore sizes, offer superior performance at low humidity, adsorbing up to 21% of their weight in moisture and enabling precise control in applications like gas drying where residual water must be minimized below 1 ppm.^[90] Both materials can be regenerated through heating, allowing reuse in desiccant wheels or packets, though silica gel is preferred for its lower regeneration temperature around 120–150°C compared to 200–250°C for molecular sieves.^[91] In building and indoor environments, ventilation combined with dehumidification via HVAC systems actively reduces airborne moisture to inhibit biological growth. These systems lower relative humidity below 50%—ideally between 30% and 50%—to prevent mold proliferation, as sustained levels above 60% promote spore germination and mycotoxin production on surfaces.^[92] Dehumidification processes, often integrated with cooling coils, involve cooling air below its dew point to condense water vapor, followed by reheating if needed to maintain comfort. Psychrometric charts guide the design of these systems by plotting air properties like dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and humidity ratio, enabling engineers to calculate dehumidification loads and select equipment for efficient moisture removal without excessive energy use.^[93] Waterproofing techniques protect structural materials from liquid and vapor ingress, extending service life in humid or wet conditions. Silane-based coatings, applied as penetrating sealers on concrete, react with silanol groups to form a hydrophobic layer that reduces water absorption by up to 90% while allowing vapor transmission to prevent internal pressure buildup.^[94] These treatments are particularly effective against chloride penetration in marine environments, delaying rebar corrosion. In building envelopes, vapor barriers—typically polyethylene sheets or membranes with permeance below 0.1 perm—block moisture diffusion from soil or exterior sources, installed on the warm side of insulation to direct vapor flow outward and avoid condensation within walls.^[95] Agricultural moisture control relies on precise irrigation scheduling to optimize water use and crop health by maintaining soil moisture within sustainable thresholds. Practices target replenishing soil to field capacity—the maximum water-holding capacity after drainage—when depletion reaches 50% of available water, known as the management allowable depletion (MAD), to minimize stress while conserving resources.^[96] This approach, often guided by soil sensors or tensiometers, prevents over-irrigation that could lead to leaching or root diseases, with thresholds adjusted for crop type; for example, corn benefits from irrigation at 40–50% depletion to sustain yields under varying evapotranspiration rates.^[97]

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Hailstones are formed when raindrops are carried upward by thunderstorm updrafts into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere and freeze. Hailstones then grow by ...Hail Forecasting · FAQ · Hail Types · Hail Detection
[40]
The Orographic Effect | EARTH 111: Water: Science and Society
The orographic effect occurs when air masses are forced to flow over high topography. As air rises over mountains, it cools and water vapor condenses. As a ...Missing: frontal | Show results with:frontal
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CLOUD DEVELOPMENT
Other common forms of solid precipitation are: hail, sleet or ice pellets, graupel or soft hail or snow grains, and a special form: freezing rain, also ...
[42]
GPCC's new land surface precipitation climatology based on quality ...
Mar 20, 2013 · Mean annual precipitation totals in millimeter per year for the land surface shown in Fig. ... global average precipitation of 986 mm per year. 6 ...
[43]
Precipitation and the Water Cycle | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Precipitation is the main way atmospheric water returns to the surface of the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain. ... Clouds floating overhead contain water ...
[44]
A Comprehensive Review on Water Diffusion in Polymers Focusing ...
Polymer relaxation is much faster than water diffusion, and the diffusion is followed by an instantaneous response of the system, resulting in Fick's behavior.
[45]
[PDF] A Rapid Technique for Moisture Diffusion Characterization of ...
It was also observed that the desorption process closely follows Fickian diffusion even for materials exhibiting non-Fickian moisture absorption. 3.3.
[46]
Finite element analysis and modeling of water absorption by date ...
In this research, the process of water absorption by date pits was modeled and analyzed using Fick's second law of diffusion, finite element approach, and Peleg ...
[47]
Water, Diffusion & Osmosis - Plant Physiology - CSB+SJU
Feb 13, 2009 · Fick's Law - is an equation that relates the rate of diffusion to the concentration gradient (C1 – C2) and resistance (r). Diffusion rate ...
[48]
Pure vapor adsorption of water on Mobil Sorbead R silica gel
The BET method was also used to calculate the monolayer capacity and the surface area. Straight lines were obtained when applying the BET model over the ...
[49]
Experimental data on water vapour adsorption on silica gel in fully ...
The BET surface area plot in Fig. 1 shows that the adsorption isotherm is linear between relative pressures of 0.01 and 0.32. The related data for this plot can ...
[50]
Equilibrium Moisture Curves for Biological Materials
If a hygroscopic material, which includes biological materials, is maintained in contact with air at constant tempera- ture and humidity until equilibrium is ...
[51]
Sorption Hysteresis: A Statistical Thermodynamic Fluctuation Theory
May 23, 2024 · Hysteresis in sorption isotherms (i.e., the existence of the adsorption and desorption branches) (1−3) is observed frequently in the vapor ...
[52]
Characterization of Water Adsorption and Desorption in Wood
The difference in moisture content between adsorption and desorption results in moisture sorption hysteresis. The hysteresis results from sample-moisture ...
[53]
[PDF] Diffusion of Water in Biological Tissues - DigitalCommons@USU
A method is presented for obtaining simple approximate solutions for the problem of self-diffusion in an ordered array of obstacles.Missing: moisture absorption
[54]
[PDF] CHAPTER 4 - Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood
It is defined as the ratio of thermal conductivity to the product of density and heat capacity. Therefore, conclusions regarding its variation with temperature ...
[55]
Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process - HyperPhysics Concepts
The corrosion rate is enhanced by an electrochemical process in which a water droplet becomes a voltaic cell in contact with the metal, oxidizing the iron.
[56]
Corrosion - Brian Lex
Iron will usually not rust until a relative humidity of approximately 60% is observed. But in the presence of a salt, sodium chloride for example, rusting is ...
[57]
17.7 Corrosion – Chemistry Fundamentals - UCF Pressbooks
A galvanic cell results that may be approximated by the simplified cell schematic Fe (s) | Fe A 2 + (aq) || O A 2 (aq), H A 2 O (l) | Fe (s). One way to keep ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Managing and Mitigating Solar PV Corrosion - Department of Energy
Oxidation occurs when a metal atom gives up electrons to an oxygen molecule (O2) in the presence of moisture containing minerals (electrolyte). In the case of a ...
[59]
[PDF] How Wood Shrinks and Swells - Forest Products Laboratory
This point, called the fiber-saturation point, is about 30 per cent moisture content for all species of wood. Shrinkage is the cause of most of the difficulties ...
[60]
[PDF] The Shrinking and Swelling of Wood and Its Effect on Furniture
Moisture content changes of only a few percent are sufficient to cause significant shrinking and swelling of wood. In the case of sugar maple, for example ...
[61]
CBD-56. Thermal and Moisture Deformations in Building Materials
Moisture content changes can cause deformations in concrete ranging from 0.01 to as high as 0.2 per cent for some lightweight aggregate concretes, and is about ...
[62]
[PDF] Moisture-related Cracking Effects on Hydrating Concrete Pavement
Hydrating concrete pavement is typically subjected to both moisture and temperature-induced stresses that drive cracking mechanisms at early concrete ages.
[63]
Effect of Water Absorption on Electric Properties of Temperature ...
Feb 15, 2024 · The pattern of the increment of electrical conductivity suggests a diffusion process of moisture absorption. In our study, the water absorption ...
[64]
[PDF] Influence of Relative Humidity on Electrical Properties of Textile ...
Mar 24, 2023 · The electrical resistance decreased about 1.5 and 4.5 times when laminate accumulated about 55 % and 85 % of moisture, respectively.
[65]
(PDF) Effect of moisture on electrical properties and reliability of low ...
This absorbed moisture degrades the electrical performance and reliability of both classes of low-k dielectrics. Annealing at a higher temperature of 400°C is ...
[66]
[PDF] Scientific Analysis of Vapor Retarder Recommendations for Wall ...
The threshold for poten- tial mold growth was considered to be 16% moisture content by weight or 80% relative humidity at the interior surface of the OSB.
[67]
[PDF] Minimum Conditions for Visible Mold Growth - PDXScholar
Sep 3, 2016 · The key IEA finding regarding mold growth was: “the threshold RH for mold germination on materials in buildings is 80% on a mean monthly basis” ...
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Effect of Moisture on the Mechanical Properties of Wood–Plastic ...
Dec 14, 2023 · The results show an average 20% higher moisture absorption for composites with higher wood content.
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[PDF] HYGROTHERMAL EFFECTS ON DURABILITY AND MOISTURE ...
Recipient's Catalog No. 4. Title and Subtitle. Hygrothermal Effects on Durability and Moisture Kinetics of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer. Composites.
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[PDF] Fungal and moisture durability of wood–plastic composites
After being established, the modified soil-block tests were used to better understand the mechanisms of degradation as well as the effects of processing method ...
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How Much Water Do You Need? - The Nutrition Source
Feb 26, 2025 · Water accounts for about 60% of an adult's body weight. We drink fluids when we feel thirst, the major signal alerting us when our body runs ...
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[PDF] Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Esalq
Water potential is represented by the equation Ψsystem = Ψtotal = Ψs + Ψp + Ψg + Ψm. Water always moves from the system with a higher water potential to the ...
[73]
30.14: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Pressure, Gravity ...
Nov 22, 2024 · Matric potential (Ψm) is the amount of water bound to the matrix of a plant via hydrogen bonds and is always negative to zero. In a dry system, ...
[74]
Understanding Soil Water Content and Thresholds for Irrigation ...
Therefore, soil water content should not be allowed to drop below 22 percent (30 percent – 8 percent) in the effective root zone if the goal is to avoid any ...
[75]
5. Water Requirements During Excercise in the Heat
Maximal sweating capacity can rise from 1.5 liters per hour in a healthy unacclimatized man to as much as 2 to 3 liters per hour in a highly trained ...Water Requirements · Heat Acclimatization · Age And Gender<|separator|>
[76]
Predicting microbial moisture responses and their impact on carbon ...
Mar 5, 2022 · Soil moisture is a major driver of microbial activity and thus, of the release of carbon (C) into the Earth's atmosphere.INTRODUCTION · HISTORICAL PRECIPITATION... · NEW HYPOTHESES FOR...
[77]
Chapter 3 : Desertification
The knowledge of future climate change impacts on such desertification processes as soil erosion, salinisation, and nutrient depletion remains limited both ...
[78]
Tinea Pedis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Oct 29, 2023 · Tinea pedis, commonly known as athlete's foot, results from fungal infections on the skin of the feet [1][2][3] caused by dermatophytes, ...
[79]
What is Loss on Drying? and Determination of ... - Pharmaguideline
Aug 25, 2011 · Loss on drying is the loss of weight, expressed as percentage w/w, from water and volatile matter driven off under specified conditions.
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Protocol - Soil Moisture ‒ Gravimetric - KBS LTER
Jan 4, 2024 · To measure soil moisture content by the gravimetric method, a subsample of a fresh, sieved composite sample or a fresh soil core is weighed, oven dried.Missing: LOD | Show results with:LOD
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https://lter.kbs.msu.edu/protocols/24
[82]
[PDF] Soil type affects accuracy of dielectric moisture sensors
Dielectric soil moisture sensors deter- mine soil moisture content by measur- ing an electrical characteristic of soil. The dielectric constant is ahout 1 for.
[83]
Preparing and using cobalt chloride indicator papers - RSC Education
You can use the papers to test for the presence of water, where the colour changes from blue to pink. Cobalt(II) chloride is an inorganic compound of cobalt and ...
[84]
Leak Detection and Cobalt Chloride - Precision Laboratories Test ...
Feb 15, 2023 · Cobalt chloride test strips change from blue to pink when exposed to water vapor, used for detecting small water leaks and estimating humidity.
[85]
Infrared Detection of Water Damage - IRMI
Nov 16, 2018 · An IR camera can detect moisture located behind interior walls under the right conditions. The temperature difference created by the presence of ...Infrared Thermography · Using Technology for Mold...
[86]
How Non-Contact Near Infrared Measurement Works - Control Metrix
Nov 7, 2023 · NIR moisture analysis is non-destructive, limiting product waste. It also means there is scope for quick and repeated measurements without ...
[87]
A review of near-infrared spectroscopy for monitoring moisture ...
This review article examines past and current research on the application of near-infrared (NIR) reflectance/transmittance spectroscopy (NIRS) for real-time ...
[88]
Silica Gel Products and How to Use Them - AIC Wiki
Aug 17, 2023 · Silica gel can absorb up to 40% of its weight at high humidity levels. Its moisture absorbing capacity is based on large surface area ...What is silica gel? · How does silica gel work? · How do I choose a type of...
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Molecular Sieves: An Ultimate Guide - OIM Chemical
Mar 25, 2025 · As discussed below, they can adsorb up to 21% of their weight in water, giving them a very high adsorption capacity. Their strength and ...<|separator|>
[90]
[PDF] An Overview of Desiccant Cooling Systems and Their Storage ...
Molecular sieve has better adsorption characteristics at low relative humidities or at high temperatures. Hence, dehumidifiers using molecular sieves can ...
[91]
A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture and Your Home | US EPA
Mar 27, 2025 · If wet or damp materials or areas are dried 24-48 hours after a leak or spill happens, in most cases mold will not grow. Clean and repair roof ...Mold Basics · Mold Cleanup Guidelines · Moisture And Mold Prevention...
[92]
Dehumidification and the Psychrometric Chart | TB03 - Desert Aire
The psychrometric chart is used to plot these two values by finding their intersection and then following the horizontal line to the right to determine the ...
[93]
[PDF] Authorization and Acceptance Criteria for Silane Reactive ... - Caltrans
Jun 30, 2020 · Silane Reactive Penetrating Sealers must permeate concrete and masonry surfaces, chemically reacting to form covalent bonds with naturally ...
[94]
Vapor Barriers or Vapor Retarders - Department of Energy
In most U.S. climates, vapor diffusion retarders can help prevent moisture problems, increase energy efficiency, and improve comfort in homes.
[95]
Basics of irrigation scheduling | UMN Extension
For irrigation scheduling, whenever the soil water deficit is equal to or higher than MAD, irrigation should be triggered. Irrigation amounts should be ...
[96]
Applying water at the right time and in the right amount - Irrigation
Jul 24, 2025 · A common guideline is to irrigate before 40-50% of available water is depleted, as going beyond this point can negatively impact crop yield due to stress.