Paramardi
Paramardi (c. 1165–1203 CE), also known as Paramardideva or Parmal, was a king of the Chandela dynasty that governed the Jejakabhukti region—encompassing much of present-day Bundelkhand in central India.[1][2] As the last effective ruler of his line before its decline amid invasions by Muslim forces from the northwest, Paramardi focused on territorial recovery following defeats inflicted by neighboring Hindu kingdoms, such as the Gahadavalas, thereby stabilizing Chandela holdings for a time.[3] Chandela inscriptions from his era, including the Tehri copper-plate grant, portray him as a patron of Shaivism, with compositions praising Shiva reflecting his religious devotion amid administrative duties.[4] His reign marked the waning of Chandela architectural patronage, which had peaked earlier with Khajuraho temples, though he sustained regional cultural continuity against mounting external threats.[5]Biography
Early Life and Family
Paramardi was born in the mid-12th century CE as the son of Yashovarman II and grandson of Madanavarman, the Chandela ruler of Jejakabhukti who reigned from c. 1128 to 1165 CE.[3] The Chandela dynasty, centered in the Bundelkhand region, maintained continuity from earlier kings such as Kirtivarman (r. c. 1090–1100 CE), preserving territorial control over Jejakabhukti amid regional power shifts.[3] Yashovarman II's reign was brief, lasting only from c. 1164 to 1165 CE, after which Madanavarman arranged for his grandson's succession.[3] Paramardi ascended the throne in 1165 CE at approximately five years of age, as recorded in the Bagheri stone inscription and corroborated by the Ajaygarh inscription alongside accounts in the Parmal Raso.[2] [3] This early coronation, overseen by his grandfather, marked a smooth dynastic transition without recorded challenges, reflecting the stability of Chandela familial authority at Mahoba, the dynastic capital.[3] No inscriptions or contemporary records detail Paramardi's siblings or early education, though his youth implies regency under familial or ministerial oversight, as evidenced by the appointment of officials like Pumsottama in the Bagheri inscription.[3] Later traditions mention a wife named Malandevi, but her role pertains to his mature reign rather than formative years.[3] The Bateshvar inscription affirms his direct succession from Yashovarman, underscoring paternal lineage ties central to Chandela legitimacy.[3]Ascension and Early Reign
Paramardi ascended the Chandela throne in Jejakabhukti in 1165 CE, succeeding his grandfather Madanavarman, whose rule had extended the dynasty's territorial influence through conquests in the Bundelkhand region.[6][4] His father, Yashovarman II, is noted in contemporary records as having either predeceased Madanavarman or held no substantive rule, facilitating Paramardi's direct inheritance and claims to legitimacy rooted in familial and dynastic continuity.[3] An Ajaygarh inscription from his reign describes Paramardi as a "bāl-opi netā" (leader even in childhood), corroborating accounts of his youth at accession—potentially as young as five years, per bardic traditions like the Parmal Raso—though epigraphic evidence prioritizes his early assertion of authority over legendary details.[2] Inscriptions dated to 1165–1166 CE at Semra and 1166–1167 CE at Mahoba record land grants to Brahmins and temple functionaries, signaling administrative stability and royal patronage to reinforce control over core strongholds such as the Mahoba fort, which served as a administrative and defensive hub.[3] These early measures emphasized internal consolidation amid the kingdom's post-expansion phase, with grants evidencing fiscal policies that sustained temple economies and local elites, thereby legitimizing Paramardi's rule without immediate recourse to military campaigns. Diplomatic continuity from Madanavarman's era, including non-aggression pacts with northern powers like the Gahadavalas, allowed for this period of relative peace until external pressures mounted in the late 1170s.[3] By 1171 CE, further inscriptions at Ichhawar attest to expanded oversight of peripheral areas, underscoring a phased reassertion of central authority over Jejakabhukti's fragmented feudatories.[4]Military History
Conflicts with Neighboring Powers
Paramardi's reign witnessed persistent border skirmishes and territorial rivalries with the Kalachuris of Tripuri, as the Chandelas sought to defend and expand influence in central India's contested regions. Contemporary records indicate that Kalachuri incursions allowed them to reclaim the Trans-Kaimur area during periods of Chandela vulnerability, reflecting a pattern of opportunistic raids amid fluctuating power dynamics.[3] A Mahoba inscription from 1183 CE poetically describes the Tripuri ruler fainting at tales of Paramardi's valor, suggesting Chandela successes in repelling or defeating Kalachuri forces, likely under Jayasimha, though direct campaign details remain sparse.[2] Tensions extended to the Gahadavalas in the north, marked by hostilities inherited from predecessors like Madanavarman, including clashes with rulers such as Govindachandra and Jayachandra. These disputes involved northern border defenses, with no evidence of formal alliances but rather competitive assertions of dominance over shared frontiers.[3] Paramardi also contended with the Paramaras of Malwa through military engagements, as Chandela expansions under earlier kings provoked retaliatory actions, contributing to a cycle of minor victories and setbacks that strained resources without decisive territorial gains.[3] To counter these threats, Paramardi leveraged Jejakabhukti's hilly terrain and fortifications, particularly the Kalinjar hill fort, for strategic defense against raids, enabling retreats and prolonged resistance. Inscriptions such as the Batesvar stone record (V.S. 1252) extol the dynasty's capacity to "crush the host of enemies," implying organized troop levies and a professional military structure with roles like senapati (army commanders) to maintain readiness.[3][7] The 1201 Kalinjar inscription further titles him dasarnadhipati (lord of ten regions), evidencing efforts to consolidate defenses and project power amid these regional pressures.[3]Chahamana Invasion of 1182–1183
In 1182–1183 CE, Prithviraj III of the Chahamanas invaded the Chandela kingdom of Jejakabhukti, targeting the territories ruled by Paramardi. The Madanpur inscriptions, dated to Vikrama Samvat 1239 (corresponding to 1182–1183 CE) and issued under Prithviraj's authority, record that his forces devastated the region, sacked the Chandela capital at Mahoba, and compelled Paramardi to submit after a decisive defeat.[8][9] These epigraphic claims indicate tactical Chahamana superiority in the campaign, likely enabled by coordinated raids that exploited Chandela vulnerabilities, though specific triggers such as border disputes or Paramardi's regional expansions remain unattested in contemporary records. The invasion involved sieges and raids culminating in the temporary occupation of key Chandela strongholds, including Mahoba, where Chahamana troops reportedly plundered resources and asserted control over peripheral territories. Poetic accounts in the Prithviraj Raso dramatize the conflict as an epic confrontation featuring Chandela warriors Alha and Udal, who allegedly resisted fiercely before falling, but such narratives exaggerate heroic feats and lack corroboration from inscriptions, prioritizing legendary embellishment over verifiable tactics. Paramardi's forces offered resistance, yet the epigraphic evidence underscores the invaders' initial success in disrupting Chandela administration and extracting concessions. Immediate aftermath saw limited Chahamana consolidation, with Prithviraj withdrawing after achieving punitive objectives, allowing Paramardi to regroup and restore sovereignty by issuing subsequent grants, such as the 1183 CE Mahoba inscription that boasts of his unyielding valor against adversaries. This recovery, evidenced by Paramardi's continued rule over Jejakabhukti into the 1190s, highlights the invasion's short-term impact rather than permanent subjugation, as no enduring Chahamana administrative changes are recorded in the region.[2] The event strained Chandela resources but did not precipitate dynastic collapse, preserving Paramardi's authority until later Ghurid pressures.Ghurid Campaigns and Defeat
Following the decisive Ghurid victory over the Chahamana forces at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE, which eliminated a major northern Indian power and facilitated the consolidation of Ghurid authority in the Delhi region under Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the invaders turned their attention southward to weaker kingdoms amid regional fragmentation.[10] By 1202–1203 CE, Aibak, acting as Muhammad of Ghor's viceroy, initiated campaigns into Bundelkhand (Jejakabhukti), targeting the Chandela domain ruled by Paramardi to exploit its isolation after prior internal conflicts.[2] These incursions represented a shift from localized Hindu rivalries to systematic Muslim expansion, with Ghurid forces leveraging rapid cavalry maneuvers—numbering in the tens of thousands, including Turkic horse archers—to overwhelm slower infantry-based defenses typical of Rajput kingdoms.[11] Paramardi mounted a solo defense without documented alliances, initially confronting the Ghurids in open battle near Mahoba, the Chandela capital, where his forces resisted but suffered defeat, compelling the king to withdraw to the fortified hilltop stronghold of Kalinjar.[11] Aibak then laid siege to Kalinjar in 1203 CE, employing siege engines and attrition tactics against its formidable defenses, which had historically repelled earlier invaders through natural barriers and stockpiled supplies. Persian chronicler Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani, in his Tabaqat-i Nasiri (completed ca. 1260 CE), records the Ghurid success in subduing the "Rai of Mahoba" (identifiable as Paramardi's realm), though as a pro-Sultanate source written decades later by an author embedded in the conquering court, it emphasizes Islamic triumphs while downplaying the scale of Chandela resistance.[12] Empirical accounts highlight Ghurid advantages in mobility and combined arms, contrasting with Chandela reliance on static forts, leading to Paramardi's capture and death in combat during the siege.[2] The fall of Kalinjar resulted in the plunder of Chandela treasuries and temples, with thousands enslaved, signaling the effective subjugation of Jejakabhukti and the termination of independent Chandela sovereignty.[13] Paramardi's defeat integrated the region into the nascent Delhi Sultanate's tributary sphere, paving the way for further Ghurid administrative outposts, though nominal local rulers persisted under oversight until later consolidations. This campaign underscored the causal impact of Ghurid logistical superiority and the exhaustion of Hindu polities from internecine wars, as evidenced by the rapid sequence of conquests post-1192.[10]Governance and Administration
Political Structure
Paramardideva's political structure centered on a centralized monarchy, where the king held absolute authority as the embodiment of divine kingship, evidenced by his regal title Paramardideva, denoting supremacy akin to a supreme deity, and adherence to the traditional sevenfold elements of statecraft including sovereignty, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, and allies.[3] This framework, rooted in inscriptional records like the Mau Stone inscription, emphasized the monarch's role in upholding dharma through righteous governance, with royal prerogatives extending to judicial, fiscal, and military decisions.[3] Decision-making was supported by a council of ministers (mantrimandala), comprising officials such as the chief minister (mantrimukhya), secretaries (saciva), and specialized roles like the minister for war and peace (sandhivigrahika), often filled by learned Brahmins or experienced nobles selected for expertise rather than strictly hereditary lines.[3][14] Paramardideva notably delegated substantial administrative duties to his prime minister Sallakshana, a Brahmin of the Vashistha gotra, whose counsel elevated the king's dominion, as detailed in the Baghari inscription of circa 1196 CE; other ministers included figures like Lahada and Pumsottama, who advised on policy and grants.[14][3] Territorial administration relied on a feudal hierarchy, with Jejakabhukti divided into provinces (visayas or mandalas) overseen by feudatories (samantas), typically loyal chiefs or royal kin responsible for local tax collection, law enforcement, and military obligations to the sovereign.[3] These subunits further fragmented into sub-districts (pattalas) and villages (gramas), managed by assemblies of elders and Brahmin influencers, ensuring fealty through land grants and temple endowments that reinforced the king's dharma-centric legitimacy.[3] This system, while decentralized at the periphery, maintained royal oversight via itinerant officials and periodic assemblies, as inferred from Chandela inscriptional patterns.[15]Economic and Military Organization
The economy of Paramardi's kingdom in Jejakabhukti was predominantly agrarian, with revenue derived from land dues known as bhaga, alongside bhoga (produce taxes), kara (fines and taxes), hiranya (from treasures and mines), and sulka (customs tolls).[3] Agricultural taxation targeted key crops and resources such as sal timber, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, mangoes, and madhuka flowers, reflecting state control over forests, mines, and produce essential for sustaining both civilian and military needs.[3] Land grants, often agrahara villages endowed with rights to temples, trees, mines, and grazing animals, were allocated to Brahmins for religious merit and to military officials like rautas for service, providing a mechanism for resource mobilization while reducing direct state revenue through tax exemptions; these grants were ceremonially issued on auspicious occasions and upheld by successor rulers to ensure continuity.[3] Military funding relied on these agrarian taxes and feudal obligations from samantas (vassals), supplemented by mineral wealth from regional mines, which supported fortifications like Kalanjara and Ajaygadh.[3] Paramardi's forces comprised approximately 100,000 troops, including 20,000 cavalry, with standard components of infantry, mounted units, and war elephants inferred from prior Chandela campaigns and the dynasty's defensive requirements against invasions.[3] Leadership fell to senapatis (commanders) and rautas managing levies, but over-dependence on such feudal contingents—evident in alliances like those with Gahadavala forces under Alha and Udal totaling 50,000—exposed vulnerabilities, as seen in the 1182 defeat by Prithviraj Chauhan and the 1202 Ghurid conquest of Kalanjara amid drought, internal discord, and logistical strains like unreliable water supplies.[3][3]| Revenue Source | Description | Application |
|---|---|---|
| Bhaga | Land dues from agriculture | Core funding for state and military |
| Bhoga | Taxes on produce (e.g., crops, timber) | Supported levies and grants |
| Kara/Hiranya/Sulka | Fines, mine/toll revenues | Bolstered defenses via resource extraction |