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Pentose phosphate pathway

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt, is a cytosolic metabolic pathway that branches from the first step of glycolysis, oxidizing glucose 6-phosphate to generate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and pentose phosphates, primarily ribose 5-phosphate, essential for nucleotide synthesis and cellular redox balance.^[1]^[2] This pathway operates in parallel to glycolysis and consists of two distinct phases: an irreversible oxidative phase that produces NADPH through the dehydrogenation of glucose 6-phosphate and a reversible non-oxidative phase that interconverts glycolytic intermediates and pentoses via aldolase and ketolase reactions.^[3]^[4] In the oxidative phase, glucose 6-phosphate is sequentially converted to 6-phosphogluconolactone by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), then to 6-phosphogluconate, and finally to ribulose 5-phosphate by 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), yielding two molecules of NADPH per glucose 6-phosphate processed.^[2]^[5] The non-oxidative phase involves enzymes such as transketolase and transaldolase, which catalyze the transfer of carbon units between ketose and aldose sugars, producing ribose 5-phosphate for RNA and DNA synthesis while recycling excess pentoses back into glycolytic intermediates like fructose 6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.^[6]^[7] The PPP plays a critical role in cellular metabolism by supplying NADPH for reductive biosynthesis (e.g., fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis) and antioxidant defense (e.g., regeneration of reduced glutathione to combat oxidative stress), particularly in tissues with high biosynthetic demands like the liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, and erythrocytes.^[3]^[4] Its activity is regulated primarily by the availability of NADP⁺ (which activates G6PD, the rate-limiting enzyme) and cellular needs for NADPH or ribose, with flux shifting between phases depending on whether nucleotide production or energy generation via glycolysis is prioritized.^[8]^[5] Dysfunction in the PPP, such as G6PD deficiency—the most common enzymatic defect in humans—affects over 400 million people worldwide and leads to hemolytic anemia under oxidative stress, underscoring the pathway's vital role in redox homeostasis.^[3] In pathological contexts, upregulation of the PPP supports rapid proliferation in cancer cells by providing NADPH for lipid synthesis and nucleotide precursors, making it a potential therapeutic target.^[9]^[1] Additionally, altered PPP flux contributes to metabolic disorders like diabetes, where it influences insulin signaling and oxidative damage in β-cells.^[10]

Overview

Functions and Significance

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) serves as an alternative route for glucose oxidation in the cytosol, operating parallel to glycolysis to generate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and pentose sugars without producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP).^[3] This pathway enables cells to divert glucose-6-phosphate away from glycolytic breakdown, prioritizing the production of essential metabolites over energy yield.^[5] The primary functions of the PPP center on two key outputs: NADPH, which supports reductive biosynthesis such as fatty acid and steroid synthesis, and ribose-5-phosphate, a precursor for nucleotide synthesis in DNA and RNA production.^[5] Additionally, NADPH maintains cellular redox balance by regenerating reduced glutathione, a critical antioxidant that combats oxidative stress, particularly in tissues like erythrocytes lacking mitochondria.^[3] These roles underscore the pathway's significance in biosynthetic demands and defense against reactive oxygen species.^[1] Evolutionarily conserved across prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and plants, the PPP reflects ancient metabolic origins, with its reactions tracing back to early life forms and essential for antioxidant protection in diverse organisms.^[3] The pathway was elucidated in the 1950s through pioneering studies on glucose metabolism in erythrocytes by researchers including Frank Dickens, Bernard Horecker, Fritz Lipmann, and Efraim Racker, building on earlier observations of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity.^[1] In plants, the PPP integrates with glycolysis for carbon flux and shares enzymatic steps with the Calvin cycle, facilitating photosynthetic carbon assimilation.^[11]

Substrates, Products, and Stoichiometry

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) primarily utilizes glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), an intermediate derived from the glycolytic phosphorylation of glucose, as its entry point substrate. This six-carbon phosphorylated sugar is shunted from glycolysis into the PPP to support anabolic processes without proceeding through full glycolytic breakdown.^[5] The pathway generates key products including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), up to two molecules per G6P in the oxidative branch; ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), a five-carbon sugar essential for nucleotide synthesis; and glycolytic intermediates such as fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), which can re-enter central carbon metabolism. The stoichiometry varies by operational mode, reflecting cellular demands for reducing power versus biosynthetic precursors. In the ribose production mode, which prioritizes nucleotide precursors, the net yield is one G6P → one R5P + two NADPH + one CO₂.^[12]^[5] For maximal NADPH generation, such as under high oxidative stress, the pathway engages in complete oxidation of G6P through repeated cycling of pentose intermediates back to hexose phosphates. This results in the stoichiometry of six G6P → five G6P + six CO₂ + twelve NADPH (net: one G6P → six CO₂ + twelve NADPH + one Pᵢ), enabling full decarboxylation without net production of sugars. The balanced overall equation for this complete oxidation mode is:

\ce{C6H13O9P + 12 NADP+ + 7 H2O -> 6 CO2 + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + HPO4^{2-}}

where C₆H₁₃O₉P represents G6P.^[12]^[5] In contrast to glycolysis, which nets two ATP per glucose, the PPP yields no ATP, focusing instead on NADPH and carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.^[5]

Pathway Phases

Oxidative Phase

The oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway occurs in the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells, where it serves as the primary source of NADPH generation through a series of irreversible oxidation and decarboxylation reactions.^[3] This phase diverts glucose-6-phosphate from glycolysis, initiating the production of two molecules of NADPH per molecule of glucose-6-phosphate processed, which supports cellular redox balance and biosynthetic needs.^[1] The first and rate-limiting step is catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), a key regulatory enzyme that oxidizes glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) at the C1 position, transferring electrons to NADP⁺ to form NADPH. The reaction proceeds as follows:

\text{G6P} + \text{NADP}^+ \rightarrow 6\text{-phosphogluconolactone} + \text{NADPH} + \text{H}^+

This step produces the first NADPH molecule and is highly exergonic, committing the substrate to the pathway.^[13] G6PD exists as a homodimer or homotetramer, with each subunit featuring a Rossmann fold domain that binds the NADP⁺ coenzyme via conserved motifs, facilitating hydride transfer from the substrate.^[14] In the second step, 6-phosphogluconolactonase (6PGL, also known as pgl) rapidly hydrolyzes the unstable 6-phosphogluconolactone intermediate to yield 6-phosphogluconate, preventing potential side reactions and ensuring efficient flux through the pathway. The hydrolysis reaction is:

$6\text{-phosphogluconolactone} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow 6\text{-phosphogluconate}

This enzyme operates near diffusion-limited rates, underscoring its role in maintaining pathway efficiency.^[13] The third step involves 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), which oxidizes 6-phosphogluconate and performs a decarboxylation to produce ribulose-5-phosphate, generating the second NADPH molecule. The oxidative decarboxylation is depicted as:

$6\text{-phosphogluconate} + \text{NADP}^+ \rightarrow \text{ribulose-5-phosphate} + \text{CO}_2 + \text{NADPH} + \text{H}^+

This reaction mirrors aspects of the isocitrate dehydrogenase mechanism in the TCA cycle but is specific to pentose production.^[1] Overall, the oxidative phase converts one molecule of G6P to ribulose-5-phosphate, releasing CO₂ and yielding two NADPH equivalents:

\text{G6P} + 2 \text{NADP}^+ + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{ribulose-5-phosphate} + 2 \text{NADPH} + 2 \text{H}^+ + \text{CO}_2

The irreversibility of this phase stems from the energetic barrier of lactone formation in the first step and the entropically favorable decarboxylation in the third, preventing backward flux.^[3] Ribulose-5-phosphate produced here serves as a precursor for further isomerization to ribose-5-phosphate in the non-oxidative phase. The NADP⁺/NADPH ratio modulates G6PD activity to match cellular demand for reducing power.^[13]

Non-Oxidative Phase

The non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway comprises a series of reversible reactions that interconvert ribulose-5-phosphate into ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide biosynthesis and glycolytic intermediates for energy metabolism. This phase enables the pathway to adapt to cellular needs by recycling excess pentoses back into glycolysis, preventing accumulation of sugar phosphates and allowing flexible carbon flux. Unlike the irreversible oxidative phase, these reactions are NADPH-independent and involve isomerizations, epimerizations, and transketolase- and transaldolase-mediated carbon rearrangements. The phase initiates with two parallel isomerization steps branching from ribulose-5-phosphate. Ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase (RPE) catalyzes the epimerization at the C3 position, converting ribulose-5-phosphate to D-xylulose-5-phosphate. In parallel, ribose-5-phosphate ketol-isomerase (RPI, also known as phosphopentose isomerase) facilitates the isomerization of ribulose-5-phosphate to D-ribose-5-phosphate via an enediol intermediate. These enzymes ensure the production of both ketose (xylulose-5-phosphate) and aldose (ribose-5-phosphate) forms necessary for subsequent condensations. The core rearrangements occur through carbon transfer reactions involving transketolase and transaldolase. First, transketolase (TKT), a thiamine pyrophosphate-dependent enzyme, transfers a two-carbon glycoaldehyde unit from D-xylulose-5-phosphate to D-ribose-5-phosphate, yielding sedoheptulose-7-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). Next, transaldolase (TALDO) catalyzes the transfer of a three-carbon dihydroxyacetone unit from sedoheptulose-7-phosphate to G3P, producing D-fructose-6-phosphate and D-erythrose-4-phosphate. A second transketolase reaction then transfers another two-carbon unit from D-xylulose-5-phosphate to D-erythrose-4-phosphate, generating an additional D-fructose-6-phosphate and G3P. These steps, first elucidated in the 1950s, highlight the pathway's role in redistributing carbon skeletons without net oxidation.^[1] The overall stoichiometry of the non-oxidative phase reflects its recycling function: three molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate are converted to two molecules of fructose-6-phosphate and one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, effectively channeling five carbons from three pentoses into glycolytic entry points. Transketolase and transaldolase are pivotal for maintaining non-oxidative flux, with their activities influenced by substrate availability and cofactor status.

Regulation

Enzymatic Mechanisms

The regulation of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), the rate-limiting enzyme of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), is primarily governed by the NADP+/NADPH ratio. G6PD is inhibited by high levels of its product NADPH through competitive binding at the NADP+ site, serving as a feedback mechanism to prevent overproduction of reducing equivalents. Conversely, NADP+ acts as an activator by binding to a structural site on the enzyme, enhancing its catalytic efficiency and promoting flux through the pathway when cellular demand for NADPH increases. Under oxidative stress, the oxidation of NADPH to NADP+ shifts this ratio, relieving NADPH-mediated inhibition and thereby stimulating G6PD activity to replenish antioxidant defenses. 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), the second enzyme in the oxidative phase, exhibits similar activation by NADP+, which increases its affinity for the substrate 6-phosphogluconate and boosts NADPH production. However, 6PGD is less tightly regulated than G6PD, with fewer allosteric modulators influencing its activity under physiological conditions, allowing it to respond more directly to substrate availability and cofactor levels. In the non-oxidative phase, transaldolase (TALDO), the other key non-oxidative enzyme, is generally less regulated, operating near equilibrium without prominent allosteric controls, which facilitates reversible interconversion of sugar phosphates based on metabolic needs. Post-translational modifications further fine-tune PPP enzyme activity, particularly in response to oxidative stress. For instance, SIRT2-mediated deacetylation of G6PD at lysine 403 enhances its enzymatic activity, promoting NADPH generation to mitigate reactive oxygen species damage. This deacetylation is triggered by oxidative signals, linking sirtuin signaling directly to PPP flux. Genetic variants in G6PD significantly impact pathway regulation, with common polymorphisms altering enzyme stability and activity. The Mediterranean variant (c.563C>T), prevalent in certain populations, results in severe deficiency with less than 10% of normal activity, leading to reduced basal PPP flux and heightened sensitivity to oxidative challenges. PPP enzymes display optimal activity at neutral pH (approximately 6.5–7.5), where protonation states favor substrate binding and catalysis. Additionally, Mg²⁺ serves as an essential cofactor for several steps, including G6PD and transketolase reactions, stabilizing enzyme-substrate complexes and enhancing reaction rates in the cytosolic environment.

Cellular and Environmental Factors

The flux through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is primarily regulated by the NADP⁺/NADPH ratio, which serves as a key intracellular sensor of redox demand. When NADPH levels are low relative to NADP⁺—such as during periods of high biosynthetic activity or antioxidant needs—the increased NADP⁺ availability allosterically activates glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), the rate-limiting enzyme of the oxidative phase, thereby enhancing PPP flux to replenish NADPH.^[1] This feedback mechanism ensures that PPP activity aligns with cellular requirements for reducing power, preventing unnecessary NADPH production under replete conditions.^[15] Hormonal signals further modulate PPP activity by influencing G6PD expression, particularly in metabolic tissues like the liver and adipose. Insulin promotes G6PD upregulation through activation of the transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), which binds to the G6PD promoter to enhance its transcription during nutrient-rich states, supporting lipogenesis and NADPH-dependent processes.^[16] In contrast, glucagon, elevated during fasting, downregulates SREBP-1c, reducing PPP flux to favor gluconeogenesis over reductive biosynthesis. Oxidative stress, particularly from hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), rapidly activates the PPP through redox-sensitive modifications of G6PD. Exposure to H₂O₂ triggers disulfide bond formation or conformational changes in G6PD, relieving NADPH inhibition and increasing its activity to boost NADPH production for counteracting reactive oxygen species (ROS).^[17] This acute response diverts glucose-6-phosphate toward the oxidative PPP, prioritizing redox defense over other metabolic fates. Nutrient availability directly impacts PPP substrate supply and overall flux. Elevated glucose levels increase intracellular glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), the primary substrate for G6PD, thereby driving higher PPP activity in a substrate-dependent manner, as observed in fed states where glycolytic intermediates are abundant.^[18] Conversely, fasting reduces glucose uptake and G6P pools, diminishing PPP flux to conserve resources for essential catabolic pathways like gluconeogenesis.^[18] Transcriptional regulation via the Nrf2 pathway integrates PPP responses to environmental stress. Under ROS-induced oxidative conditions, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) translocates to the nucleus and binds antioxidant response elements in the promoters of G6PD and transketolase (TKT), upregulating their expression to enhance both oxidative and non-oxidative PPP branches for sustained NADPH and pentose production.^[19] This mechanism amplifies PPP capacity during prolonged stress, such as inflammation or toxin exposure.^[20] While the PPP predominantly operates in the cytosol across most eukaryotes, compartmentalized variants exist in peroxisomes in certain organisms, including plants and some protozoa, where peroxisomal isoforms of PPP enzymes contribute to localized NADPH generation for organelle-specific redox balance.^[3] In mammals, the pathway remains primarily cytosolic, but peroxisomal localization of select PPP components has been noted in specialized contexts, such as adipocyte differentiation, highlighting adaptive compartmentalization to metabolic demands.^[21]

Physiological Roles

NADPH Production and Redox Balance

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) generates NADPH primarily through its oxidative phase, where glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase catalyze irreversible reactions that produce two molecules of NADPH per glucose-6-phosphate molecule oxidized to ribulose-5-phosphate. This NADPH serves as a critical electron donor in cellular antioxidant defenses, particularly by regenerating reduced glutathione (GSH) through the glutathione reductase reaction, which converts oxidized glutathione (GSSG) back to GSH. The GSH then acts as a substrate for glutathione peroxidase, which detoxifies reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide by reducing it to water, thereby maintaining redox homeostasis and preventing oxidative damage to cellular components.^[22]^[23]^[24] In addition to the glutathione system, PPP-derived NADPH supports the thioredoxin system, where NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase reduces oxidized thioredoxin to its active form, enabling the reduction of protein disulfides and peroxiredoxins that scavenge ROS and maintain protein folding under oxidative stress. This dual role in glutathione and thioredoxin pathways underscores the PPP's function as a central hub for redox balance, providing reducing equivalents specifically tailored for detoxification and repair rather than energy production.^[5]^[25] The PPP is a major contributor to the cellular NADPH pool, accounting for up to 60% of total NADPH production in tissues like the liver, where it complements other sources such as malic enzyme and isocitrate dehydrogenase. In erythrocytes, which lack mitochondria and thus cannot generate NADPH via mitochondrial pathways, the PPP provides 100% of the NADPH required for redox maintenance. Unlike NADH, which primarily supports catabolic reactions like the electron transport chain for ATP generation, NADPH from the PPP is compartmentalized for anabolic processes—such as lipid and nucleotide synthesis—and detoxification reactions, ensuring specificity in redox management without interfering with energy metabolism.^[26]^[3]^[27] Under oxidative stress conditions, the PPP exhibits a remarkable reserve capacity, with flux through the pathway increasing 10- to 100-fold above baseline levels to rapidly boost NADPH production and counteract ROS accumulation. This adaptive response is triggered by elevated NADP+/NADPH ratios, which activate rate-limiting enzymes like glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. In contexts of aging and neurodegeneration, such as Alzheimer's disease models, impaired PPP activity diminishes NADPH availability, leading to elevated oxidative damage, reduced antioxidant capacity, and exacerbated neuronal vulnerability to ROS-mediated pathology.^[5]^[28]

Ribose Synthesis and Nucleotide Metabolism

The non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) directly produces ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), which serves as the substrate for phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) synthetase to generate PRPP, an essential activated ribose donor for both purine and pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis.^[29] PRPP reacts with glutamine in the first committed step of de novo purine synthesis to form phosphoribosylamine, leading to inosine monophosphate (IMP), while in pyrimidine synthesis, it combines with orotate to yield orotidine monophosphate (OMP), ultimately producing uridine monophosphate (UMP).^[30] This linkage ensures that PPP-derived R5P supports the anabolic demands of nucleic acid production without relying on alternative carbon sources. In cells where redox balance is maintained and R5P demand is high, the PPP operates in an R5P-priority mode, emphasizing the reversible non-oxidative branch to generate R5P from glycolytic intermediates like fructose-6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, thereby minimizing unnecessary NADPH production.^[12] This mode allows efficient carbon allocation toward biosynthesis when oxidative stress is low, as the non-oxidative reactions, catalyzed by transketolase and transaldolase, rearrange six- and three-carbon sugars into five-carbon pentoses without net NADPH generation.^[12] The PPP integrates closely with de novo nucleotide synthesis, with flux increasing in rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells and activated immune cells to meet elevated demands for DNA and RNA precursors.^[1] In these contexts, oncogenic signaling or mitogenic stimulation upregulates PPP enzymes like transketolase-like protein 1 (TKTL1), channeling more glucose toward R5P production to fuel proliferation.^[1] Conversely, high intracellular nucleotide levels signal reduced R5P demand, prompting the pathway to shunt excess pentoses back into glycolysis via the non-oxidative branch, converting them to glycolytic intermediates for energy production.^[5] Each nucleotide incorporates one R5P-derived ribose unit, making PPP a critical supplier; in non-dividing cells, the pathway contributes substantially to ribose needs through recycling of glycolytic carbons, supporting basal nucleotide turnover.^[31] Recent studies highlight PPP upregulation during T-cell activation, where enhanced flux through the non-oxidative branch provides R5P for rapid DNA synthesis, enabling clonal expansion and effector functions in immune responses.^[32]

Clinical and Pathological Aspects

Role in Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes, lacking mitochondria and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, depend exclusively on the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) as their sole source of NADPH to maintain redox balance.^[33] This pathway generates NADPH through the oxidative phase, primarily via glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), enabling the regeneration of reduced glutathione (GSH) from its oxidized form (GSSG) by glutathione reductase.^[33] GSH serves as the primary antioxidant in erythrocytes, scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and preventing oxidative damage to hemoglobin and membrane lipids.^[34] Insufficient NADPH production leads to GSH depletion, promoting hemoglobin oxidation, formation of methemoglobin, and precipitation as Heinz bodies, which compromise erythrocyte integrity.^[35] Under resting conditions, approximately 10% of glucose metabolized by erythrocytes is directed through the PPP, supporting basal antioxidant needs.^[33] However, during oxidative stress—such as in malaria infection by Plasmodium falciparum—PPP flux can increase dramatically, up to 78-fold compared to uninfected cells, with approximately 80% of glucose flux directed through the pathway to generate additional NADPH and mitigate ROS overload.^[36]^[37] This heightened activity is crucial for antioxidant defense via GSH regeneration, which prevents methemoglobin formation and oxidative damage to hemoglobin. Methemoglobin is primarily reduced back to functional hemoglobin by the NADH-dependent cytochrome b5 reductase (also known as methemoglobin reductase), preserving oxygen transport capacity, with a minor contribution from the NADPH-dependent pathway.^[38] In malaria-infected erythrocytes, PPP activity rises 78-fold compared to uninfected cells, underscoring its role in host-parasite redox dynamics.^[39] Erythrocytes exhibit adaptations that optimize PPP function, including elevated G6PD expression, with activity levels 40-fold higher than peak glucose consumption rates to ensure rapid NADPH production during oxidative bursts.^[40] The pathway is also modulated by hemoglobin oxygenation: deoxygenated hemoglobin binds to the cytoplasmic domain of band 3, displacing glycolytic enzymes and indirectly facilitating PPP flux under low-oxygen conditions associated with stress.^[41] PPP activity is notably higher in young erythrocytes than in older ones, as G6PD and other enzymes decline with cell aging, contributing to reduced antioxidant capacity and accelerated senescence.^[42] This age-dependent variation highlights the PPP's essential role in prolonging erythrocyte lifespan.

Disorders and Disease Associations

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is the most common enzymatic disorder of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), affecting over 400 million individuals worldwide due to its X-linked inheritance pattern.^[43] This condition impairs the production of NADPH, rendering red blood cells susceptible to oxidative stress and leading to acute hemolytic anemia, particularly when triggered by oxidants such as fava beans (favism) or certain drugs like primaquine and sulfonamides.^[44] Over 200 G6PD variants have been identified, with class II and III variants (e.g., A- and Mediterranean types) reducing enzyme activity by 20-100%, exacerbating hemolysis under oxidative challenges.^[44]^[45] In sickle cell disease, elevated oxidative stress from hemoglobin S polymerization further increases reliance on PPP flux for GSH maintenance, helping to mitigate hemolysis.^[46] Transaldolase deficiency, a rare autosomal recessive disorder of the non-oxidative PPP branch, results from mutations in the TALDO1 gene and leads to accumulation of polyols and seven-carbon sugars, causing multisystem pathology including hepatosplenomegaly, hepatic fibrosis, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, and neurological impairments such as developmental delay and seizures.^[47]^[48] These toxic metabolites contribute to oxidative stress and cellular damage, often presenting in infancy with liver dysfunction and dysmorphic features.^[49] Similarly, ribose-5-phosphate isomerase (RPI) deficiency, another autosomal recessive PPP defect, is extremely rare and primarily manifests as progressive leukoencephalopathy with psychomotor retardation, peripheral neuropathy, and in some cases, mild anemia due to disrupted nucleotide precursor synthesis.^[50] Transketolase (TKT) dysfunction, often linked to reduced enzyme activity rather than direct mutations, is implicated in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, where thiamine deficiency impairs PPP flux, leading to neurological symptoms like ataxia, memory loss, and confabulation in chronic alcoholics.^[51]^[52] In cancer, the PPP is frequently upregulated to support tumor proliferation by generating NADPH for reactive oxygen species detoxification and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide biosynthesis, with elevated G6PD activity observed in various malignancies including leukemia and breast cancer.^[2]^[53] This metabolic rewiring promotes redox balance and biosynthetic demands, contributing to chemotherapy resistance; accordingly, G6PD inhibitors like 6-aminonicotinamide enhance treatment efficacy in leukemia by depleting NADPH and inducing oxidative stress in tumor cells.^[54]^[55] Emerging research highlights PPP dysregulation in neurodegeneration, such as reduced flux in Parkinson's disease that exacerbates dopaminergic neuron loss through chronic neuroinflammation and impaired NADPH-mediated antioxidant defense.^[26] In inflammation, PPP activation drives pro-inflammatory macrophage polarization by boosting NADPH and itaconate production, influencing immune responses in conditions like atherosclerosis.^[56] Recent post-2020 studies associate G6PD variants with increased COVID-19 severity, as deficient NADPH production heightens susceptibility to oxidative lung damage and hemolytic complications during infection.^[57]^[58]

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PRPP is an important intermediate in cellular metabolism. PRPP is synthesized by PRPP synthase, as follows: ribose 5-phosphate + ATP → PRPP + AMP.<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Regulation of mammalian nucleotide metabolism and biosynthesis
5-phosphoribose-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) is the activated form of ribose used for nucleotide biosynthesis and is derived from ribose-5-phosphate from the pentose ...
[34]
The Role of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway in Diabetes and Cancer
6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) converts 6-PG to ribulose 5-phosphate (Ru5P) and generates NAPDH (Figure 1). The largest contributor to cytosolic NADPH ...Missing: NADP+ | Show results with:NADP+<|separator|>
[35]
Fundamentals of T Cell Metabolism and Strategies to Enhance ...
In this review, we discuss the fundamental metabolic pathways involved in T cell activation, differentiation and response against tumors.
[36]
Interplay Between Metabolic Pathways and Increased Oxidative ...
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP). In physiological conditions, human RBCs ... The exclusive source of NADPH in human RBCs is PPP, which generates 2 mol ...2. Rbc Metabolic Pathways · 2.1. Glycolysis · 2.5. Purine Salvage Pathway
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Oxidants and Antioxidants in the Redox Biochemistry of Human Red ...
Dec 28, 2022 · Red blood cells (RBCs) are exposed to both external and internal sources of oxidants that challenge their integrity and compromise their physiological function.
[38]
Heinz Body - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 8, 2023 · Heinz bodies are indicative of oxidative injury to the erythrocyte. They are inclusions of irreversibly denatured hemoglobin attached to the erythrocyte cell ...Missing: GSH regeneration
[39]
Physiological jump in erythrocyte redox potential during ...
Nov 10, 2022 · P. falciparum blood stage development from the late ring to the early trophozoite stage causes a physiological jump in erythrocyte redox potential.
[40]
Methemoglobinemia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
NADPH-MetHb reductase utilizes NADPH that forms through the action of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) in the hexose monophosphate shunt, for its ...
[41]
Malaria, metabolism and mathematical models - FEBS Press
PPP activity in infected erythrocytes is 78-fold higher than uninfected erythrocytes [2] and in humans, defi- ciencies in glucose 6-phopshate dehydrogenase (G6 ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[42]
Quantitative evolutionary design of glucose 6-phosphate ... - PNAS
In this work we investigate reasons for high expression of a thoroughly characterized enzyme: glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) in human erythrocytes.
[43]
Oxygen-linked modulation of erythrocyte metabolism: state of the art
When the erythrocyte is at low oxygenation state (LOS) the high affinity of deoxy-Hb for the N-terminal cytoplasmatic domain of band 3 induces the release of ...
[44]
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (Erythrocyte), Pharmacodynamics
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) in red blood cells produces NADPH, which is required for oxidative stress regulation. The PPP is also known as hexose ...
[45]
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency - StatPearls - NCBI
Erythrocytes are particularly vulnerable to ROS due to their role in oxygen transport and the inability to replace cellular proteins as mature cells. Inherited ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Pathophysiology · History and PhysicalMissing: expression | Show results with:expression
[46]
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - PubMed
Sep 10, 2020 · G6PD deficiency makes red cells highly vulnerable to oxidative damage, and therefore susceptible to hemolysis. Over 200 G6PD mutations are known ...Missing: pentose pathway sources:
[47]
Genetic variants causing G6PD deficiency - Wiley Online Library
Jul 6, 2023 · There is variation in different datasets: for most variants most G6PD deficient males have a G6PD activity below 30% of normal. There is a ...
[48]
Clinical, biochemical, and molecular overview of transaldolase ...
Transaldolase deficiency (TALDO-D) is a rare autosomal recessive inborn error of the pentose phosphate pathway.Missing: sources: | Show results with:sources:
[49]
Nephrological abnormalities in patients with transaldolase deficiency
The clinical presentation is variable. The leading symptoms are coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly, hepatic fibrosis and dysmorphic features.Missing: sources: | Show results with:sources:
[50]
Transaldolase deficiency: report of 12 new cases and further ...
Transaldolase deficiency is a recently described inborn error of pentose phosphate pathway. ... symptoms (growth retardation, dysmorphic features, cutis ...Missing: sources: | Show results with:sources:
[51]
608611 - RIBOSE 5-PHOSPHATE ISOMERASE DEFICIENCY; RPIAD
Ribose 5-phosphate isomerase deficiency (RPIAD) is an autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism of the pentose phosphate pathway that presents with ...Missing: anemia | Show results with:anemia
[52]
Molecular genetics of transketolase in the pathogenesis of the ...
Thiamine deficiency, a frequent complication of alcoholism, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome [WKS].
[53]
Erythrocyte transketolase activity in the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Erythrocyte transketolase activity and the effect of adding thiamine pyrophosphate (% TPP effect) were measured in subjects suffering from Wernicke-Korsakoff ...Missing: mutations pentose phosphate pathway<|separator|>
[54]
Two high-rate pentose-phosphate pathways in cancer cells - Nature
Dec 17, 2020 · This observation confirms previous studies reporting the strict dependence of cancer cells on the high levels of NADPH and ribose equivalents ...
[55]
A new inhibitor of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase blocks ...
May 14, 2018 · These results suggest that polydatin inhibits G6PD causing an imbalance in NADP + /NADPH ratio that leads to an increase of oxidative stress.
[56]
The Multiple Roles of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase in ...
Feb 12, 2022 · For example, G6PD inhibition with 6-AN not only sensitizes leukemic cells to cytarabine treatment by inducing cytotoxicity against acute ...
[57]
Effects of Metabolism on Macrophage Polarization Under Different ...
Jul 14, 2022 · Pentose Phosphate Pathway. PPP branches from glycolysis and contributes to inflammatory responses in macrophages (49, 57). The PPP contributes ...
[58]
G6PD deficiency and severity of COVID19 pneumonia and acute ...
The deficiency is most pronounced on erythrocytes, which depend solely on the cytosolic pentose phosphate pathway and generation of GSH for oxidative protection ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[59]
Hematologic Outcomes of COVID-19 Patients with and without ...
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency has been shown to have an enhanced effect on coronavirus in an earlier study. Methods: We conducted this ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-