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Cytosol

The cytosol is the aqueous, soluble component of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, forming the fluid matrix that surrounds membrane-bound organelles and constitutes more than half of the cell's total volume. It is distinguished from the broader cytoplasm, which encompasses both the cytosol and suspended organelles, and serves as the primary site for soluble cellular constituents excluding membrane-enclosed structures. Composed mainly of water along with dissolved ions (such as potassium, sodium, and chloride), small organic molecules, metabolites, and a diverse array of proteins and other macromolecules, the cytosol creates a crowded, gel-like environment that supports essential biochemical activities.^[1] In terms of functions, the cytosol acts as the central hub for intermediary metabolism, where enzymes catalyze the breakdown and synthesis of small molecules used to build macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides. It is also the location for protein synthesis initiated by free ribosomes and the subsequent degradation of unnecessary or damaged proteins via proteasomes. Furthermore, the cytosol facilitates intracellular signaling, ion homeostasis, and the diffusion-based transport of molecules between organelles, all while its high macromolecular density—often exceeding 300 mg/mL of proteins—influences reaction kinetics, protein stability, and diffusion rates in ways that diverge from dilute laboratory conditions.^[1]^[2]^[3] This dynamic compartment plays a critical role in cellular adaptability, responding to environmental stresses through changes in solute concentrations and osmotic balance to maintain structural integrity and functional efficiency. In prokaryotic cells, which lack membrane-bound organelles, the cytosol equivalently occupies nearly the entire cytoplasmic space, underscoring its fundamental importance across life forms.^[4]^[3]

Definition and Historical Context

Definition

The cytosol is the aqueous, soluble portion of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, consisting primarily of water, dissolved ions, small organic molecules, and soluble proteins, while excluding membrane-bound organelles and the nucleus.^[5]^[6] It functions as the fluid matrix in which cellular organelles, the cytoskeleton, and other components are suspended, facilitating biochemical reactions and molecular transport within the cell.^[7] In typical eukaryotic cells, the cytosol occupies approximately 50-70% of the total cell volume, providing a dynamic environment that supports metabolic processes despite high macromolecular concentrations.^[8]^[9] The term "cytosol" was coined in 1965 by American biochemist H. A. Lardy to designate the liquid fraction remaining after cells are disrupted and subjected to centrifugation, distinguishing it from insoluble cellular debris.^[10]^[11]^[12] Unlike the cytoplasm, which includes the cytosol plus insoluble elements such as the cytoskeleton, inclusions, and membrane-bound structures, the cytosol specifically denotes the soluble, aqueous phase of the intracellular fluid.^[13]^[7]

Historical Development

The concept of the cytosol traces its roots to early 19th-century microscopic observations of cellular contents. In 1835, French biologist Félix Dujardin described a viscous, granular substance exuding from foraminifera and other protozoans, which he termed "sarcode," recognizing it as the essential living material of these organisms. This observation laid groundwork for understanding the fluid interior of cells. The term "sarcode" was later renamed "protoplasm" by Czech physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje in 1839 to describe the living substance in animal embryos. Building on Dujardin's and Purkinje's ideas, Matthias Schleiden's 1838 contributions to cell theory and Hugo von Mohl's 1846 redefinition of protoplasm for plant cells emphasized the dynamic internal matter as the fundamental, active substance unifying plant and animal cells, shifting focus from rigid cell walls to this living material.^[14]^[15] Advancements in the 20th century enabled physical separation of cellular components, distinguishing the soluble cytoplasmic fraction. In the 1940s, Albert Claude pioneered differential centrifugation techniques to fractionate mammalian liver cells, isolating particulate elements like mitochondria and microsomes while leaving a supernatant representing the non-sedimentable cytoplasm.^[16] These methods, refined through the decade, revealed the cytoplasm's heterogeneity and separated soluble from structured components, foundational for biochemical analysis.^[17] The specific term "cytosol" emerged in 1965 when biochemist H.A. Lardy introduced it to describe the aqueous, soluble phase obtained as supernatant after high-speed centrifugation of cell homogenates, particularly in studies of gluconeogenesis and pyridine nucleotide reactions.^[18] This nomenclature formalized the distinction in experimental contexts, moving beyond vague "cytoplasmic fluid" descriptors. Following the 1970s, electron microscopy combined with biochemical assays unveiled the cytosol's intricate dynamics, transcending its role as a mere solvent. By the 1980s, recognition of macromolecular crowding—driven by high concentrations of proteins occupying up to 30% of cellular volume—highlighted how steric exclusions influence diffusion, stability, and reactions within this compartment, as articulated in early models by A.P. Minton.^[19]

Composition

Water Content

The cytosol is predominantly composed of water, which accounts for approximately 70-80% of its volume and serves as the universal solvent facilitating the dissolution and transport of biomolecules essential for cellular biochemical reactions.^[20]^[21] Water molecules in the cytosol form structured hydration shells around solutes such as ions and proteins, typically consisting of one or more layers of oriented water that stabilize these molecules through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, thereby influencing their solubility and reactivity.^[22] In crowded cytosolic environments, the high concentration of macromolecules leads to excluded volume effects, which slightly reduce the effective free water content by limiting the available space for unbound water molecules.^[23] Techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are employed to quantify the proportions of free and bound water in the cytosol, distinguishing between mobile bulk water and the more restricted water in hydration layers based on relaxation times and diffusion coefficients.^[24] These hydration dynamics contribute to the cytosol's viscosity, affecting molecular diffusion.^[25]

Ionic Components

The cytosol contains a distinct set of major ions that differ markedly from those in the extracellular fluid, primarily potassium (K⁺) at 139–150 mM, sodium (Na⁺) at 5–15 mM, and chloride (Cl⁻) at 5–15 mM.^[26] Magnesium (Mg²⁺) is present at free concentrations of 0.5–1 mM, while free calcium (Ca²⁺) is maintained at very low levels below 0.1 μM.^[27] These concentrations vary slightly by cell type but are characteristic of typical mammalian cells.^[28] The overall ionic strength of the cytosol is approximately 150–200 mM, dominated by K⁺ contributions, and is actively maintained by ion pumps such as the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, which exchanges three Na⁺ ions out for two K⁺ ions in using ATP hydrolysis.^[29] This pump ensures the low cytosolic Na⁺ and high K⁺ levels against their electrochemical gradients.^[26] These ions play key roles in cellular electrochemistry by establishing concentration gradients that contribute to the resting membrane potential, typically around -70 mV, with the high cytosolic K⁺ driving K⁺ efflux through leak channels to generate hyperpolarization.^[26] In contrast to the extracellular fluid, where Na⁺ (~145 mM) and Cl⁻ (~110 mM) predominate with K⁺ at only 4–5 mM, the cytosolic profile supports osmotic balance by countering colloid osmotic pressure from macromolecules and preventing excessive water influx.^[28]

Macromolecular Constituents

The cytosol contains a high concentration of proteins, typically ranging from 200 to 300 mg/mL in eukaryotic cells, which collectively occupy 20-30% of the cytosolic volume due to macromolecular crowding effects.^[30]01853-0) These proteins include a diverse array of enzymes essential for cytosolic processes, such as glycolytic enzymes like glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and enolase, as well as molecular chaperones like Hsp70 that assist in protein folding.^[31]^[32] This dense protein milieu contributes to the excluded volume in the cytosol, influencing the effective concentrations of other solutes.01853-0) Metabolites in the cytosol encompass small organic molecules critical for energy and biosynthesis, with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) maintained at concentrations of 1-10 mM to support energy-dependent reactions.^[33] Glucose levels are generally low, around 0.5-2 mM in mammalian cells under physiological conditions, reflecting rapid phosphorylation and utilization following transport.51718-3/fulltext) Amino acids are present at total concentrations of several millimolar, with individual species like glutamate and glutamine often exceeding 1 mM, far higher than plasma levels due to active transport and metabolic pooling.^[34] Nucleic acids in the cytosol include free messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) at relatively low concentrations compared to proteins. Total cytosolic mRNA is estimated at 10-100 nM, comprising transcripts available for translation before association with ribosomes.^[35] tRNA concentrations are higher, reaching up to 100 µM in human cells, enabling efficient decoding during protein synthesis.^[36] In prokaryotes, free ribosomes are a prominent macromolecular constituent of the cytosol, with concentrations of 1-5 µM (corresponding to 10,000-50,000 molecules per cell in Escherichia coli), as all ribosomes remain unattached to membranous structures.^[37] In eukaryotes, free ribosomes also populate the cytosol but at similar molar densities, excluding those bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.^[38]

Physical Properties

pH and Buffering Capacity

The cytosol of most eukaryotic cells maintains a pH range of 7.0 to 7.4, rendering it slightly alkaline relative to neutral pH 7.0.^[39] This narrow range supports optimal conditions for enzymatic reactions and metabolic processes, with measurements often confirming values around 7.2 in mammalian cells.^[40] Deviations from this homeostasis can disrupt cellular function, underscoring the importance of precise control mechanisms.^[41] To stabilize pH against acid or base perturbations, the cytosol relies on multiple buffering systems. The inorganic phosphate buffer pair, H₂PO₄⁻ and HPO₄²⁻, operates effectively with a pKₐ of 7.2, closely matching cytosolic conditions and contributing significantly to proton absorption.^[41] The bicarbonate buffer system (HCO₃⁻/CO₂) provides additional capacity through its linkage to respiratory CO₂ production and excretion, functioning as an open buffer despite a lower pKₐ of 6.1.^[41] Proteins, particularly those with exposed histidine residues whose imidazole groups have a pKₐ near 6.5–7.0, further enhance buffering by reversibly binding protons. Cytosolic pH is dynamically regulated by plasma membrane ion transporters and metabolic pathways. The Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) plays a central role by extruding excess H⁺ ions in exchange for Na⁺, powered by the sodium gradient established by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase.^[43] Metabolic adjustments, such as modulating lactate production or ammonia generation during acid load, complement these transporters to restore equilibrium.^[44] Under stress conditions like hyperosmolarity, cytosolic pH can transiently acidify, dropping from approximately 7.4 to 6.7–6.8, creating local gradients that trigger protective signaling such as activation of stress response genes.^[45] These variations are commonly quantified using ratiometric fluorescent dyes like 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF), which exhibit pH-dependent emission shifts with a pKₐ of 7.0 ideal for cytosolic monitoring.^[39]

Viscosity and Diffusion Characteristics

The viscosity of the cytosol is typically 2 to 5 times greater than that of pure water, a property largely attributable to macromolecular crowding that impedes fluid flow. This elevated viscosity has been quantified using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), a technique that tracks the recovery of fluorescence in photobleached regions to infer diffusive motion and rheological properties. For instance, measurements in human cell lines indicate a cytoplasmic viscosity of approximately 4.7 times that of water for nanoscale probes, highlighting the role of crowding in creating a more resistant medium than dilute aqueous solutions.^[46]^[47] Diffusion within the cytosol varies significantly with molecular size, reflecting the interplay between the aqueous phase and obstructive macromolecules. Small molecules, such as metabolites, exhibit diffusion coefficients close to those in pure water, on the order of $10^{-6} cm²/s, allowing relatively unimpeded movement through the fluid domain. In contrast, proteins and larger solutes experience hindered diffusion, with coefficients around $10^{-7} cm²/s, due to collisions and sieving effects from the dense network of cytoplasmic obstacles. These values, derived from FRAP and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, underscore how crowding slows transport without fully immobilizing components.^[48]^[49]^[50] Macromolecular crowding in the cytosol arises from high concentrations of proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites, which occupy 20-30% of the volume and generate excluded volume effects that reduce the effective space available for other molecules. This phenomenon thermodynamically favors compact conformations and associations to minimize unoccupied volume, as quantified by models such as scaled particle theory, which approximates crowding as hard-sphere interactions to predict activity coefficients and diffusion reductions. Seminal work by Minton established this framework, demonstrating how excluded volume alters effective concentrations and reaction equilibria in crowded environments.^[51]^[52] Compared to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cytosols exhibit denser macromolecular crowding, driven by higher relative protein content in smaller cellular volumes, which further diminishes diffusion rates. Bacterial cytoplasms are estimated to be roughly three times more crowded, leading to proportionally greater excluded volume effects and slower macromolecular mobility than in eukaryotic counterparts. This distinction influences metabolic efficiency and spatial organization in prokaryotes.^[53]^[54]

Organization

Concentration Gradients

The cytosol exhibits spatial variations in solute concentrations, known as concentration gradients, which are essential for localized cellular processes. These gradients arise due to the inhomogeneous distribution of ions and metabolites, influenced by the proximity to organelles and membranes. For instance, the baseline free calcium ion (Ca²⁺) concentration in the cytosol is maintained at approximately 100 nM (0.1 μM), reflecting the typical ionic composition dominated by low levels of free divalent cations.^[55] However, dynamic ion gradients form transiently, such as Ca²⁺ microdomains or "sparks," where local concentrations can surge to 10–100 μM near release sites like ryanodine receptors on the sarcoplasmic reticulum or endoplasmic reticulum. These sparks represent elementary units of Ca²⁺ signaling, with peak amplitudes reaching up to 100 μM in restricted volumes of about 1% of the cell, decaying rapidly over tens of milliseconds.^[56]^[57] Metabolite gradients also display spatial heterogeneity within the cytosol. ATP concentrations are elevated near mitochondria, the primary sites of oxidative phosphorylation, where local levels can exceed bulk cytosolic averages by factors of 2–5 due to direct export through adenine nucleotide translocases. This creates a gradient that supports energy-demanding processes adjacent to these organelles. Similarly, glucose exhibits higher concentrations near the plasma membrane following uptake via transporters like GLUT, with cytosolic levels dropping rapidly inward due to hexokinase-mediated phosphorylation, establishing a steep gradient that facilitates efficient metabolic flux. These concentration gradients are established and maintained through active transport mechanisms and physical diffusion barriers. Ion pumps, such as plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPases (PMCAs) and sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPases (SERCAs), actively sequester Ca²⁺ against its gradient using ATP hydrolysis, restoring low baseline levels after transients. For metabolites, mitochondrial ATP/ADP exchangers and hexokinase anchoring create source-sink dynamics, while diffusion barriers—including cytoskeletal networks, organelle crowding, and transient biomolecular interactions—hinder free mixing, preserving spatial inhomogeneities over micrometer scales.^[58] Measurement of these cytosolic gradients relies on advanced live-cell imaging techniques, particularly Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded sensors. These sensors, expressed in the cytosol, enable real-time visualization of local fluctuations; for example, cameleon probes detect Ca²⁺ microdomains with sub-micrometer resolution, while Perceval sensors monitor ATP/ADP ratios near mitochondria. Such tools have revealed gradient dynamics in various cell types, confirming their transient and localized nature without disrupting cellular function.

Protein Complexes and Compartments

The cytosol hosts a variety of multi-subunit protein complexes that perform essential functions through coordinated assembly of macromolecular building blocks. These complexes, often exceeding several megadaltons in size, enable processes such as protein degradation and folding by integrating multiple subunits with specialized roles.^[59]^[60] A prominent example is the 26S proteasome, a large protease complex responsible for ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation in eukaryotic cells. This complex consists of a cylindrical 20S core particle, which houses the proteolytic active sites, capped by one or two 19S regulatory particles that recognize ubiquitinated substrates, unfold them, and translocate them into the core for hydrolysis.^[59] The 19S regulatory particle, in particular, comprises a base subcomplex with six ATPase subunits for substrate unfolding and a lid subcomplex for deubiquitination and specificity.^[61] In prokaryotes, analogous structures exist, such as the simpler 20S proteasome core without the full 19S cap, highlighting evolutionary conservation of cytosolic degradation machinery.^[62] Chaperonins represent another class of cytosolic protein complexes critical for assisting protein folding. In bacteria, the GroEL-GroES system forms a barrel-shaped hetero-oligomer where GroEL, a 14-subunit tetradecamer, encapsulates unfolded polypeptides within its central cavity, and GroES acts as a lid to create an isolated folding chamber powered by ATP hydrolysis.^[60] This complex prevents aggregation of nascent or stress-denatured proteins in the crowded cytosolic environment, with GroEL substrates comprising about 10-15% of bacterial proteins.^[63] Eukaryotic homologs, such as TRiC/CCT, operate similarly but with greater subunit diversity to handle more complex substrates.^[64] Beyond stable complexes, the cytosol features non-membrane-bound compartments formed by protein assemblies that sequester specific molecules. Stress granules are dynamic ribonucleoprotein aggregates that assemble in response to cellular stress, such as oxidative damage or heat shock, to stall translation and store mRNAs and associated proteins.^[65] These granules, typically 0.1-2 μm in diameter, incorporate translation initiation factors and 40S ribosomal subunits but exclude mRNA decay machinery.^[66] Processing bodies (P-bodies), another type of cytosolic compartment, serve as sites for mRNA storage, surveillance, and decay. These phase-separated structures concentrate decapping enzymes, exonucleases, and RNA-binding proteins to regulate mRNA stability and translation repression under normal or stress conditions.^[67] Unlike stress granules, P-bodies are present constitutively but can expand during stress to coordinate post-transcriptional control.^[68] The formation of these protein complexes and compartments in the cytosol is facilitated by transient, low-affinity interactions between subunits or components, which allow rapid assembly and disassembly as needed.^[69] Macromolecular crowding, arising from high concentrations of proteins and metabolites (up to 300-400 mg/mL), stabilizes these interactions by reducing diffusion rates and enhancing effective binding affinities through excluded volume effects.^[70] This crowding promotes the shift from disordered encounter complexes to ordered, functional assemblies without requiring permanent covalent bonds.^[71]

Biomolecular Condensates and Sieving

Biomolecular condensates in the cytosol are dynamic, membraneless structures formed through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), a process where proteins and other biomolecules spontaneously separate into concentrated liquid droplets from the surrounding dilute phase.^[72] These condensates function as non-membrane-bound organelles, concentrating specific molecules to facilitate biochemical reactions while remaining in fluid communication with the bulk cytosol. Seminal observations in the 2000s and 2010s revealed that LLPS underlies the assembly of such structures, with early evidence from germline P granules in C. elegans embryos demonstrating liquid-like behaviors such as fusion, dripping, and rapid internal mixing, driven by controlled dissolution and condensation mechanisms.^[72] The discovery of LLPS as a general principle for cellular organization gained momentum in the 2010s, highlighting its role in creating transient cytosolic compartments without lipid barriers. A key driver of LLPS in cytosolic condensates is the presence of intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) in proteins, which enable multivalent, weak interactions that lower the energy barrier for phase separation. Proteins rich in IDRs, such as those with low-complexity domains, promote droplet formation by facilitating π-π interactions, charge patterning, and hydrophobic contacts, often modulated by RNA or post-translational modifications. Representative examples include stress granules, which assemble in the cytosol under cellular stress conditions like oxidative shock or heat; these condensates incorporate RNA-binding proteins like hnRNPA1, whose low-complexity domains mediate LLPS at physiologically relevant concentrations (e.g., reduced to ~500 nM in the presence of RNA). Similarly, P bodies, involved in mRNA storage and decay, form via LLPS of proteins with IDRs, exhibiting liquid properties that allow component exchange. These structures highlight how IDRs enable the selective partitioning of biomolecules into condensates.^[73] The dynamics of biomolecular condensates are characterized by rapid formation and dissolution, often on timescales of seconds to minutes, enabling responsive adaptation to cellular cues. For instance, stress granules can coalesce through fusion events and disassemble upon stress relief, with fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments showing exchange times as short as 4 seconds for core components. This fluidity arises from the liquid nature of LLPS droplets, which can be influenced by cytosolic viscosity; higher viscosity, as observed in crowded environments, can modulate the kinetics of condensate assembly by altering diffusion rates of participating molecules. In parallel, cytoskeletal sieving contributes to condensate organization by creating spatially restricted microenvironments in the cytosol. The actin meshwork acts as a size-dependent diffusion barrier that hinders the movement of larger macromolecules (>40 kDa) while permitting free access for smaller ones, thereby influencing condensate positioning and stability near structures like centrosomes; in dense actin structures around centrosomes, the effective cutoff corresponds to a Stokes radius of ~5.8 nm.^[73]^[74] This sieving effect generates heterogeneous cytosolic domains, where actin filaments restrict large particle diffusion, fostering localized concentrations that promote LLPS.

Functions

Metabolic Roles

The cytosol is the primary compartment for several essential anabolic and catabolic pathways in eukaryotic cells, facilitating energy production and biosynthesis without the need for membrane-bound organelles.^[75] Glycolysis, a foundational 10-step enzymatic pathway, occurs entirely within the cytosol and breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules under anaerobic conditions, yielding a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules per glucose substrate.^[76] The overall balanced equation for this process is:

\ce{C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P_i -> 2 CH3COCOO- + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O + 2 H+}

^[75] Most of the enzymes catalyzing these steps, such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase, exist in a free or loosely associated state within the cytosol, enabling efficient substrate channeling and regulation in response to cellular energy status.^[75] Parallel to glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway operates in the cytosol, branching from glucose-6-phosphate to generate NADPH for antioxidant defense and biosynthetic reductions, as well as ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide production.^[77] This pathway supports cellular redox balance and provides metabolic flexibility by interconverting sugars without net ATP production.^[78] Fatty acid synthesis also localizes to the cytosol in eukaryotes, where multi-enzyme complexes like fatty acid synthase utilize acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, and NADPH to assemble saturated fatty acids, such as palmitate, through iterative condensation and reduction cycles.^[79] In prokaryotes, lacking compartmentalized organelles, the cytosol hosts the entirety of central metabolism, including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and fatty acid synthesis, underscoring its role as a unified reaction space for energy generation and biomolecule assembly.^[80]

Signaling and Molecular Transport

The cytosol plays a central role in intracellular signal transduction by serving as the medium for second messengers that relay signals from plasma membrane receptors to intracellular targets.^[81] These small, diffusible molecules amplify extracellular cues, enabling rapid and localized responses within the cell.^[82] A prominent example is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), synthesized by the membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase following activation of G-protein-coupled receptors, which then diffuses into the cytosol.^[82] During signaling, cytosolic cAMP concentrations typically range from 0.1 to 10 μM, sufficient to activate effectors like protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates downstream proteins to modulate cellular processes.^[83] Another key second messenger, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃), is generated by phospholipase C-mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) at the plasma membrane and diffuses freely through the cytosol.^[84] IP₃ binds to receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), triggering the release of Ca²⁺ into the cytosol, which further propagates signaling cascades.^[85] Concentration gradients of ions and metabolites in the cytosol can enhance the spatial precision of these signaling events.^[81] Molecular transport within the cytosol ensures efficient distribution of signaling components and other molecules. Small molecules, such as ions and metabolites, primarily move via passive diffusion, which is facilitated by the cytosol's aqueous environment and allows equilibration over short distances on the order of micrometers.^[86] For larger structures like vesicles and organelles, directed transport relies on motor proteins that "walk" along cytoskeletal filaments using ATP hydrolysis. Kinesin motors typically propel cargoes toward the microtubule plus ends (anterograde transport), while dynein drives movement toward the minus ends (retrograde transport), enabling long-range delivery across the cell.^[87] These mechanisms coordinate the positioning of signaling molecules and maintain compartmentalized responses. Active transport across membranes bounding the cytosol further regulates molecular exchange. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to move diverse metabolites, including lipids and ions, across lipid bilayers into or out of the cytosol, often against concentration gradients.^[88] In eukaryotic cells, this includes import of substrates from extracellular spaces or organelles to support cytosolic homeostasis.^[89] In eukaryotes, the cytosol is integral to vesicular trafficking pathways, particularly the anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi apparatus. Nascent secretory and membrane proteins, whose synthesis begins on free ribosomes in the cytosol, are co-translationally translocated into the ER via targeting by the signal recognition particle, and then packaged into coat protein complex II (COPII)-coated vesicles that bud from ER exit sites, and then traverse the cytosol to fuse with cis-Golgi membranes.^[90] This process, powered by motor proteins along microtubules, ensures the delivery of membrane and secretory cargo while integrating with cytosolic signaling for regulation.^[91]

Role in Cellular Homeostasis and Disease

The cytosol plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating osmotic balance and ensuring proper protein folding. Aquaporins, integral membrane proteins that facilitate rapid water transport across cell membranes, help maintain cytosolic osmotic pressure by allowing passive water movement in response to osmotic gradients, thereby preventing cell swelling or shrinkage during environmental fluctuations. In prokaryotes, such as bacteria, aquaporin AqpZ contributes to cell volume regulation by adapting to changes in cytosolic osmotic pressure caused by metabolic activities. In eukaryotes, this process supports intracellular water homeostasis, keeping cytosolic water concentrations within a narrow range essential for enzyme function and structural integrity. Additionally, cytosolic molecular chaperones, including Hsp70 and Hsp90 families, assist in protein folding by preventing misfolding and aggregation of nascent polypeptides during synthesis and stress conditions, forming a network that guides proteins from translation to functional states. This chaperone-mediated pathway is vital for proteostasis, as disruptions can lead to toxic protein accumulations. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cytosols differ significantly in their organization and compartmentalization, influencing homeostatic mechanisms. In prokaryotes, the cytosol is largely unstructured but features non-membrane-bound microcompartments like carboxysomes, which encapsulate carbonic anhydrase and the CO₂-fixing enzyme RuBisCO to enhance carbon fixation efficiency within the cytosol, providing a form of functional compartmentalization without lipid membranes. Eukaryotic cytosols, in contrast, exhibit greater compartmentalization through membrane-bound organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria) that segregate biochemical reactions, allowing the cytosol to serve as a dynamic aqueous phase for diffusion and integration of signals while relying on organelle interactions for specialized homeostasis. These differences reflect evolutionary adaptations: prokaryotes use protein shells for efficiency in simple environments, whereas eukaryotes' extensive compartmentalization supports complex multicellular life by isolating incompatible processes in the cytosol. Dysfunctions in cytosolic homeostasis contribute to various diseases, particularly through protein misfolding and ion imbalances. In neurodegenerative disorders like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cytosolic mislocalization and aggregation of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) lead to toxic inclusions that impair neuronal function, with cytoplasmic TDP-43 aggregates observed in nearly all ALS cases and linked to disrupted RNA processing and proteostasis. During ischemia, such as in stroke or myocardial infarction, energy depletion causes cytosolic ion imbalances, including calcium overload, which activates destructive pathways like mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death, exacerbating tissue damage upon reperfusion. These pathological shifts highlight the cytosol's vulnerability, where failure to maintain ion gradients and protein solubility propagates cellular stress. The cytosol's enzymatic components offer promising therapeutic targets, especially in cancer where altered homeostasis drives proliferation. Glycolytic enzymes, such as hexokinase (HK) and phosphofructokinase (PFK), localized in the cytosol, are upregulated in tumor cells to support aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect), providing rapid energy and biosynthetic intermediates for growth. Inhibitors targeting these enzymes, like 2-deoxyglucose for HK or 3PO for PFK, disrupt cytosolic glycolytic flux, reducing ATP production and inducing cancer cell death while sparing normal cells with lower glycolytic reliance. Such strategies exploit cytosolic metabolic vulnerabilities, with clinical trials exploring their efficacy in combination therapies for solid tumors.

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there are 1.12 × 10 9 nt of cytosolic mRNA or ∼3.1 × 10 5 nt/µm 3 in the cytosol, and 2.2 × 10 8 nucleotides of nuclear pre-mRNA, or ∼5.5 × 10 5 nt/µm 3 in the ...<|separator|>
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Second messengers fall into four major classes: cyclic nucleotides, such as cAMP and other soluble molecules that signal within the cytosol; lipid messengers ...
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