Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Platform

A platform, in the context of digital business and economics, is a technological foundation or business model that facilitates direct interactions, exchanges, and value creation between multiple interdependent user groups—such as producers, consumers, and service providers—primarily through network effects rather than owning or controlling the core means of production.^[1]^[2] Platforms operate as multi-sided markets, where the intermediary's value derives from subsidizing one side to attract the other, enabling scalability with minimal marginal costs for additional transactions once the infrastructure is established.^[3]^[4] This structure has driven explosive growth in the digital economy, with platform-mediated activities accounting for substantial portions of global commerce by leveraging data, algorithms, and connectivity to match supply and demand efficiently.^[5] The rise of platforms has transformed industries by prioritizing orchestration over vertical integration, allowing rapid disruption of traditional linear models through indirect network externalities that amplify user participation as adoption increases.^[6] Empirical evidence shows platforms achieving outsized market shares due to winner-take-most dynamics, where early movers capture enduring advantages from user lock-in and data accumulation, often yielding high returns on initial investments in user acquisition.^[7]^[8] Notable achievements include enhanced economic efficiency via reduced transaction costs and broader access to markets for small producers, as seen in sectors like e-commerce and on-demand services, where platforms have democratized participation while generating trillions in economic value.^[9]^[10] However, platforms' defining characteristics—such as concentrated control over access and pricing—have sparked controversies over anticompetitive practices, including self-preferencing, data monopolization, and barriers to entry that stifle innovation from rivals.^[7]^[11] Regulatory scrutiny has intensified, with economic analyses highlighting how platforms' pricing strategies and mergers can distort competition in two-sided markets, potentially harming long-term welfare despite short-term consumer benefits from low prices.^[8]^[12] These tensions underscore the causal trade-offs in platform design, where fostering liquidity and scale often consolidates power, prompting debates on antitrust enforcement to preserve market dynamism without undermining the efficiencies that platforms empirically deliver.^[13]^[14]

Etymology and Historical Development

Linguistic Origins and Early Uses

The English word platform derives from Middle French plateforme, a compound of plate ("flat," ultimately from Ancient Greek platús via Old French plat) and forme ("form" or "shape," from Latin forma).^[15] This etymon emphasized a literal "flat form," initially connoting a planar structure or diagram rather than a three-dimensional object. The term entered English around the 1540s, with the Oxford English Dictionary recording its earliest attestation in 1531 as denoting an open walk or terrace along the top of a rampart in military fortifications.^[16] In its nascent English usage during the 16th century, platform primarily referred to architectural or schematic elements, such as a ground plan, drawing, or sketch—senses that have since become obsolete.^[15] By the 1550s, it extended to describe raised horizontal surfaces elevated above surrounding areas, often in defensive contexts like gun platforms on bastions, where flat, stable bases supported artillery.^[16] These early applications underscored practical engineering needs for level, load-bearing surfaces in construction and warfare, reflecting the word's geometric origins without metaphorical extension. Historical texts from the period, including military treatises, employed it to specify such structures, distinguishing them from sloped terrains or irregular foundations.^[15] Figurative connotations, such as a stage for public address, emerged later in the 17th and 18th centuries, building on the literal raised platform but not dominating early lexicon.^[15] No evidence supports pre-16th-century English usage, confirming the borrowing's recency relative to native Anglo-Saxon terms for similar concepts, like stægger for stages. This linguistic importation aligned with Renaissance influences from French engineering and cartography, prioritizing precision in describing flat, functional expanses.^[16]

Evolution from Physical to Metaphorical Meanings

The term "platform" initially denoted a physical raised horizontal surface, entering English in the mid-16th century from Middle French plate-forme, literally "flat form," referring to a level area in fortifications or a stage for mounting cannons or speakers.^[15] By the 17th century, this evolved to include architectural and infrastructural uses, such as railway platforms documented as early as 1838 in British contexts for passenger boarding areas. These literal applications emphasized stability and elevation, providing a sturdy base for activity above ground level, which laid the groundwork for semantic extension. The shift to metaphorical meanings began in the 19th century, particularly in political discourse, where "platform" symbolized a declarative stance rather than a physical structure. The earliest recorded use of "party platform" appears in 1848, denoting a political party's formalized set of principles and policies, derived from the practice of candidates speaking from raised stages at rallies to articulate positions to audiences.^[17] This figurative leap drew on the physical platform's role in public address—elevating the speaker for visibility and audibility—extending it to represent the ideological "ground" from which a party operates, much like planks forming a wooden stage. By the late 19th century, the term had generalized to any structured basis for advocacy, as seen in U.S. party conventions where platforms outlined goals on issues like tariffs and civil rights.^[18] In the 20th century, the metaphor broadened to commercial and technological domains, portraying "platform" as a foundational layer supporting extensions or interactions. In manufacturing, "product platform" emerged around the 1960s to describe modular bases for variant designs, enabling efficient scaling without redesigning core elements, as in automotive shared chassis systems. This abstraction carried into computing by the 1970s, with "software platform" referring to operating systems or hardware ecosystems (e.g., IBM's System/360 mainframes launched in 1964) that serve as stable substrates for applications, mirroring the physical sense of a level surface upon which to build. The digital era accelerated this, applying "platform" to networked services by the 1990s—such as eBay's auction system (1995)—where it connotes an open, intermediary base facilitating user-generated value, distinct from linear pipelines.^[19] This evolution reflects a pattern of metonymic extension: from tangible elevation providing vantage and support, to abstract foundations enabling discourse, innovation, or exchange, prioritizing causal utility over literal form. Contemporary uses in "digital platforms" retain this heritage, emphasizing interoperability and scalability, though critics note the metaphor can obscure power dynamics in proprietary systems.^[20]

Physical Platforms

Architectural and Structural Forms

In architecture, platforms manifest as elevated, horizontal bases that support and raise superstructures above surrounding terrain, serving purposes such as flood protection, structural stability, visual prominence, and moisture isolation. These forms typically employ materials like stone, masonry, or concrete, with designs incorporating retaining walls, steps, or solid fills to distribute loads evenly and resist lateral forces. Structurally, they function as foundational elements that transfer building weights to the ground while accommodating environmental challenges, as evidenced in ancient constructions where platforms mitigated soil instability or water ingress.^[21]^[22] Classical examples include the podiums of Roman temples, which consisted of solid masonry bases elevating the cella and colonnades, often accessed via central staircases to enhance monumentality and protect against dampness; the stereobate, a sub-component with perpendicular sides, formed the immediate platform under the temple proper. In Greek antecedents, the stylobate served a similar role as the level top course of the crepidoma—a multi-stepped base—upon which columns rested, as observed in structures like the Parthenon, though adapted from earlier Levantine influences. Mesopotamian ziggurats exemplified terraced platform forms, with artificial earthen or brick mounds rising in receding stages to support shrines, combining religious symbolism with practical elevation in floodplain regions.^[23]^[24] In non-Western traditions, Mesoamerican Maya sites featured extensive raised platforms, either as broad acropolises or steep pyramidal bases with monumental stairways, constructed from rubble cores faced with cut stone to bear temple weights amid tropical terrains. Egyptian architecture incorporated the adisthana, a decorative raised platform under temples, emphasizing ritual elevation. Modern structural evolutions include steel-framed platforms for mezzanines or equipment, modular for assembly efficiency, and podium constructions in urban high-rises, where a low-rise concrete base (Type I or II per building codes) supports taller combustible frames, optimizing land use and fire separation. These forms prioritize load-bearing capacity, with designs reviewed for spatial constraints and modular disassembly where applicable.^[25]^[26]^[22]

Industrial and Transportation Applications

Industrial platforms encompass elevated structural systems designed for safe access, equipment support, and operational efficiency in manufacturing and extraction environments. Work platforms, such as scissor lifts, cherry pickers, and stationary catwalks, provide stable surfaces for tasks like maintenance, welding, and assembly at heights, reducing fall risks and enhancing productivity in sectors including construction and fabrication.^[27] ^[28] Equipment platforms and mezzanines, often modular and steel-framed, elevate machinery or create additional storage levels within existing facilities, allowing up to 40-50% increases in usable space without full building expansions; these differ from permanent mezzanines by prioritizing equipment loads over broad floor areas.^[29] ^[30] In resource extraction, offshore platforms represent advanced fixed or floating structures for oil and gas drilling and production in marine settings. The first commercial offshore well beyond sight of land was completed on November 14, 1947, by Kerr-McGee in the Gulf of Mexico at a water depth of 18 feet, marking the onset of modern deepwater operations that now account for significant global hydrocarbon output.^[31] Semisubmersible and tension-leg variants emerged in the 1970s, enabling production in water depths exceeding 1,000 meters, with over 10,000 such platforms installed worldwide by the late 20th century.^[32] ^[33] Transportation applications of platforms focus on facilitating efficient passenger and freight handling. Railway platforms, positioned adjacent to tracks, enable safe boarding and alighting, integral to station designs since the expansion of rail networks in the 19th century, which revolutionized bulk goods movement through higher speeds and lower costs compared to prior modes.^[34] Loading docks and intermodal platforms at rail terminals support the transfer of containers and trailers between railcars and trucks, with early intermodal practices dating to the late 19th century via "circus train" methods of rolling vehicles onto flatcars; regulatory reforms in 1980 spurred infrastructure investments that boosted freight volumes.^[35] ^[36] Innovations like the counterbalanced dock leveler, invented in 1953, improved connections between docks and vehicles, minimizing gaps and enhancing loading safety and speed.^[37]

Technological Platforms

Computing and Software Foundations

In computing, a platform refers to the foundational hardware, firmware, operating system, and supporting software layers that enable the execution, development, and interoperability of applications. This infrastructure abstracts underlying complexities, providing standardized interfaces for resource management, such as memory allocation, process scheduling, and input/output operations. Core components include the central processing unit (CPU) for computation, random-access memory (RAM) for temporary data storage, and persistent storage devices, all orchestrated by an operating system (OS) kernel that enforces security and resource isolation.^[38]^[39]^[40] The technical foundations evolved from rigid, hardware-specific systems in the mid-20th century to modular, extensible architectures. Early milestones include the ENIAC, completed on December 10, 1945, by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, which demonstrated programmable electronic computation using 17,468 vacuum tubes but lacked a general-purpose OS. The transistor's invention at Bell Labs in December 1947 replaced vacuum tubes, enabling smaller, more reliable hardware platforms and paving the way for integrated circuits announced by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments on July 1958. By 1964, IBM's System/360 mainframe family introduced backward-compatible architectures across models, standardizing instruction sets and peripherals to foster software portability—a causal shift from bespoke hardware to ecosystem-enabling platforms.^[41]^[42] Software foundations emphasize layering and abstraction for scalability. Operating systems like UNIX, first released in 1971 by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs, introduced hierarchical file systems, multitasking via processes, and the C programming language for portable code, decoupling applications from hardware specifics. This modularity relies on system calls—low-level APIs bridging user programs to kernel services—and higher-level application programming interfaces (APIs) for standardized interactions, such as POSIX standards ratified in 1988 for UNIX-like environments. Software development kits (SDKs) extend platforms by bundling APIs, compilers, debuggers, and libraries tailored to specific ecosystems, facilitating third-party extensions; for instance, SDKs include runtime environments that handle dependencies, contrasting with APIs' narrower role in enabling inter-component communication without full development tooling.^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44] Modern computing platforms incorporate virtualization and containerization for efficient resource sharing. Hypervisors, emerging in the 1960s with IBM's CP/40 but commercialized in products like VMware ESX Server released in 2001, allow multiple OS instances on shared hardware, abstracting physical limits through virtual machines. Containers, popularized by Docker's open-source release on March 14, 2013, provide lightweight isolation via OS-level namespaces and cgroups in Linux kernels since version 2.6.24 in 2008, enabling microservices architectures without full OS emulation. These mechanisms underpin cloud platforms, where APIs govern scalable provisioning, as in Amazon Web Services' EC2 launched on August 25, 2006, which exposed RESTful APIs for on-demand compute instances. Such foundations prioritize causal reliability—ensuring deterministic behavior through kernel-enforced isolation—over unchecked extensibility, mitigating risks like resource contention observed in early multiprocessing systems.^[45]^[43]

Digital Ecosystems and Network Effects

In technological platforms, digital ecosystems emerge as interconnected networks of core infrastructure, third-party developers, applications, services, and end-users that interact to deliver compounded value. These ecosystems function as sociotechnical systems where participants—ranging from providers to consumers—leverage shared IT resources and data flows to enable scalability and adaptability.^[46] Unlike isolated software, they thrive on interoperability, allowing complementors to build upon the platform's foundational layers, such as APIs and standards, to create specialized offerings.^[47] Network effects constitute the primary mechanism driving the expansion and resilience of these ecosystems, wherein the platform's utility escalates with increased participation. Direct network effects manifest on the same user side, as in social media platforms where additional users enhance content diversity and interaction frequency for all participants.^[48] Indirect network effects operate across sides, exemplified by operating systems like iOS, where a larger developer base produces more applications, thereby attracting more device users, and conversely, growing user adoption incentivizes further development.^[49] This cross-side reinforcement creates virtuous cycles, with empirical studies showing that platforms can experience exponential value growth as user and complementor numbers scale.^[50] Prominent examples illustrate these dynamics in software platforms. Apple's iOS ecosystem, anchored by the App Store, demonstrated indirect network effects through its catalog expansion to 1,961,596 apps by 2024, facilitating billions in developer billings while locking in users via app availability and data continuity.^[51] Similarly, Android's open-source platform fosters a broader but more fragmented ecosystem, benefiting from massive global adoption—over 3 billion active devices by 2023—to amplify app distribution and service integrations, though it faces challenges from inconsistent network effect strength across manufacturers.^[52] Cloud platforms like AWS exhibit data-driven network effects, where accumulated usage data improves service reliability and customization, drawing more enterprises into the ecosystem.^[53] These effects often yield winner-take-most outcomes due to positive feedback loops that deter entrants, as early movers capture disproportionate market share through user lock-in and high switching costs.^[54] However, quantification varies; research on industrial platforms identifies dimensions like participation density and interaction quality to measure effect strength, revealing potential for rapid value erosion if negative shocks propagate across the network.^[55] In social media contexts, local network effects account for 20-34% of platform value, estimated at $78-101 per user monthly, underscoring their economic magnitude while highlighting dependencies on sustained engagement.^[56]

Controversies and Regulatory Challenges

Technological platforms have faced significant antitrust scrutiny due to their market dominance facilitated by network effects and data advantages, leading to winner-take-all dynamics that stifle competition. In the United States, the Department of Justice secured a landmark ruling on August 5, 2024, finding Google in violation of Section 2 of the Sherman Act for maintaining an illegal monopoly in general search services through exclusive default agreements with device manufacturers and browsers, which accounted for over 90% market share.^[57] On September 2, 2025, the DOJ obtained remedies including structural changes to Google's business practices to restore competition.^[58] Similar cases persist against Apple, sued by the DOJ in March 2024 for monopolizing the smartphone market via App Store restrictions and ecosystem lock-in, and against Amazon by the FTC for alleged self-preferencing in e-commerce.^[59] In the European Union, the Digital Markets Act (DMA), effective from March 2024, designates six "gatekeepers"—Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, ByteDance, Meta, and Microsoft—imposing obligations like data interoperability and fair access, with non-compliance fines up to 10% of global turnover.^[60] Enforcement includes a €1.8 billion fine against Apple in March 2024 for abusing dominance in music streaming distribution by restricting competitors' apps.^[61] Data privacy controversies have centered on platforms' extensive collection and monetization of user data, often without adequate consent or safeguards, prompting regulatory backlash. High-profile incidents, such as the 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal involving Facebook's improper sharing of 87 million users' data for political targeting, exposed vulnerabilities in platform oversight and led to ongoing GDPR enforcement, with Meta facing cumulative fines exceeding €2 billion by 2023 for violations including insufficient data protection in advertising.^[62] In the U.S., the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), enacted in 2018 and expanded by the 2020 CPRA, grants consumers rights to opt out of data sales, resulting in settlements like TikTok's $92 million in 2021 for biometric data misuse, though enforcement challenges persist due to fragmented state laws.^[63] Platforms' reliance on targeted advertising, which processes vast personal datasets, has drawn criticism for enabling surveillance capitalism, where user behavior prediction yields disproportionate economic power but raises causal risks of identity theft and discriminatory outcomes, as evidenced by FTC reports on over 500 data breach notifications annually affecting millions.^[64] Content moderation practices have sparked debates over censorship and misinformation amplification, with platforms accused of inconsistent enforcement that favors certain viewpoints while suppressing others. During the COVID-19 pandemic, platforms like YouTube and Twitter removed millions of posts deemed misinformation, yet studies indicate partisan asymmetries, with conservative content facing higher removal rates in some analyses, fueling claims of ideological bias amid network effects that entrench dominant narratives.^[65] The EU's Digital Services Act (DSA), implemented in 2024, mandates risk assessments for systemic platforms to mitigate illegal content and disinformation, with recent accusations against TikTok and Meta on October 23, 2025, for failing to provide researchers adequate access to public data on algorithmic amplification.^[66] In the U.S., Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act shields platforms from liability for user-generated content, but FTC inquiries launched in 2025 probe alleged censorship of political speech, highlighting tensions between voluntary moderation to curb harms like election interference—seen in 2020 when platforms flagged 20 million potentially false claims—and preserving open discourse, as over-removal risks echo government-compelled speech concerns.^[67] These challenges underscore causal trade-offs: lax moderation propagates empirically harmful falsehoods, such as vaccine hesitancy linked to excess deaths, while aggressive policies invite antitrust-like scrutiny for gatekeeping information flows.^[68]

Political Platforms

Core Components and Formulation

A political platform constitutes the formal manifesto of a political party or coalition, delineating its policy positions, ideological commitments, and proposed legislative agenda to attract voters and guide governance if elected. It serves as a binding or aspirational document that synthesizes the party's vision, often structured around key issue areas to address national priorities. Platforms are typically drafted to balance ideological purity with electoral pragmatism, reflecting compromises among party factions. Core components of a political platform include a preamble outlining the party's overarching philosophy and historical context, followed by "planks"—specific policy proposals categorized by thematic domains such as economic policy, foreign affairs, domestic security, social welfare, and environmental regulation. Economic planks often detail stances on taxation, trade, and labor markets; for instance, emphasizing free-market reforms or protectionist measures based on the party's orientation. Foreign policy sections articulate approaches to alliances, defense spending, and international trade, with verifiable commitments like support for NATO funding levels exceeding 2% of GDP in certain platforms. Social and cultural planks address issues like education, healthcare, and civil liberties, grounded in empirical data such as crime statistics or economic inequality metrics to justify positions. These elements are designed for coherence, with internal consistency enforced to avoid contradictions that could undermine credibility.^[69] Formulation begins with intra-party consultations, where committees or working groups—comprising elected officials, activists, and experts—compile input from grassroots members, think tanks, and polling data to draft initial versions. In systems like the United States, national conventions formalize adoption, with delegates debating and voting on amendments; for example, the 2020 Republican platform was abbreviated to an endorsement of the incumbent president's agenda due to procedural exigencies, highlighting how external events can influence structure. Platforms draw on causal analyses of policy outcomes, such as longitudinal studies on tariff impacts on employment (e.g., U.S. International Trade Commission data showing varied effects across sectors), rather than unsubstantiated assertions. Adoption requires majority approval, after which the document guides campaign rhetoric and, post-election, legislative priorities, though deviations occur due to governing realities—evidenced by historical variances between platforms and enacted laws, as tracked by organizations like the Policy Agendas Project. Credible formulation prioritizes data from sources like government statistics bureaus over partisan narratives, mitigating biases inherent in advocacy-driven inputs.

Historical and Contemporary Examples

One prominent historical example is the Republican Party's platform adopted at its national convention on May 17, 1860, in Chicago, which emphasized opposition to the expansion of slavery into federal territories while affirming the principles of the Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal."^[18] The document, comprising 17 resolutions, also advocated for free homestead laws to distribute public lands to settlers, internal improvements such as railroads, and a protective tariff to support Northern industry, reflecting the party's roots in anti-slavery Northern interests and economic nationalism.^[70] This platform contributed to Abraham Lincoln's election victory that November, amid a fractured Democratic Party, though it explicitly avoided advocating immediate abolition in existing slave states to broaden appeal.^[18] Another key historical instance is the Democratic Party's platform from the July 1932 national convention in Chicago, which critiqued Republican policies under President Herbert Hoover as the root of the Great Depression, attributing economic woes to post-World War I fiscal mismanagement and excessive government intervention.^[71] Spanning pledges for balanced budgets, reduced federal spending by 25%, repeal of Prohibition, and tariff reform to boost trade, the platform promised a return to Democratic principles of limited government and states' rights while signaling openness to emergency relief measures.^[71] Adopted amid 25% unemployment, it propelled Franklin D. Roosevelt to victory, though subsequent New Deal expansions diverged from its initial fiscal conservatism, highlighting how platforms can evolve under governing pressures.^[71] In contemporary contexts, the Republican Party's 2024 platform, approved on July 8 by the Republican National Committee, condensed into 16 pages under the banner "Make America Great Again," prioritizes border security through completing the wall and mass deportations, energy dominance via expanded drilling, and tax cuts including no taxes on tips or Social Security benefits.^[72] Aligned closely with Donald Trump's agenda, it commits to tariffs on foreign imports, military rebuilding, and school choice while de-emphasizing traditional social conservatism on issues like abortion, deferring such matters to states post-Roe v. Wade overturn.^[72] This shorter format, a departure from the 66-page 2016 version, reflects candidate-driven influence over committee drafting, with Trump personally shaping its "America First" focus on economic protectionism and national sovereignty.^[72] The Democratic Party's 2024 platform, finalized on August 19 and exceeding 90 pages, outlines priorities in economic equity, climate action, and civil rights, including investments in clean energy to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, affordable housing expansions, and protections for voting rights against perceived Republican restrictions.^[73] It endorses federal codification of abortion access nationwide, student debt relief expansions, and higher taxes on corporations and the wealthy to fund social programs, framing these as continuations of Biden-Harris era policies despite Joe Biden's July 21 withdrawal and Kamala Harris's nomination.^[73] Drafted by a platform committee before the leadership shift, the document critiques Trump-era policies as favoring elites, though implementation feasibility depends on congressional majorities, as seen in partial successes like the Inflation Reduction Act.^[73]

Economic and Business Platforms

Business Model Characteristics

Platform business models, also known as multi-sided platforms, facilitate interactions between two or more distinct groups of economic agents whose demands are interdependent, such as buyers and sellers or advertisers and users, thereby reducing transaction frictions that would otherwise prevent efficient exchange. Unlike linear "pipeline" models that produce and distribute goods or services through controlled supply chains, platforms do not typically own inventory or create the primary value proposition; instead, they orchestrate value creation by enabling participants to exchange goods, services, or information directly.^[74] This structure emerged prominently in digital contexts, with foundational economic analysis tracing back to payment card networks in the 1990s and expanding to internet-based examples like eBay by the early 2000s.^[75] A core characteristic is the presence of indirect network effects, where the utility derived by one side of the platform increases with the number or quality of participants on the other side, often compounded by same-side effects within groups.^[76] For instance, more sellers attract more buyers on a marketplace, which in turn draws additional sellers, creating virtuous cycles that drive scalability and low marginal costs for adding users once the platform is established.^[77] Platforms must address the "chicken-and-egg" challenge of simultaneously attracting both sides, frequently through subsidies, exclusive deals, or phased rollouts, as seen in ride-hailing services offering driver incentives before scaling rider acquisition.^[75] This dynamic often leads to winner-take-most market structures, where dominant platforms capture disproportionate value due to entrenched network effects, evidenced by empirical studies showing high concentration in sectors like search engines and app stores.^[78] Monetization strategies in platform models prioritize capturing a share of the value generated through interactions rather than owning assets, with transaction-based commissions being prevalent—typically 10-30% of exchange value in marketplaces like Airbnb or Uber.^[79] Alternative approaches include advertising (e.g., Google deriving over 75% of revenue from ad placements in 2023), freemium access to lure users before upselling premium features, or data licensing, where platforms leverage aggregated user data for targeted matching and personalization.^[79] Pricing often involves subsidizing high-elasticity sides (e.g., free for consumers) to maximize overall participation, a tactic formalized in economic models showing optimal two-sided pricing diverges from single-sided monopolies. Governance mechanisms, such as rules for participation, dispute resolution, and API openness, further distinguish platforms by balancing openness for growth against control to prevent free-riding or quality degradation.^[78]

The Platform Economy and Innovations

The platform economy refers to an economic system dominated by digital platforms that intermediate transactions between distinct groups of users, such as suppliers and demanders, by exploiting network effects where the value of the platform increases with the number of participants on both sides. These models differ from traditional pipelines by decentralizing production and leveraging user-generated data for efficient matching and pricing, as evidenced in theoretical frameworks emphasizing two-sided market dynamics.^[80] Platforms like Uber, launched in 2009, and Airbnb, founded in 2008, exemplify this by connecting independent providers with consumers without owning physical assets, thereby minimizing capital intensity while maximizing scalability.^[81] Economically, the platform economy has expanded rapidly, with the global sharing economy valued at $194.14 billion in 2024 and projected to reach $244.8 billion in 2025, driven by gig work and asset-sharing models. The associated gig economy, a core subset, attained a market size of $556.7 billion in 2024, reflecting annual growth fueled by flexible labor participation amid technological enablement. Publicly traded platform companies collectively approached a $4.5 trillion market capitalization in 2024, underscoring their outsized influence relative to traditional firms, with 60-70% of 2017 unicorns operating as platforms.^[82]^[83]^[84]^[81] Innovations central to platform success include AI-enhanced matching algorithms that optimize supply-demand alignment in real time, as in Uber's system which pairs riders with drivers based on location, preferences, and availability data. Dynamic pricing mechanisms, such as Uber's surge pricing implemented since 2012, adjust fares dynamically to incentivize supply during peak demand, balancing market equilibrium without centralized planning and reportedly increasing driver availability by up to 30% in high-demand periods according to internal analyses. Amazon's marketplace, evolving since 2000, integrates recommendation engines powered by machine learning to personalize offerings, boosting conversion rates through predictive analytics derived from vast transaction datasets. These data feedback loops enable iterative improvements, fostering resilience and outpacing linear business models in adaptability.^[85]^[86]^[81]

Labor, Competition, and Policy Debates

In the platform economy, labor debates center on the classification of workers as independent contractors versus employees, which determines access to benefits, minimum wages, and protections. Platforms like Uber and DoorDash argue that contractor status preserves worker flexibility and autonomy, enabling part-time participation and supplemental income for millions; for instance, a 2024 survey indicated that 70% of gig workers valued schedule control over employee benefits.^[87] However, critics contend this classification enables exploitation through algorithmic wage suppression and lack of safeguards, as highlighted in a 2025 Human Rights Watch report on U.S. platforms, which documented cases of earnings below minimum wage after expenses.^[88] In the U.S., the Department of Labor's 2024 rule under the Biden administration expanded the economic realities test to reclassify many gig workers as employees, but by May 2025, the agency announced plans to rescind it, easing restrictions and affirming contractor models to avoid reducing job opportunities.^[89] California's Proposition 22, upheld in 2021 and reaffirmed in subsequent litigation, exemplifies state-level exemptions allowing platforms to maintain contractor status while providing limited benefits like healthcare subsidies.^[90] In the European Union, the 2024 Platform Work Directive mandates a presumption of employee status for gig workers unless platforms prove otherwise, potentially affecting up to 43 million individuals by granting rights to collective bargaining and paid leave; proponents view it as enhancing protections, while free-market analyses warn it threatens the independence and entry barriers that define gig work's appeal.^[91] Empirical studies show mixed outcomes: reclassification in regions like the UK post-2021 led to higher platform costs and some worker exits, reducing overall gig participation by 10-15% without proportional gains in security.^[92] These debates reflect causal tensions between platforms' low-friction matching of supply and demand—which has created over 16 million U.S. gig jobs since 2010—and demands for traditional labor entitlements that could erode the model's scalability.^[93] Competition concerns in platform markets arise from network effects, where dominant players like Amazon and Google amass market shares exceeding 70% in e-commerce and search, respectively, potentially stifling entrants through data advantages and exclusive deals.^[94] U.S. antitrust actions intensified post-2023, with the DOJ securing a 2025 ruling against Google requiring data sharing with rivals in search advertising, though stopping short of divestitures; this followed findings of monopolization via default agreements with Apple and Samsung.^[95]^[96] Against Amazon, FTC suits allege self-preferencing in its marketplace, harming third-party sellers, but courts have dismissed some claims for insufficient evidence of consumer harm, as platform efficiencies like one-click purchasing have lowered prices by 20-30% relative to offline retail.^[97] Uber faces probes in Europe for predatory pricing in ride-hailing, yet data indicate intense rivalry with Lyft and local firms has driven service improvements without sustained monopoly rents.^[98] Policy debates weigh regulatory interventions against innovation risks, with advocates for stricter antitrust invoking platform "tipping" to natural monopolies, as in Lina Khan's FTC framework targeting non-price harms like privacy erosion.^[99] The EU's Digital Markets Act (2022, enforced 2024) designates "gatekeepers" like Amazon for ex-ante rules on interoperability, aiming to curb lock-in effects, but critics cite slowed venture investment in Europe versus the U.S., where lighter touch fostered 5x more platform startups per capita.^[100] In labor-policy crossovers, proposals like U.S. bills for sector-specific bargaining rights seek middle grounds, allowing collective action without full reclassification, though empirical reviews question their efficacy amid platforms' global mobility.^[101] Overall, evidence suggests overbroad regulations may deter entry and raise costs—e.g., post-DMA compliance expenses hit Meta at €500 million in 2024—while under-enforcement risks unchecked power; causal analysis favors targeted remedies over structural breakups, given platforms' demonstrated consumer surpluses exceeding $1 trillion annually in the U.S. alone.^[102]^[103]

Cultural and Artistic Platforms

Performing Arts and Stage Contexts

In theater and performing arts, a platform stage consists of a raised rectangular or square area positioned at one end of a rectangular room or hall, with the audience seated facing it directly from the opposite end or sides.^[104] This configuration lacks a proscenium arch or framing, emphasizing a straightforward, unadorned performance space that prioritizes visibility and acoustics for frontal viewing.^[105] Platform stages are typically employed in multipurpose venues such as community halls, schools, churches, or conference rooms, where the setup can be temporary or modular, often constructed from portable risers or decking systems elevated 1 to 4 feet above floor level to ensure performer elevation without complex machinery.^[106] Their simplicity allows for quick assembly and disassembly, making them suitable for lectures, speeches, or small-scale productions like school plays, corporate events, or amateur theater.^[107] Unlike thrust stages, which project into the audience on three sides for greater immersion, or proscenium stages with a picture-frame arch separating performers from viewers, platform stages maintain a linear separation that facilitates easier lighting and sound direction focused on a single audience quadrant.^[108] This design supports intimate audience-performer dynamics in end-stage formats but limits spatial flexibility, as backstage areas—if present—are minimal or absent, requiring performers to enter from the sides or rear of the room.^[105] Advantages include cost-effectiveness, with setups achievable using standard modular platforms costing under $10,000 for a 20x20-foot area as of 2023, and broad sightlines for audiences up to 200-300 seated in raked or level flooring.^[106] Drawbacks encompass restricted actor movement and potential acoustic dead spots for rear seating, though these are mitigated in smaller venues by ceiling heights of 10-15 feet.^[104] Historically, platform stages trace roots to medieval European mystery plays, where portable wooden platforms on wagons—known as pageant wagons—were elevated about 4-6 feet for street performances, allowing visibility over crowds during festivals like the York Cycle in the 14th-16th centuries.^[109] By the Renaissance, fixed platform configurations appeared in Elizabethan theaters like the original Globe Theatre (built 1599), featuring an open, raised apron extending toward groundling audiences, blending platform simplicity with early thrust elements for Shakespeare's works.^[110] In the 20th century, platform stages gained prevalence in educational and community settings post-World War II, coinciding with the rise of flexible theater movements; for instance, U.S. school auditoriums from the 1950s onward often incorporated adjustable platforms to accommodate both assemblies and drama classes.^[104] Modern adaptations include hydraulic or scissor-lift platforms for variable heights, used in contemporary performing arts for dance or music events, as seen in facilities like the Questors Theatre's Studio in Ealing, London, which employs a basic raised platform for experimental productions since its 1964 opening.^[104] In non-theatrical performing arts, platforms extend to circus and acrobatic contexts, where elevated rigging platforms—often 10-30 feet high with safety netting—support aerial acts, as standardized by the International Code of Practice for Performing Arts since 2010 to ensure structural integrity under loads exceeding 500 pounds per square foot.^[111] These differ from static theater platforms by incorporating dynamic elements like trapeze mounts but share the core function of providing a dedicated, raised performance zone. Overall, platform usage persists due to its adaptability, with global installations in over 70% of U.S. K-12 schools featuring such stages for arts education as of 2021 surveys.^[107]

Media and Content Dissemination

Media platforms serve as conduits for the distribution of cultural and artistic content, encompassing both traditional broadcast systems and digital networks that enable creators to reach audiences. In the context of arts and culture, these platforms facilitate the sharing of visual arts, performances, literature, and multimedia works, evolving from centralized gatekept channels like print publications and television to decentralized digital spaces.^[112]^[113] Historically, content dissemination began with print media following Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the movable-type printing press in the 1440s, which democratized access to books and pamphlets containing artistic narratives and cultural texts. By the 20th century, radio and television emerged as dominant platforms, broadcasting performances and cultural programming to mass audiences; for instance, the BBC's radio dramas in the 1920s and television adaptations of literature in the 1950s exemplified structured dissemination controlled by broadcasters. The shift to digital platforms accelerated in the late 1990s with the internet's commercialization, enabling websites and early social networks to host user-generated artistic content.^[112]^[114] Contemporary digital platforms have transformed artistic dissemination by providing tools for direct creator-audience interaction and global reach. Social media sites such as Instagram and YouTube, with Instagram boasting over 2 billion monthly active users as of 2024, prioritize visual and video content ideal for photography, illustrations, and performance clips, allowing artists to build followings without traditional intermediaries. Specialized platforms like Behance cater to designers and visual artists by hosting portfolios and facilitating professional networking, while Discord supports community-driven discussions around niche cultural topics. Streaming services, including Netflix and Spotify, have further expanded dissemination, with Spotify hosting over 100 million tracks for musical artists by 2023, often integrating algorithmic recommendations to amplify cultural works.^[115]^[116]^[117] These platforms enhance accessibility and virality, enabling independent artists to bypass gatekeepers; for example, viral TikTok videos have propelled musicians like Lil Nas X to mainstream success since 2019 through short-form content sharing. However, algorithmic curation can skew visibility toward sensational or trend-aligned works, potentially marginalizing niche cultural expressions, while content moderation policies—often criticized for inconsistent enforcement—affect dissemination of controversial artistic themes. Arts organizations leverage these tools for engagement, such as museums using Instagram Stories for virtual exhibitions, reaching wider demographics amid declining traditional attendance.^[118]^[119]^[120] Challenges include platform dependency and economic precarity, as creators rely on ad revenue or subscriptions vulnerable to policy shifts; data from 2023 indicates that only top earners on platforms like YouTube sustain full-time artistic careers. Moreover, digital platforms have amplified cultural exchange across borders, with studies showing increased global dissemination of indigenous arts via social media, though this raises concerns over cultural appropriation without contextual framing. Regulatory scrutiny, such as EU investigations into platform algorithms since 2022, underscores tensions between free expression in arts and content controls.^[121]^[122]

References

[1]
Definition of Platform (Digital Business) - IT Glossary - Gartner
A platform is a product that serves or enables other products or services. Platforms (in the context of digital business) exist at many levels.
[2]
Platform Business Model explained…in under 100 words - Deloitte
The platform business model does not own the means of production, but rather creates and facilitates the means of connection. What are the different types?
[3]
3 Benefits of Transitioning to a Platform Business Model - HBS Online
May 16, 2024 · A platform business model capitalizes on digital infrastructure to facilitate interactions between user groups. Organizations that use such ...
[4]
Platform business models: A primer - CIO
A platform is a plug-and-play business model that allows multiple participants (producers and consumers) to connect to it, interact with each other and exchange ...
[5]
Did You Experience the Platform Economy Today?
Jun 21, 2018 · Platform businesses have stormed at the head of economic activity. Platform-mediated networks produce over half the revenue for over half of the world's 100 ...
[6]
A Simple Definition Of “Platform” - Forrester
Feb 20, 2025 · We've been discussing this common definition of platform: “a product that supports the creation and/or delivery of other products.”
[7]
[PDF] Platform Antitrust Erik Hovenkamp* - Journal of Corporation Law
Platform economics has important implications for antitrust policy. A hallmark of two- sided markets—those in which platforms operate—is the need to get both ...
[8]
[PDF] The Economics of Platforms in a Walrasian Framework
In particular, in the two-sided market literature, a key concern is how the distribution of users' fees will cover the platform's fixed and marginal costs.
[9]
The big product and platform transformation | McKinsey
Jun 9, 2023 · The product and platform model ensures that technology delivery is aligned to the strategy and related priorities. In our experience, it can ...
[10]
The Digital Economy, Platform Markets, and Big Data | Insights - BRG
Platforms have become particularly important in the digital economy as internet technology facilitates massive connectivity and software technologies facilitate ...
[11]
The Antitrust Analysis of Multi-Sided Platform Businesses
David S. Evans & Richard Schmalensee, "The Antitrust Analysis of Multi-Sided Platform Businesses" (Coase-Sandor Institute for Law & Economics Working Paper No.<|separator|>
[12]
[PDF] The Platform Economy Matures: Pervasive Power, Private ...
To broadly understand the presence of platforms across the economy, we undertake an exercise to capture the widespread presence of platform businesses in the ...
[13]
[PDF] An Analysis of Multi-Sided Platform Research Over the Past Three ...
Jul 15, 2019 · The multi-sided (or two-sided) market is the foundational theory for multi-sided platform research based on industrial organization ...
[14]
[PDF] digital platform economics: essays on innovation effects
Overall, this dissertation expands scientific knowledge on how the strong benefits of the platform economy can be preserved while protecting competition and the ...
[15]
Platform - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating in the 1540s from French plateforme, meaning "flat form," this word referred initially to a plan or sketch, now obsolete, with its meaning ...
[16]
platform, n. & adj. meanings, etymology and more
noun I. A surface or area on which something may stand, esp. a raised level surface. I.1.a. 1531–1704 † An open walk or terrace, running along the top of a ...
[17]
party platform, n. meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the noun party platform is in the 1840s. OED's earliest evidence for party platform is from 1848, in the writing of James Russell ...
[18]
Republican Party Platform of 1860 | The American Presidency Project
Republican Party Platform of 1860. May 17, 1860. Resolved, That we, the delegated representatives of the Republican electors of the United States in ...
[19]
The Mysterious Power of the Platform, the Internet's Building Block
Sep 5, 2023 · For most of its history, “platform” didn't designate anything technological. Rather, its earliest origins can be traced back to the French ...
[20]
The platform metaphor, revisited - Culture Digitally
Aug 24, 2017 · Figuratively, a platform is flat, open, sturdy. In its connotations, a platform offers the opportunity to act, connect, or speak in ways that ...
[21]
Podium | Encyclopedia.com
In Classical architecture it is essentially the platform on which stood a Roman temple or a peristyle of columns supporting a dome. 2.
[22]
Steel Structure Platform Explained: Type, Composition, and More
Jan 21, 2025 · Steel structure platform design should always start with a thorough review of all load requirements, structural support types, space constraints ...
[23]
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/podium
[24]
Western architecture - Greek, Roman, Temples | Britannica
At Xanthus, the capital of Lycia, a tomb resembling a Greek temple raised high on a platform had been built by the end of the 5th century; similar structures ...
[25]
Architecture in the Ancient World - World History Encyclopedia
Aug 27, 2019 · Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Ancient Egyptian architecture is ... Adisthana - the decorative raised platform on which a temple is built...
[26]
Podium Construction 101 – Types, Benefits, and Things to Consider
Jul 13, 2020 · The International Building Code (IBC), defines podium buildings as two separate structures built on top of one another. For example, ...<|separator|>
[27]
Different Types of Access Platforms and Applications
Access platforms include folding systems, powered platforms like scissor lifts and cherry pickers, and stationary/semi-stationary platforms.
[28]
Platforms and Catwalks | ReadyPlatform - Bedford Reinforced Plastics
Aug 5, 2021 · An industrial platform is a raised platform that helps workers safely walk over obstacles or more safely and efficiently access equipment or ...
[29]
Industrial Mezzanines vs Equipment Platforms | FCPMezzanine
Jun 29, 2023 · Equipment platforms, like mezzanines, are designed to be an efficient and highly customizable solution in optimizing space within a building.
[30]
Work Platforms and Mezzanines: What Are the Distinctions?
Jul 29, 2024 · There are several types of elevated work platforms, but the four main ones are shelving elevated platforms, rack supported platforms, free- ...
[31]
A Brief History of Offshore Drilling Facilities and Vessels - Armoda Blog
Aug 26, 2022 · The first “offshore” oil well was completed on November 14th, 1947, 10 miles off the coast of Louisiana at a depth of 18 feet. Drilled by Kerr- ...
[32]
History of semisubmersible platforms provides guidance for future ...
Feb 24, 2020 · The first oil and gas production from a floating platform began in 1975 from the Argyll field in the central North Sea in about 80 m of water.
[33]
Offshore Industry - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Since 1947, more than 10,000 offshore platforms of various types and sizes have been constructed and installed worldwide. As of 1995, 30% of the world's ...<|separator|>
[34]
[PDF] Railroad Transportation
The introduction of railways revolutionized transportation and changed the economic geography of the world. Higher speeds, greater comfort, and lower costs ...
[35]
6.4 – Rail Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems
The first forms of intermodal application to rail appeared in the late 19th century with practices dubbed “circus trains” because lorries were rolled in on ...
[36]
Freight Rail & Intermodal | AAR - Association of American Railroads
Enabled by regulatory reforms in 1980, railroads have invested heavily in intermodal infrastructure, technology, and services, making freight transport more ...Missing: platforms applications
[37]
What Was the First Loading Dock? - Beuschel Sales, Inc.
In 1953 Gary Kelley invented the first counterbalanced dock leveler. It was a hinged steel ramp with a lip that greatly improved the connection.
[38]
Platform - Glossary | CSRC
Definitions: A computer or hardware device and/or associated operating system, or a virtual environment, on which software can be installed or run.
[39]
What Is a Platform? Definition from SearchServerVirtualization
Nov 2, 2023 · A platform is any hardware or software used to host an application or service. An application platform, for example, consists of hardware, an operating system ...
[40]
Computer Platform Definition, Components & Types - Lesson
A computer platform is a system that has a hardware system and an operating system to allow the user to run programs, applications and processes.What is a Computer Platform? · Components of a Computer...
[41]
Timeline of Computer History
Started in 1943, the ENIAC computing system was built by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of ...
[42]
History of computers: A brief timeline | Live Science
Dec 22, 2023 · The history of computers began with primitive designs in the early 19th century and went on to change the world during the 20th century.
[43]
SDK vs API - Difference Between Developer Tools - AWS
SDKs are platform-specific tools for new applications, while APIs enable communication between software components and expand existing applications. SDKs are ...
[44]
SDK vs. API: What's the Difference? - IBM
SDKs are software building tools, often including APIs, while APIs facilitate communication between platforms. SDKs are the complete kit, and APIs are tools ...
[45]
Software Platform - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A software platform is a software-based product or service that serves as a foundation on which outside parties can build complementary products or services.2.4 Containerization And... · 4. Role Of Software... · 5. Emerging Trends...
[46]
On the terminology of digital ecosystems and platforms
“A digital ecosystem is a sociotechnical system that encompasses individuals and companies participating as providers or consumers, as well the IT systems that ...
[47]
A matter of definition: Criteria for digital ecosystems - ScienceDirect
Digital ecosystem-likes establish business models in which the main revenue stream no longer consists of the production of a good that is sold to customers; ...
[48]
5 Ways to Leverage Network Effects for Business Growth - HBS Online
Jul 16, 2024 · For example, platforms like TikTok and Facebook benefit from direct network effects, where their values increase as more users join and interact ...
[49]
The Network Effects Manual: 16 Different Network Effects (and ... - NFX
At present, we've identified three types of 2-sided network effects: marketplace, platform, and asymptotic.Network Effects Basics · Direct Network Effects · 2-Sided Network Effects · Expertise
[50]
Data Platforms and Network Effects - Communications of the ACM
Oct 1, 2022 · Network effects imply the value of the platform increases, at least potentially and sometimes geometrically or exponentially, with each ...<|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] 2024 App Store Transparency Report - Apple
Apps. Total number of apps on the App Store. 1,961,596. App submissions reviewed1. 7,771,599. App submissions rejected. 1,931,400. App submission rejections by ...
[52]
The Network Effect of Apple's Dominance over Android - Cornell blogs
Nov 21, 2021 · This article sheds light on how two separate strategies in software development in the mobile phone industry can drive success in the network effect.Missing: ecosystem | Show results with:ecosystem
[53]
Network Effects: The Key Behind Tech Companies | Cosmico
Dec 29, 2023 · The growth of digital ecosystems, smart cities, and connected devices will create new platforms for network effects to flourish. Companies ...The Role of Network Effects in... · Case Studies of Network Effects
[54]
Digital platforms and ecosystems: remarks on the dominant ...
Network effects lead to rapid growth. Under certain conditions, they can also lead to customer lock-in and winner-take-all or winner-take-most market outcomes, ...
[55]
Measuring network effects of digital industrial platforms - SpringerLink
Oct 16, 2023 · Generally, network effects rapidly transfer negative developments to the entire ecosystem, so digital platforms can also suffer a decline (Duan ...
[56]
[2507.04545] Measuring Social Media Network Effects - arXiv
Jul 6, 2025 · Our analysis reveals social media platform value ranges from 78 to 101 per consumer, per month, on average, and that 20-34% of that value is explained by local ...
[57]
Department of Justice Prevails in Landmark Antitrust Case Against ...
The US District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia held that Google violated antitrust law by monopolizing open-web digital advertising markets.Missing: Amazon | Show results with:Amazon
[58]
Department of Justice Wins Significant Remedies Against Google
Sep 2, 2025 · In August 2024, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia released a 277-page opinion, concluding that “Google is a monopolist, and ...Missing: Apple Meta Amazon
[59]
Targeting Digital Platforms | Cato Institute
The Justice Department (DOJ) sued Apple in March 2024 for allegedly monopolizing the smartphone market, and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) sued Amazon in ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[60]
Digital Markets Act - European Union
Gatekeepers are large digital platforms providing so called core platform services, such as for example online search engines, app stores, messenger services.
[61]
Introduction: how competition authorities are adapting to the digital ...
Sep 22, 2025 · Trends in antitrust · In March 2024, the EC fined Apple over €1.8 billion for abusing its dominant position on the market for the distribution of ...Trends In Antitrust · Trends In Merger Control · Updated Guidance From...<|separator|>
[62]
The Digital Markets Act: ensuring fair and open digital markets
The Digital Markets Act establishes a set of clearly defined objective criteria to qualify a large online platform as a “gatekeeper”Digital Markets Act · A Europe fit for the digital age · Gatekeepers · Resources
[63]
California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)
Mar 13, 2024 · The California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018 (CCPA) gives consumers more control over the personal information that businesses collect about them.Missing: scandals | Show results with:scandals
[64]
Data protection laws in the United States
Feb 6, 2025 · Under the CCPA, data breaches due to inadequate security measures, allow for a private right of action. The highlight the evolving landscape of ...Registration · Enforcement · Next topicMissing: scandals | Show results with:scandals
[65]
What Does Research Tell Us About Technology Platform ...
May 21, 2025 · Their findings “provide strong evidence of a partisan asymmetry in misinformation sharing which cannot be attributed to political bias on the ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[66]
https://www.cnbc.com/2025/10/24/eu-says-tiktok-and-meta-broke-transparency-rules-under-tech-law.html
[67]
The Conservative Political Playbook Driving the FTC Platform ...
May 21, 2025 · The result was a growing body of research illuminating the intersection of disinformation, political campaigns, and platform content moderation.
[68]
Resolving content moderation dilemmas between free speech and ...
Content moderation is controversial and consequential. Regulators are reluctant to restrict harmful but legal content such as misinformation, thereby leaving ...
[69]
https://www.democrats.org/where-we-stand/party-platform/
[70]
Republican Party Platform (1860) - Teaching American History
Lincoln had become widely known for his anti-slavery stance and seemed to fit solidly into a political party that abhorred slavery and wanted to see it ...
[71]
1932 Democratic Party Platform | The American Presidency Project
The Democratic Party declares its conviction that the chief causes of this condition were the disastrous policies pursued by our government since the World War.
[72]
2024 Republican Party Platform - The American Presidency Project
Jul 8, 2024 · 2024 GOP PLATFORM: MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN! Dedication: To the Forgotten Men and Women of America PREAMBLE America First: A Return to Common Sense.
[73]
2024 Democratic Party Platform | The American Presidency Project
Aug 19, 2024 · We will continue to reject political violence of all forms and give hate no safe harbor. Donald Trump has a very different vision – one focused ...
[74]
(PDF) Multi-sided Platforms - ResearchGate
Oct 31, 2017 · Multi-sided platforms, including labour platforms, reduce transaction costs for their users. Platforms address these issues thanks to ...
[75]
[PDF] The Industrial Organization of Markets with Two-Sided Platforms
This paper provides a brief introduction to the economics of two- sided platforms and the implications for antitrust analysis. David S. Evans is Chairman of ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[76]
[PDF] The Antitrust Analysis of Multi-Sided Platform Businesses
For multi-sided platforms, the demand by one group of economic agents also depends on the number (or other measures of the size and quality) of each of the ...
[77]
(PDF) The New Economics of Multi-Sided Platforms: A Guide to the ...
The earliest strand-digital-platform economicsanalyzed two-sided market structures and network effects typified by Amazon or Alibaba (Evans & Schmalensee, 2016) ...
[78]
The evolution of platform business models: Exploring competitive ...
... platform business model, as a source of value creation and capture, can help ... Platform Revolution: How Networked Markets Are Transforming the ...
[79]
[PDF] A Taxonomy for Platform Revenue Models - VU Research Portal
Our research aims to address this gap by exploring and categorizing revenue model types for platform business models, thereby contributing to a better ...
[80]
The Literature Review of Platform Economy - Xue - 2020
The focus of the platform economy is to solve the problem of how platforms can price both sides of the market at the same time. Rochet and Tirole [12] focus on ...
[81]
The Future of Platforms - MIT Sloan Management Review
Feb 11, 2020 · Through interviews, case studies, and other sources, they identified common challenges faced by all types of platforms, as well as future trends ...
[82]
Sharing Economy Market Report 2025, Overview And Size
$$4,490.00 In stockThe sharing economy market size has grown exponentially in recent years. It will grow from $194.14 billion in 2024 to $244.8 billion in 2025 at a compound ...
[83]
What is the gig economy and what's the deal for gig workers?
Nov 22, 2024 · The challenge is to balance innovation with a fair deal for workers. In 2024, the so-called gig economy had a market size of $556.7 billion.
[84]
15 Facts About The Platform Economy Growth In 2024 & 2025
Nov 1, 2024 · In 2024, the platform economy's market cap is approaching $5 trillion, with public companies valued at $4.5 trillion. By 2025, it could exceed ...Missing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[85]
Harnessing AI For Dynamic Pricing For Your Business - Forbes
Jun 24, 2024 · First, there is Uber. Perhaps the most well-known example of dynamic pricing, Uber uses AI to adjust ride fares in real time based on factors ...
[86]
Dynamic Pricing: What It Is & Why It's Important - HBS Online
May 10, 2024 · Dynamic pricing is a strategy that bases products or services' prices on evolving market trends, such as: Supply and demand; Competitor pricing ...
[87]
Ending the Independent Contractor Debate - R Street Institute
Jun 24, 2025 · Over the past decade or more, in conjunction with the rise of the gig economy, a growing debate has arisen about how to classify American ...Missing: EU 2023-2025
[88]
The Gig Trap: Algorithmic, Wage and Labor Exploitation in Platform ...
May 12, 2025 · The business model of major platforms in the US exploits the prospect of flexible work to classify platform workers as independent contractors.
[89]
Department of Labor Plans to Rescind Biden's Gig Worker Rule ...
May 5, 2025 · On May 1, 2025, the Department of Labor's (DOL) Wage and Hour Division announced that it will no longer enforce a Biden-era labor rule that aimed to reclassify ...Missing: EU 2023-2025
[90]
Ending the Independent Contractor Debate - Manhattan Institute
Jun 24, 2025 · Over the past decade or more, in conjunction with the rise of the gig economy, a growing debate has arisen about how to classify American ...Missing: EU 2023-2025
[91]
EU's Platform Work Directive: A Threat to Gig Workers ...
Oct 9, 2024 · EU countries have recently agreed to reclassify many gig workers as employees, which potentially impacts up to 43 million workers.<|separator|>
[92]
Why does the US have it in for gig workers? - The Guardian
Feb 8, 2025 · The US Department of Labor has issued updated rules that address worker classifications, which have forced more companies to reclassify their ...
[93]
(PDF) Gig Economy Worker's Legal Status: Employee or ...
Aug 4, 2025 · This study aims to understand gig workers and platform provider companies' employment relationships, further defining the scheme of gig workers' legal ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[94]
How Big Tech is faring against US antitrust lawsuits - Reuters
Sep 2, 2025 · Last year, a judge largely rejected Amazon's bid to dismiss the case. The trial is scheduled for February 2027. APPLE. The Justice Department ...
[95]
The Message for Big Tech in the Google Ruling - The New York Times
Sep 3, 2025 · A federal judge ordered steps in the search monopoly case that will restrain Google but not break it up, signaling a cautious antitrust approach ...Missing: platform Uber 2023-2025
[96]
Big Tech and Antitrust Law: Overview | Research Starters - EBSCO
The topic of Big Tech and Antitrust Law centers around the significant market influence of major technology companies like Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple.Missing: Uber | Show results with:Uber
[97]
US Antitrust Cases Against Big Tech: What's Next? - Success Knocks
Sep 10, 2025 · The U.S. government has thrown down the gauntlet, targeting tech giants like Google, Amazon, Apple, and Meta with lawsuits aimed at curbing ...
[98]
Global Tracker for Developments in Antitrust Enforcement and ...
This tech sector antitrust/competition tracker, run by the Center for Transnational Law and Business, provides recent news and developments in competition ...
[99]
[PDF] Federal Big Tech Litigation - American Economic Liberties Project
The case also alleged that the lack of competitive pressure on Google to respect user privacy and improve search results has harmed consumers. Ruling. • On ...Missing: Uber | Show results with:Uber
[100]
New directions in competition policy: an overview | Oxford
Jan 30, 2025 · This article summarizes a diverse range of contributions from academics, regulators, and practitioners in law and economics.
[101]
Balancing Flexibility and Vulnerability: Worker Classification in the ...
Jul 10, 2025 · This Comment presents a pragmatic and sustainable path forward that acknowledges the complexities of modern working relationships in the gig economy.Missing: EU | Show results with:EU
[102]
Tech Giants on Trial 2025: Antitrust Challenges at Google and ...
This case examines the resurgence of antitrust enforcement in the United States in 2025 through the lens of ongoing litigation against Amazon and Google.Missing: platform economy Uber 2023-2025
[103]
BiGS debate: Experts clash over innovation and competition in tech
Apr 2, 2025 · Experts argued over how to promote competition and innovation in America's ballooning technology sector during the 90-minute inaugural BiGS debate.<|control11|><|separator|>
[104]
What are the types of theatre stages and auditoria?
The Studio at the Questors Theatre, Ealing. Platform stages. These usually consist of a raised rectangular platform at one end of a room. They can either ...
[105]
Types of Stages - Illuminated Integration
Jan 29, 2021 · Platform stages are traditionally located in areas that are not primarily used as theaters. This could include multipurpose spaces in event ...
[106]
Types of Performance Stages & Layouts - StageRight
Apr 13, 2023 · It can be as basic as a raised platform at the end of a room. Like a proscenium stage, the audience sits directly facing the stage. If the ...Proscenium Stage · Thrust Stage · Black Box Or Flexible...<|separator|>
[107]
Types of Stage Layouts and What Theater Actors Need to Know
Feb 21, 2024 · Platform stages are commonly found in venues that are used for more than just theatrical performances, such as multipurpose buildings, churches, ...
[108]
Types Of Theatre Stages - The Forestburgh Playhouse
Mar 21, 2022 · A platform stage often consists of a large room that has a raised platform at one end. Sometimes there is a backstage, sometimes there is a ...The Thrust Stage · The Proscenium Stage · The Amphitheater
[109]
Open stage | Acting, Performance & Rehearsal - Britannica
Open stage, theatrical stage without a proscenium, projecting into the audience and surrounded on three sides by the audience.
[110]
thrust stage - Students | Britannica Kids | Homework Help
The thrust stage, which is also called the open stage or the platform stage, was used in the corrales of Spain's Golden Age of theater (beginning about 1570) ...
[111]
All the World's a Stage - Wenger | J.R. Clancy
Feb 24, 2025 · transportable, raised platform at the end of a room. They are ideal for drawing attention to a speaker or performer. Common examples include ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[112]
1.3 The Evolution of Media | Media and Culture - Lumen Learning
A Brief History of Mass Media and Culture. Until Johannes Gutenberg's 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, books were painstakingly ...
[113]
[PDF] THE EVOLUTION OF MEDIA PLATFORMS: FROM PRINT TO DIGITAL
Initially, print media, encompassing newspapers, magazines, and books, was the primary mode of information dissemination. The invention of the printing press in ...
[114]
Timeline of the Evolution of Mass Media - NIMCJ
Jul 22, 2024 · In this article, we will see the chronological order of the evolution of mass media throughout the ages.
[115]
The Role of Social Media Platforms in Content Dissemination
Mar 9, 2024 · Social media platforms are essential for information dissemination and communication. With over 4.62 billion users worldwide, platforms like ...
[116]
The 13 best social media platforms for artists and designers
Aug 7, 2025 · Discord is best for building your creative community, and a great platform to use in tandem with other platforms like Instagram or ArtStation.
[117]
Social Media for Artists: Best Platforms, Strategies, and Pitfalls
Sep 5, 2025 · Instagram is arguably the most artist-friendly platform due to its visual-first design. This format aligns perfectly with artistic content, ...<|separator|>
[118]
The impact of social media on content distribution - AIContentfy
Feb 26, 2025 · Explore the positive and negative impact of social media on content distribution, including increased reach, influencer marketing, ...
[119]
Social Media: Content Dissemination and Moderation Practices
Mar 20, 2025 · ... moderate and prevent the spread of misinformation, harmful, or otherwise objectionable content. ... Tech Censorship," press release ...
[120]
A quick guide to social media for the arts - Substrakt
Instagram has the feed, stories, reels and IGTV. We'll stick with examples from the feed and stories, given that's what most arts and culture organisations tend ...
[121]
The impact of technological advancement on culture and society
Dec 30, 2024 · Digital platforms have amplified the dissemination of cultural values, allowing societies to share practices and traditions across borders.
[122]
The Rise of Digital Media: Transforming Communication, Culture ...
Digital media has not only transformed communication but also had a profound impact on culture, influencing everything from entertainment to social behavior.