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Poleaxe

The poleaxe, also known as the pollaxe or pollax, is a type of medieval European pole weapon characterized by a long wooden shaft typically measuring 4 to 6 feet in length, topped with a metal head combining an axe blade for cutting, a hammer or flanged head for crushing, and a spike or beak for thrusting and piercing armor.^[1]^[2]^[3] This versatile design allowed it to deliver powerful blows capable of inflicting severe wounds on both armored and unarmored foes, making it a favored tool for close-quarters combat.^[2] Originating in the 14th century as an evolution of earlier warhammers and axes, such as the Danish axe, the poleaxe gained prominence during the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, particularly in Western Europe where it served as the infantry counterpart to the halberd.^[1] It was wielded primarily by dismounted knights, men-at-arms, and foot soldiers, who used it effectively against mounted cavalry and in sieges, as seen in the Burgundian Wars.^[3] The weapon's popularity peaked in the 15th century, with ornate examples reflecting the status of their owners, and it remained in use until the 16th century before being largely supplanted by firearms and other polearms.^[1] In design, the poleaxe's head varied regionally, with English versions often emphasizing a broad axe blade (6 to 11 inches long) alongside a hammer, while continental variants like the bec-de-corbin featured a curved beak for hooking and piercing plate armor.^[1]^[2] Shafts were commonly made of ash or oak, sometimes reinforced with metal langets or fitted with rondel guards to protect the user's hands, and the overall weight ranged from 5 to 6 pounds for balanced two-handed use.^[1] Combat treatises, such as Fiore dei Liberi's Flos Duellatorum (early 15th century) and Hans Talhoffer's Fechtbuch (mid-15th century), detail techniques including thrusting strikes, parries, and grappling maneuvers, underscoring its role in both battlefield engagements and judicial duels. Notable historical instances include its use in mass battles like Towton in 1461, where skeletal remains from mass graves show evidence of poleaxe-inflicted trauma.^[1] Surviving artifacts, such as those in the Wallace Collection dated to around 1470, highlight the weapon's craftsmanship and adaptability, cementing its status as one of the most effective anti-armor weapons of its era.^[1]

Origins and Etymology

Historical Development

The poleaxe emerged in the 14th century as an evolution of earlier warhammers and axes, such as the Dane axe, developing to provide versatile anti-armor capabilities during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).^[1] This development addressed the limitations of traditional axes and spears against increasingly sophisticated plate armor, incorporating an axe head for chopping and a spike for thrusting to penetrate or concuss protected foes.^[3] Later illustrations, such as those in Froissart's Chronicles depicting the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, associate the weapon with early major engagements of the war.^[1] By the 15th century, the poleaxe reached its peak adoption across Europe, particularly among knights and infantry in England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, where it became a staple for dismounted combat in major engagements.^[1] Its versatility shone in battles like Agincourt in 1415, during which English longbowmen, having depleted their arrows, transitioned to poleaxes for close-quarters assaults on disorganized French heavy cavalry, exacerbating the rout and leading to heavy casualties.^[4] Treatises from this era, such as those by Fiore dei Liberi and Hans Talhoffer, underscore its prominence as a knightly weapon, emphasizing techniques tailored for armored duels and battlefield efficacy.^[5] The poleaxe's decline began in the 16th century, driven by the rise of firearms like arquebuses and the obsolescence of full plate armor, which shifted warfare toward ranged engagements and longer pikes for infantry formations.^[3] As gunpowder weapons proliferated, the need for specialized anti-armor melee tools diminished, leading to the poleaxe's gradual replacement by more mass-produced polearms and early firearms in European armies by the mid-1500s.

Linguistic Roots

The term "poleaxe," also spelled "pollaxe," originates from Middle English "pollax," combining "poll" (meaning head) and "axe," referring to the weapon's distinctive headed design atop a long shaft. The spelling was later influenced by "pole," emphasizing the handle. The word first appears in historical records from the mid-14th century.^[6]

Design and Variants

Core Components

The standard poleaxe features a robust shaft constructed from hardwood, typically ash or oak, valued for their flexibility and ability to absorb shock during impact.^[7]^[8] These woods provide the necessary resilience against splintering under repeated strikes, with shafts measuring 4 to 6 feet in length to allow for versatile handling in close-quarters combat.^[1] Reinforcement often includes leather wrappings for grip and metal langets—thin steel strips riveted along the shaft—to secure the head and prevent splitting at the junction.^[9] The head assembly, forged from steel, integrates multiple functional elements into a single unit for chopping, crushing, and thrusting. It commonly comprises an axe blade on one or both sides, with a cutting edge of 6 to 11 inches designed for cleaving; a central hammer or flanged mace head for penetrating plate armor; and a rear spike or dagger-like point, typically 4 to 10 inches long, suited for grappling and piercing.^[1] This tripartite design exemplifies the poleaxe's engineering as a multi-purpose weapon, with the components often formed from medium-carbon steel to balance hardness and toughness.^[10] For optimal performance, the poleaxe maintains an overall length of 5 to 7 feet and weighs 4 to 6 pounds, with the center of gravity positioned near the head to facilitate powerful overhead swings and precise thrusts.^[1]^[11] Attachment methods include a socket that encases the shaft's end or a tang inserted into a slotted haft, both secured by rivets and langets to ensure stability under torque.^[1] This configuration enhances durability while allowing the weapon to be wielded one- or two-handed. Manufacturing in the 15th century relied on blacksmithing techniques such as hot forging in coal-fired forges, where the head was hammered into shape on an anvil, followed by quenching in water to harden the edges and tempering for flexibility.^[10] Simpler wrought iron with carburized edges became more common by the late medieval period. Maintenance primarily involved periodic haft replacement, as wood could splinter from impacts, while the steel head required oiling to prevent rust.^[10] These elements form the archetypal build, with minor adaptations appearing across regions to suit local preferences.

Regional Variations

Poleaxe designs varied across medieval Europe to adapt to combat styles and armor types. English variants often featured a broad axe blade (typically 7-9 inches) paired with a hammer head, emphasizing chopping against mail and early plate, as seen in artifacts from the 15th century.^[1] In contrast, continental European designs like the French bec-de-corbin incorporated a curved beak for hooking and piercing plate armor joints, with a shorter spike and flanged hammer, measuring overall 5-6 feet.^[1] Swiss and German examples, such as the Lucerne hammer, prioritized a long-pronged hammer head over the axe blade for crushing blows, often with reinforced langets and lengths up to 7 feet for use by infantry against heavy cavalry.^[1] Italian poleaxes, influenced by judicial duels, sometimes included ornate engravings and a more balanced design with both axe and spike, weighing around 5 pounds. These variations highlight the weapon's adaptability, though core components remained consistent.^[11]

Combat Applications

Techniques and Tactics

The poleaxe's offensive techniques emphasized versatile strikes adapted to armored combat, leveraging its multi-faceted head for penetration and blunt force. Primary strikes included overhead chops delivered with the axe blade to breach shields or helmets, as illustrated in Fiore dei Liberi's Fiore de'i Liberi where a powerful downward strike targets the opponent's head from the Stance of the Queen.^[12] Downward strikes with the axe or hammer head in the Stance of the Long Tail beat weapons to the ground.^[12] Thrusts using the top spike pierced mail gaps or visors, with the Shortened Serpent stance enabling a direct face thrust that could trouble cuirasses and breastplates.^[12] Grappling and half-swording extended the poleaxe's utility in close quarters, often requiring gauntlets for safe handling. Fighters used the shaft as a lever to hook and unhorse mounted opponents by snaring limbs or harnesses, a tactic shown in Hans Talhoffer's Fechtbuch illustrations of binding and unhorsing maneuvers.^[13] Gripping the head for precise stabs or trips, as in Paulus Kal's treatises where wrenching at the neck or setting the opponent back over the leg facilitates ground control.^[14] These methods transitioned seamlessly from distance to clinch, exploiting the weapon's length for leverage. Defensive tactics capitalized on the poleaxe's reach and robust construction against shorter weapons like swords. Parrying occurred with the head's flat side or the shaft to deflect incoming strikes, while the overall length allowed keep-away maneuvers to maintain distance, as described in Fiore's True Cross guard where neither axe blows nor thrusts can easily penetrate.^[12] The spike's thrusting utility further aided in countering by redirecting attacks into offensive thrusts.^[12] In tactical roles, the poleaxe excelled in melees against plate armor, targeting vulnerable joints with thrusts or bashes to the helmet for concussion, techniques prominent in armored judicial duels as evidenced in Talhoffer's 1467 fechtbuch and the Codex Wallerstein.^[1] These duels highlighted the weapon's role in prestige combats, where crushing helmet strikes or joint penetrations could decisively incapacitate foes without breaching full plate outright.^[1] For example, at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, English men-at-arms used poleaxes effectively against French knights in close combat.^[3]

Training and Usage Contexts

Fifteenth-century treatises, such as Le Jeu de la Hache, outline techniques for foot combat with the poleaxe as part of knightly education.^[15] In military settings, poleaxes were used by men-at-arms and dismounted knights during the Late Middle Ages, serving as key weapons in both open-field battles and sieges.^[3] They proved effective against cavalry, with the poleaxe's reach and hooking elements allowing infantry to unhorse riders, disrupting charges in battles like those of the Hundred Years' War.^[3] Civilian and ceremonial applications included tournaments, where poleaxes featured in combats among nobility.^[16] In judicial contexts, such as fourteenth- and fifteenth-century trial by combat in England and Germany, the weapon was permitted for resolving disputes, symbolizing noble status and martial prowess.^[17] The poleaxe's weight, typically ranging from 5 to 7 pounds, limited its use to short, intense engagements, necessitating physical conditioning to build endurance for sustained wielding.^[17]

Cultural Impact

Symbolism in Art and Literature

In medieval illuminated manuscripts, the poleaxe is prominently depicted as a symbol of chivalric heroism and martial excellence, particularly in the late 15th-century illustrations of Jean Froissart's Chronicles, where it appears in scenes of pitched battles such as the Battle of Poitiers (1356). These artworks portray knights wielding ornate poleaxes against armored foes, emphasizing the weapon's role in embodying noble valor and tactical superiority on the battlefield.^[1] Similarly, the Trajan Tapestry (c. 1450) from Lausanne Cathedral shows Roman figures using poleaxes in contexts of military justice, underscoring themes of authority and righteous enforcement of order.^[1] In literary works, the poleaxe represents a balance of raw power and refined skill, often wielded by exemplary knights to highlight themes of honor and combat prowess. In Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (1485), poleaxes feature in intense duels, such as instances where a combatant lifts an opponent's visor with the weapon before striking, symbolizing the knight's ability to overcome even the most formidable defenses through strategic force.^[18] This portrayal aligns with broader chivalric narratives, where the poleaxe tempers brute strength with discipline, as seen in descriptions of knights like Lancelot engaging in righteous struggles against adversaries.^[18] Heraldically, the poleaxe functions as an emblem of martial virtue, guardianship, and authoritative might, frequently incorporated into coats of arms to signify a bearer's commitment to knightly duty and defense of justice.^[19] In morality tales and allegorical contexts within medieval chronicles, it denotes the legitimate use of violence against tyranny, as in Froissart's accounts of judicial combats where the weapon enforces moral retribution.^[1] Socially and in terms of gender symbolism, the poleaxe is predominantly linked to male warriors, reinforcing ideals of masculine strength and chivalric dominance in art and literature. However, occasional depictions in European folklore portray female figures as polearm-wielding combatants, such as in late medieval tales of armored noblewomen, symbolizing exceptional defiance of gender norms and empowerment in defensive roles.^[20]

Modern Interpretations

In contemporary historical reenactment and the Historical European Martial Arts (HEMA) community, the poleaxe serves as a key tool for reconstructing medieval combat techniques based on period treatises, such as those by Fiore dei Liberi. Practitioners engage in sparring and training with modern replicas designed for safety and authenticity, often featuring steel heads on ash or hardwood hafts approximately 5 feet long to mimic 15th-century proportions. These replicas, produced by specialized 21st-century forges like White Well Arms in the UK, enable detailed study of thrusting, hooking, and striking maneuvers while minimizing injury risk through blunted edges and synthetic training variants.^[21] Authentic poleaxes are preserved in major institutions, including the Tower of London, where a 16th-century example with a gun-barrel shaft and short knife-like axe blade exemplifies Tudor-era craftsmanship and maintenance challenges like corrosion prevention. Museums conduct metallurgical analyses to distinguish originals—often showing wear from battle or tournaments—from high-fidelity reproductions used in displays or education, highlighting differences in material purity and forging techniques. Such preservation efforts ensure artifacts inform ongoing research into medieval weaponry without risking damage from handling. The poleaxe's linguistic legacy persists in the English idiom "poleaxed," meaning to be stunned or knocked unconscious, with earliest recorded use in 1851 denoting a sudden, overwhelming blow akin to the weapon's impact. This expression, derived from the poleaxe's head-striking capability, entered common parlance in the 19th century amid evolving views on violence. In fantasy media, the poleaxe appears as a versatile two-handed weapon in role-playing games like Dungeons & Dragons, where it deals piercing, slashing, or bludgeoning damage (typically 1d10) and shares mechanics with halberds, allowing players to evoke knightly combat in tabletop scenarios.^[22]^[23] Academic discussions in arms and armor studies debate the poleaxe's effectiveness against other polearms, praising its versatility for close-quarters armored duels over the halberd's infantry focus, though some argue pikes offered superior anti-cavalry reach in open battles.^[24] In popular culture, the poleaxe influences depictions of Crusader warfare in films such as Kingdom of Heaven (2005), where similar staff weapons underscore themes of chivalric defense during the Siege of Jerusalem.^[25] These interpretations bridge historical utility with modern fascination, emphasizing the poleaxe's adaptability in both scholarly analysis and entertainment.

References

[1]
The Medieval Poleaxe -- myArmoury.com
"Poleaxe" is the medieval name used by the English for the long-handled footman's warhammer, regardless of whether it actually had an axe head or not. These ...
[2]
Pole Axe - Medieval Life and Times
The pole axe was a weapon which consisted of a broad, short axe blade mounted on a wooden shaft, or pole, which was between 4 and 5 feet long.
[3]
Polearms - Warfare History Network
The first comprises thrusting and stabbing instruments such as spears and pikes. The second comprises weapons for cutting and slashing, such as the poleaxe and ...
[4]
The changing face of warfare - The poleaxe - jstor
Apart from its use in war, the poleaxe was considered, for nearly a century, a chiv- alric weapon par excellance. During the course of the fifteenth century,.
[5]
https://www.medievalists.net/2015/11/ponderous-cruel-and-mortal-a-review-of-medieval-poleaxe-technique-from-surviving-treatises-of-the-fourteenth-and-fifteenth-centuries/
[6]
Ponderous, Cruel and Mortal: A Review of Medieval Poleaxe ...
Nov 17, 2015 · Ponderous, Cruel and Mortal: A Review of Medieval Poleaxe Technique from Surviving Treatises of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.
[7]
The Viking and medieval spear: materials and manufacture
Sep 5, 2024 · Ash wood was often used for high-quality spear shafts as it optimally combines stability and flexibility. Oak and beech were also commonly used.
[8]
Materials of early medieval spear shafts - Projekt Forlǫg
Jul 25, 2023 · Ash is also recommended as a material for the production of lances in the 19th century, together with walnut and beech (Stępnik 2018: 257). It ...
[9]
What are langets on a polearm for? - Arms & Armor
May 18, 2020 · Langets, as well as the body of most pole arm heads are made from iron. The hardenable steel/iron mix of period smiths would be used on the ...
[10]
None
Summary of each segment:
[11]
The Poleaxe (Azza) - Chicago Swordplay Guild
Fourteenth century art suggests a weapon of 4-6 feet [1.2-1.8 m] in length ... The weight of surviving specimens suggests a weight of 4 – 6 lbs [1.8-2.7 Kg] ...Missing: balance | Show results with:balance<|control11|><|separator|>
[12]
How were poleaxe heads made? -- myArmoury.com
Jan 8, 2012 · The hammer part is placed over the end of the haft. Then metal wedges are "nailed" into the end to secure the hammer in place. The top spike/ ...
[13]
Fiore de'i Liberi/Poleaxe ~ Wiktenauer, the world's largest library of HEMA books and manuscripts ~☞ Insquequo omnes gratuiti fiant
### Summary of Poleaxe Techniques from Fiore de'i Liberi
[14]
Talhoffer Fechtbuch (Cod.icon. 394a) ~ Wiktenauer, the world's largest library of HEMA books and manuscripts ~☞ Insquequo omnes gratuiti fiant
### Summary of Poleaxe Section (Cod.icon. 394a, ff 41r - 53r)
[15]
Paulus Kal Fechtbuch (MS KK5126) ~ Wiktenauer, the world's largest library of HEMA books and manuscripts ~☞ Insquequo omnes gratuiti fiant
### Summary of Poleaxe Techniques from Paulus Kal Fechtbuch (MS KK5126)
[16]
(PDF) Ponderous, Cruel & Mortal: A Review of Medieval Poleaxe ...
The medieval poleaxe combines multiple combat techniques, reinforcing its versatility in armored combat. Surviving treatises, including those by Talhoffer and ...
[17]
wasters and wooden swords
Wasters were heavy, sword-shaped wooden training weapons used to practice swordsmanship, made as mock weapons for safe training, and also known as a foil.
[18]
Le Jeu de la Hache - 15th century polaxe treatise
Part axe, part spear, part war-hammer, and part short-staff, the versatile polaxe was used something like a mace and a sword as well as a pole-arm. It was ...
[19]
Knightly Pollaxe - Arms & Armor
Dec 16, 2019 · The pollaxe was one of the most important knightly weapons of the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Usually between four and a half and seven feet in overall ...
[20]
https://battlingblades.com/blogs/news/women-in-combat-historical-weapons-wielded-by-female-warriors
[21]
Armorial Gold Heraldry Symbolism
As charges they are generally symbols of power, guardianship and authority. POLEAXE (pollaxe, polaxe): A staff weapon used by Knights. The blade was an axe-head ...
[22]
https://www.oed.com/dictionary/poleaxed_adj
[23]
Poleaxe suitable for Hema : r/wma - Reddit
Sep 4, 2017 · In steel, White Well Arms makes some of the nicest polearms in the UK. Ryall Armouries also does a good line in re-enactment pollaxes, generally ...
[24]
poleaxed, adj. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English ...
OED's earliest evidence for poleaxed is from 1851, in the writing of Martin Tupper, poet and writer. poleaxed is probably formed within English, by derivation.
[25]
Poleaxe | Wiki | Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) Amino
Proficiency with halberds also applies to poleaxes. Many different types of poleaxes exist. These are the main ones. Spike, axe, and hammer.
[26]
https://battlingblades.com/blogs/news/poleaxe-vs-halberd-which-is-the-best-weapon-for-battle
[27]
Kingdom of Heaven (2005) - IMDb
Rating 7.3/10 (343,166) Balian of Ibelin travels to Jerusalem during the Crusades of the 12th century, and there he finds himself as the defender of the city and its people.Full cast & crew · Kingdom of Heaven · Parents guide · Plot