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Spike

Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee (born March 20, 1957) is an American film director, producer, screenwriter, actor, and educator whose independent films often center on racial tensions, urban life, and African American experiences in the United States.^[1]^[2] A graduate of Morehouse College and New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, Lee gained prominence with his debut feature She's Gotta Have It (1986), followed by influential works such as Do the Right Thing (1989) and the biopic Malcolm X (1992), which examined civil rights history and black nationalism.^[3]^[1] His provocative style has earned critical acclaim, including an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for BlacKkKlansman (2018) and honors like the National Medal of Arts, but also drawn controversies for alleged stereotyping of ethnic groups, including Italian-Americans and Jews, and public feuds over historical representations in film.^[2]^[4] Lee's approach emphasizes auteur control and cultural critique, often challenging mainstream narratives while prioritizing personal vision over broad consensus.^[5]

General Definitions and Etymology

Primary Meanings as Objects or Phenomena

A spike, in its primary literal sense, refers to a sharp-pointed implement, typically fashioned from metal or wood, employed as a large, sturdy nail for fastening purposes.^[6] Such objects feature a pointed end driven into materials to secure them firmly, distinguishing them from smaller nails by their greater length and robustness, often exceeding six inches.^[7] In infrastructure, railroad spikes exemplify this use: these are hook-headed nails, usually made of low-carbon steel, designed to fasten steel rails to wooden crossties while maintaining track gauge and resisting lateral movement under load.^[8] They undergo rigorous testing, including bending to 120 degrees and stretching by 25% without cracking, to ensure durability against dynamic forces like train vibrations.^[9] As a defensive or offensive element, spikes appear in historical weaponry such as caltrops, tetrahedral devices with four sharpened metal points arranged so that one always protrudes upward regardless of orientation upon landing.^[10] Originating in ancient warfare, caltrops date back over 2,300 years and were deployed to puncture hooves of horses, chariots, or war elephants, thereby impeding enemy advances without requiring precise aiming.^[11] European adaptations in the Middle Ages simplified the design by twisting double-pointed metal strips, enhancing portability and effectiveness in area-denial tactics.^[11] Figuratively, a spike denotes a sudden, sharp, and transient increase in a measurable quantity, often visualized as a narrow peak in graphical representations of data.^[12] This usage emphasizes empirically observed surges rather than gradual trends, as in economic contexts where a price spike manifests as an abrupt rise in an asset's value over a short period, driven by factors like supply disruptions or demand shifts.^[13]^[14] In electrical engineering, a voltage spike—also termed a transient—represents a brief, high-amplitude excursion above normal circuit levels, typically lasting microseconds and induced by events such as magnetic field collapses or lightning, potentially damaging components if unprotected.^[15]^[16] These phenomena underscore causal mechanisms rooted in physical or market dynamics, verifiable through instrumentation or historical price logs, rather than interpretive narratives.

Historical and Linguistic Origins

The English word spike entered usage in the Middle English period (circa 1150–1500), denoting a large nail or sharp-pointed object, derived from Old Norse spīkr ("nail") and spík ("splinter"), rooted in Proto-Germanic *spīkō for pointed sticks or projections.^[17] ^[7] This etymon emphasized physical sharpness, evolving by the 14th century to encompass slender, pointed metal fasteners, as evidenced in early texts describing iron spikes for construction or weaponry.^[6] A parallel sense from Latin spīca ("ear of grain") influenced botanical applications by the late 14th century, broadening the term to tapered, pointed forms in nature.^[17] In 19th-century infrastructure, spikes saw widespread adoption as railroad fasteners in the United States, with the modern cut spike—square-shanked and tapered for wood ties—invented by Robert Livingston Stevens, president of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, and first deployed in 1832 to secure iron rails more reliably than prior strap systems.^[18] ^[19] By the 1860s, millions of such spikes underpinned transcontinental expansion, culminating in the ceremonial driving of a gold spike on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Summit, Utah, to join the Central Pacific and Union Pacific lines, symbolizing the network's completion after laying over 1,900 miles of track.^[20] ^[21] Militarily, spikes featured prominently in Prussian and later German helmets, with the Pickelhaube ("spiked helmet") standardized in 1842 under King Frederick William IV to replace shakos, its 10–14 cm metal spike designed to parry cavalry sabers while projecting an imposing profile for intimidation and unit cohesion.^[22] ^[23] Constructed from boiled leather reinforced with metal, these helmets equipped infantry, cavalry, and artillery through the late 19th century, remaining in limited service into World War I until phased out for Stahlhelms amid trench warfare vulnerabilities observed by 1916.^[24] Post-Industrial Revolution advancements in measurement and data recording facilitated the term's metaphorical extension to abrupt, pointed rises, as in economic price surges or physical signal peaks, with the verb phrase "rise in a spike" documented from 1958 to describe sharp, transient increases akin to a nail's form.^[25] This usage paralleled empirical observations in emerging fields like electrical engineering, where voltage spikes denoted sudden surges, and economics, tracking anomalies in production or market data enabled by 19th-century statistical tools.^[25]

Biology and Medicine

Viral Spike Glycoproteins

Viral spike glycoproteins are trimeric type I transmembrane proteins that protrude as characteristic spikes from the lipid envelope of many enveloped viruses, including coronaviruses and lentiviruses such as HIV-1.^[26] These glycoproteins mediate the initial attachment of the virus to host cell receptors and subsequent fusion of viral and cellular membranes, a process essential for viral genome delivery into the cytoplasm.30262-2) In coronaviruses, the spike (S) protein is cleaved into S1 and S2 subunits during biosynthesis or upon receptor engagement; the S1 subunit contains the receptor-binding domain (RBD) responsible for host receptor interaction, while S2 drives fusion via heptad repeat motifs that form a six-helix bundle in the post-fusion state.^[27] For HIV-1, the envelope (Env) glycoprotein analogously functions as a trimeric spike, with gp120 binding CD4 and co-receptors (CCR5 or CXCR4) to trigger gp41-mediated fusion.^[28] The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein exemplifies these mechanisms, utilizing its RBD to engage human ACE2 with high affinity, initiating endocytosis or plasma membrane fusion depending on host protease availability like TMPRSS2 or cathepsins.30262-2) Genomic sequencing of SARS-CoV-2, completed by January 10, 2020, revealed the spike gene's sequence, enabling rapid functional annotation based on homology to SARS-CoV-1.^[29] Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of the prefusion SARS-CoV-2 spike ectodomain trimer were resolved at 3.5 Å resolution shortly thereafter, disclosing a compact, glycosylated conformation with one or more RBDs in an upright, receptor-accessible state.^[30] These structures confirmed the protein's heavily N-glycosylated surface, which shields epitopes while permitting receptor-induced triggering of irreversible fusion-competent rearrangements.^[31] Evolutionarily, viral spike proteins exhibit elevated nonsynonymous substitution rates in receptor-binding regions, reflecting adaptive pressures for enhanced host tropism and immune escape.^[32] In coronaviruses, the S1 subunit, particularly the RBD, undergoes positive selection with mutation rates driven by RNA polymerase fidelity limits (approximately 10^{-4} to 10^{-5} errors per nucleotide per replication cycle, moderated by proofreading exonuclease activity), facilitating zoonotic jumps via sequence divergence from reservoir hosts like bats.^[33] SARS-CoV-2 spike sequences show 96% identity to bat coronavirus RaTG13, with key adaptations including a furin cleavage site at the S1/S2 boundary that enhances cell-cell fusion efficiency, though such features arise from natural recombination events in sarbecoviruses.^[29] These dynamics underscore causal constraints: mutations must balance receptor affinity gains against structural stability losses, as destabilizing changes in the fusion machinery reduce infectivity.^[34]

Physiological and Pathological Implications

The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds to ACE2 receptors on endothelial cells, triggering barrier dysfunction and vascular leakage through integrin and TGF-β signaling pathways, as demonstrated in cell culture models.^[35] This interaction reduces nitric oxide bioavailability and promotes endothelial activation, leading to increased expression of adhesion molecules and pro-inflammatory cytokines.^[35] In hamster models of infection, spike protein expression correlates with type I interferon dysregulation and inflammation in vascular tissues, exacerbating thrombo-inflammatory injury.^[36] Pathologically, spike-mediated endotheliopathy manifests as microvascular thrombosis and capillaritis, evident in autopsy findings from COVID-19 cases showing platelet-fibrin thrombi and alveolar hemorrhage linked to endothelial damage.^[37] These effects extend beyond acute infection, with spike protein inducing sustained inflammatory responses in endothelial cells, comparable to TNF-α stimulation, including prolonged upregulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1.^[38] Complement system activation by the S1 subunit further amplifies lung vascular dysfunction and clot formation in preclinical assays.^[39] Tissue persistence of spike protein or its encoding RNA post-infection contributes to chronic pathology, with detections reported in colorectal biopsies up to 676 days after symptom onset and in rectal tissue beyond acute phases.^[40]^[41] Such persistence associates with ongoing immune dysregulation and symptoms at four months, including in non-respiratory sites like the skull-meninges-brain axis.^[42]^[43] In cardiac tissues of recovered patients, persistent spike correlates with local inflammatory marker elevation, suggesting a role in sustained coagulopathy.^[44] These findings from 2020–2023 studies underscore spike's independent contribution to vascular and inflammatory sequelae via direct cellular interactions.^[45]

Controversies in SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Research

Research on the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein has sparked debates over its intrinsic pathogenicity, termed "spikeopathy," referring to toxic effects independent of the intact virus, as evidenced by preclinical studies demonstrating endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and organ damage from recombinant spike or vaccine-induced protein.^[46] These findings contrast with initial assumptions that spike primarily facilitates viral entry via ACE2 binding, highlighting potential causal roles in cardiovascular and neurological sequelae through mechanisms like amyloidogenesis and impaired fibrinolysis.^[47] Intravenous administration of isolated spike subunit S1 in animal models induced neuroinflammation, microglial activation, and altered synaptic homeostasis, underscoring dose- and route-dependent toxicity decoupled from viral replication.^[48] In the context of mRNA vaccines, which instruct cells to produce modified spike protein, concerns arise from biodistribution patterns showing lipid nanoparticle-mediated dissemination beyond the injection site, including to heart, brain, and ovaries in rodent studies, with limited human long-term data available prior to authorization.^[49] For instance, Moderna’s mRNA-1273 lacked dedicated biodistribution studies, relying instead on data from a surrogate mRNA platform, while persistence of vaccine mRNA and spike up to 30 days post-injection has been detected in cardiac and other tissues.^[50]^[51] This systemic exposure is linked to rare but confirmed adverse events like myocarditis and pericarditis, particularly in young males after second doses, with the U.S. FDA mandating updated labeling on June 25, 2025, to emphasize risks including potential long-term cardiac impairment.^[52]^[53] Critiques of safety assessments point to overreliance on short-term clinical trials, such as Pfizer’s pivotal study, where allegations of data integrity issues at contract research sites raised questions about unblinding and adverse event under-documentation, though independent verification remains contested. Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) data, while passive, indicate underreporting for myocarditis, with verification rates exceeding 90% in sampled cases and incidence estimates of 4.8 per million doses in 2021 escalating with boosters.^[54] Dissenting analyses argue mainstream minimizations overlook causal links, as spike protein from vaccines binds ACE2 ubiquitously, potentially exacerbating vascular pathology akin to viral effects.^[55] Counterarguments from regulatory bodies maintain these events as rare (e.g., <0.01% incidence per CDC monitoring), outweighed by vaccines' role in averting severe COVID-19 outcomes, supported by real-world data showing 70-90% reduction in hospitalizations during peak waves.^[56] However, emerging 2025 evidence challenges transience claims, with immunohistochemical detection of spike protein persisting in cerebral arteries of post-vaccinated hemorrhagic stroke patients, correlating with endothelial disruption and basement membrane degradation.^[57] Additionally, spike's ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier—demonstrated in human endothelial models and mouse studies via clathrin-mediated endocytosis—raises hypotheses for neurological risks, including amyloid-like aggregates promoting alpha-synuclein pathology.^[58]^[59]^[60] For updated vaccines targeting variants like LP.8.1, ongoing surveillance highlights similar biodistribution uncertainties, balancing efficacy against unquantified persistent spike effects in neural vasculature.^[50]

Technology and Engineering

Computing and Software Development

In software development, particularly within agile methodologies, a spike refers to a time-boxed investigative activity designed to explore uncertainties, reduce risks, and inform decision-making for complex user stories or features. Originating in Extreme Programming (XP) practices during the late 1990s, spikes were formalized as short experiments—typically lasting 1 to 2 days—to prototype potential solutions without committing to full implementation, enabling teams to address technical feasibility or knowledge gaps efficiently.^[61]^[62] The term draws from an analogy to a quick, exploratory probe, akin to driving a spike into rock for climbing, emphasizing rapid, focused effort over polished outcomes.^[63] Spikes are applied in scenarios involving high uncertainty, such as integrating novel APIs, evaluating third-party libraries, or assessing architectural viability, where they facilitate better estimation and mitigate downstream rework. In Scrum and Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe) contexts, they function as enabler stories that precede sprint planning, allowing teams to gather empirical data on effort and viability before committing resources. For instance, a team facing ambiguity in database migration might allocate a spike to benchmark multiple options, yielding actionable insights that refine story points and backlog prioritization.^[64]^[65] Empirical studies affirm spikes' efficacy in agile environments, demonstrating their role in enhancing estimation accuracy and risk reduction; one analysis of industrial projects found that spikes correlated with improved team understanding of requirements and fewer estimation variances, though success hinged on clear scoping to avoid scope creep. Case evidence from software firms indicates spikes shorten iteration cycles by 20-30% in uncertain domains, as they shift knowledge acquisition upfront rather than through iterative failures.^[66]^[67] In the 2020s, spikes persist in DevOps pipelines for continuous integration challenges and have adapted to AI-driven development, where teams use them to prototype machine learning models or validate generative AI integrations, accelerating feasibility checks amid rapid technological evolution without derailing core delivery. This integration aligns with broader agile trends, maintaining spikes' value in hybrid environments where empirical validation precedes scalable deployment.^[68]^[69]

Mechanical and Structural Devices

Railroad spikes function as essential fasteners in rail infrastructure, securing iron or steel rails to wooden crossties to maintain track alignment and load-bearing capacity under heavy train traffic. Typically forged from carbon steel and measuring 6 to 10 inches in length with a square shank, these spikes are driven through pre-drilled holes in the rail base into the tie, relying on friction and wood compression for hold.^[21] The design originated around 1830, when Robert Livingston Stevens, president of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, developed the cut spike to anchor flat-bottom rails, replacing less reliable chair fastenings used in early English railways.^[70] Dog spikes, distinguished by their L-shaped or "dog-leg" bend at the bottom for improved resistance to pull-out forces, emerged in the 1830s as railways expanded in the United States and Europe, enhancing stability on softwood ties prone to splitting.^[71] These fasteners have demonstrated long-term durability in demanding conditions, with millions deployed annually to support global rail networks carrying billions of tons of freight, though untreated spikes corrode via electrochemical reactions accelerated by moisture, soil electrolytes, and cyclic temperature changes, potentially leading to loosening and track failures if not galvanized or replaced periodically.^[72] In historical defensive engineering, caltrops served as passive barriers, consisting of four tetrahedral iron spikes calibrated so that three points rest on the ground while one protrudes upward to lame horses or pierce footwear, deployed by Romans as early as 100 BCE and refined in medieval Europe to disrupt cavalry charges during sieges and battles.^[10] Similarly, spiked maces integrated structural spikes into a weighted head on a wooden or metal haft, typically 2 to 3 feet long, allowing concentrated percussive force to dent plate armor or fracture bones; archaeological finds from 12th- to 15th-century sites confirm their prevalence among infantry against mounted knights.^[73] Contemporary structural applications include retractable tire spike barriers for perimeter security, where hinged steel spikes, often 3 to 6 inches long and embedded in a road-embedded frame, selectively puncture vehicle tires approaching from the protected side—deflating them gradually to halt intruders without directional bias—while permitting outbound traffic; these systems, rated for impacts up to 15,000 pounds at 50 mph, integrate with gates or sensors for automated deployment in high-security facilities.^[74] Evolving from 1940s manual spike strips used by police for pursuits, such devices prioritize controlled stops over abrupt failure, though risks of vehicle instability persist if tires deflate unevenly.^[75]

Electrical and Signal Contexts

In electrical engineering, a voltage spike refers to a transient overvoltage event lasting microseconds to milliseconds, where the potential difference exceeds the circuit's nominal rating due to rapid changes in current through inductive elements or external electromagnetic induction. These spikes arise causally from Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, wherein a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force that can superimpose on the steady-state voltage, potentially reaching thousands of volts.^[15]^[76] Common causes include lightning strikes, which generate high-energy pulses via atmospheric discharge, and internal switching of loads like motors, where collapsing magnetic fields in inductors produce back-EMF spikes.^[76]^[77] Such transients damage semiconductors and insulation by exceeding their dielectric breakdown thresholds, leading to lattice defects in transistors or arcing that erodes conductive paths. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) exemplifies a current spike variant, where accumulated charge—often from human contact—discharges rapidly, delivering peak currents up to 30 amperes in nanoseconds under the human body model, sufficient to vaporize thin metal traces or trigger avalanche breakdown in diodes.^[78]^[79] Mitigation employs transient voltage suppression (TVS) diodes or metal-oxide varistors (MOVs), which clamp voltage by diverting excess current to ground once a threshold (e.g., 5-10% above nominal) is exceeded, adhering to empirical ratings derived from joule energy absorption tests.^[80]^[79] Oscilloscopes measure these spikes by capturing high-bandwidth waveforms, with deep memory buffers enabling isolation of rare events amid noise; for instance, triggering on rise time detects ESD pulses with resolutions down to picoseconds. In signal contexts, spikes manifest as outliers in time-series data from sensors, such as voltage anomalies in telemetry, where causal origins include electromagnetic interference (EMI) or sensor faults, flagged via anomaly detection algorithms comparing deviations against statistical baselines like z-scores exceeding 3σ.^[81]^[82]^[83] IEEE standards guide protection, with C62.41 categorizing surge environments by location (e.g., Category C for outdoor lines exposed to lightning, specifying waveforms like 10/350 μs for direct strikes) and C62.43 detailing surge protective device (SPD) performance metrics, including let-through voltage under 600 V for 120 V systems. Real-world grid failures underscore vulnerabilities: during the 2023 Florida storms, lightning-induced spikes overloaded transformers, causing cascading outages affecting millions, as surges propagate via unmitigated inductive coupling in transmission lines.^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88]

Sports and Athletics

Techniques and Gameplay

In volleyball, the spike refers to an overhead attack hit executed by a player jumping to strike the ball downward with force over the net, typically from the front row positions. This technique originated in the Philippines in 1916 with the development of the set-and-spike combination, which revolutionized offensive play by allowing coordinated attacks rather than simple underhand hits.^[89] By 1920, rule changes mandating three hits per side and prohibiting back-row attacks further standardized spiking as a core offensive maneuver, enabling higher scoring efficiency through vertical jumps and arm swings.^[90] Key spike techniques include cross-court shots, which travel diagonally across the net to exploit gaps in the block, and line shots, directed parallel to the sideline for precision against committed blockers. Cross-court spikes often achieve higher velocity due to the arm's natural swing path aligning with the body's rotation, while line shots demand sharper wrist snap for control to avoid antennas.^[91] ^[92] Players select shots based on block positioning and setter placement; for instance, jumping with the ball in front of the hitting shoulder allows seamless transitions between options, maximizing biomechanical leverage from trunk rotation and shoulder extension.^[91] Spikes contribute significantly to scoring, accounting for the majority of direct points in elite matches as a primary offensive strategy that disrupts defensive setups. In professional play, successful spike efficiency exceeds 0.333 for middle blockers and 0.200 for outside hitters, with champion teams demonstrating superior consistency in cross spikes (around 31% frequency) over tips or errors.^[93] ^[94] ^[95] Biomechanically, efficient spikes rely on sequential kinetic chains—run-up acceleration, jump impulse, and arm cocking—to generate peak velocities over 20 m/s, but poor form, such as insufficient scapular posterior tilt, reduces power and elevates shoulder stress.^[96] ^[97] While spikes yield high point efficacy through rapid ball descent and court coverage, they carry risks of overuse injuries like rotator cuff tendinitis when executed with flawed mechanics, including excessive internal rotation or inadequate core stabilization.^[97] ^[98] Proper technique mitigates these by emphasizing full kinetic chain activation, though repetitive poor-form spikes correlate with chronic shoulder impingement in players.^[99] In track and field sprinting, spikes integrated into starting blocks enhance traction during the explosive drive phase, where athletes position feet against pedals in a crouched stance to optimize horizontal force application. This setup allows ground reaction forces up to 4-5 times body weight, improving acceleration by preventing slippage on synthetic tracks, though technique focuses on knee drive and arm opposition rather than the spikes themselves.^[100] ^[101] Wrestling maneuvers occasionally incorporate spike-like strikes, such as the Samoan spike—a thumb thrust to the throat for submission control—but these remain peripheral to core grappling techniques and emphasize precision to avoid illegal impacts under amateur rules.^[102]

Equipment and Footwear

Track spikes in athletics consist of pointed protrusions affixed to the soles of specialized running shoes to improve grip on synthetic or tartan tracks, reducing slippage during sprints, hurdles, and middle-distance events. Typically measuring 4 to 7 millimeters in length, these spikes penetrate the track surface to enhance traction without excessive damage, with configurations such as pyramid (conical for multi-directional grip), needle (pin-like for straight-line speed), and Christmas tree (tiered for compression and stability). Materials include hardened steel for durability or ceramic for reduced weight and corrosion resistance, selected based on event demands and track compatibility.^[103] The design originated in the 1850s with leather shoes featuring metal spikes, evolving through synthetic uppers and plastic base plates by the mid-20th century to lighter, more flexible constructions. By the 2020s, carbon fiber plates integrated into spike plates—often paired with compliant foams—have boosted energy return by up to 4% in biomechanical tests, prompting debates over performance advantages in elite competition. World Athletics enforces certification standards, limiting stack height to 20 millimeters for spikes and prohibiting unapproved prototypes to maintain fairness and track integrity.^[104]^[105]^[106] In golf, spikes on cleats provide traction on turf and fairways, historically metal for deep penetration but largely replaced by soft plastic or hybrid variants since the 1990s to minimize divots and comply with course policies; metal spikes remain banned on most U.S. and European courses for safety and maintenance reasons. Arboricultural and utility climbing employs gaffs or spurs—curved steel spikes strapped to boots—that embed into tree bark or poles, with modern carbon fiber versions weighing under 1 kilogram per pair for reduced fatigue during ascents up to 100 meters.^[107]^[108] Regulatory scrutiny has led to restrictions on aggressive spike designs, such as needle types exceeding protrusion limits, due to risks of track tears or athlete injuries like puncture wounds, with organizations like USATF disqualifying non-compliant footwear in events since 2023. Frequent replacement of worn spikes, often after 100-200 kilometers of use, raises environmental concerns, as discarded components contribute to microplastic pollution and landfill accumulation from non-recyclable composites.^[109]^[110]

People

Individuals with the Given or Stage Name Spike

Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee (born March 20, 1957, in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American film director, producer, writer, and actor whose productions frequently address racial dynamics and urban life in the United States, as seen in Do the Right Thing (1989), which depicted tensions in a Brooklyn neighborhood.^[111] ^[1] He earned an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for BlacKkKlansman (2018), a film based on the true story of a Black detective infiltrating the Ku Klux Klan in the 1970s. Lee's public statements on race have occasionally sparked debate, including criticism for remarks suggesting that interracial marriages between Black men and white women undermine Black cultural cohesion, as expressed in a 1991 interview.^[1] Adam Spiegel, professionally known as Spike Jonze (born October 22, 1969, in Rockville, Maryland), is an American filmmaker, producer, and former skateboarder who gained prominence directing innovative music videos before transitioning to feature films such as Being John Malkovich (1999), which explored identity through a portal into an actor's mind, and Her (2013), for which he received the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay depicting human-AI romance.^[112] ^[113] Terence Alan "Spike" Milligan (April 16, 1918 – February 27, 2002) was an Anglo-Irish comedian, writer, musician, poet, and playwright born in Ahmednagar, British India, best remembered as a principal creator of the surreal BBC radio comedy The Goon Show (1951–1960), which influenced later British humor through absurd sketches and wordplay involving characters like Ned Seagoon.^[114] He also authored satirical war memoirs, such as Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall (1971), drawing from his World War II service in the British Army.^[115] Lindley Armstrong "Spike" Jones (December 14, 1911 – May 1, 1965) was an American bandleader and drummer renowned for his City Slickers orchestra's comedic reinterpretations of popular songs using unconventional percussion like cowbells and gunshots to parody classical and jazz pieces, achieving commercial success with hits like a zany version of "Der Fuehrer's Face" during World War II.

Arts, Entertainment, and Media

Film, Television, and Animation

In animation, Spike is the name of a bulldog character in the Tom and Jerry theatrical shorts produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, debuting in the 1942 short Dog Trouble as an antagonist to Tom who often protects Jerry or enforces rules with brute force.^[116] Voiced initially by Billy Bletcher and later by actors including Daws Butler, Spike's gruff persona and interactions with his son Tyke in shorts like Love That Pup (1949) added layers of paternal humor and physical comedy to the series' slapstick formula, contributing to its enduring appeal in children's entertainment despite dated violence tropes.^[117] The character's design and role as a recurring enforcer influenced later canine archetypes in cartoons, though reception highlights its reliance on simplistic bully dynamics without deep narrative evolution.^[118] Spike also appears as a purple dragon in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic (2010–2019), serving as Twilight Sparkle's assistant and comic relief with fire-breathing abilities used for communication and problem-solving. Voiced by Cathy Weseluck, the character embodies themes of loyalty and growth amid pony-dragon cultural clashes, receiving praise for injecting irreverent humor into the franchise's friendship-focused narratives while facing minor criticisms for stereotypical "sidekick" limitations.^[119] In television, Spike is a central character in Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), portrayed by James Marsters as the vampire William Pratt, introduced in the season 2 premiere "School Hard" on September 22, 1997, as a chaotic antagonist allied with Drusilla.^[120] His arc evolves from soulless killer—boasting of slaying two Slayers—to unlikely ally through a obsessive romance with Buffy, culminating in voluntary ensoulment for redemption, which bolstered the series' exploration of moral ambiguity and personal change.^[121] Critically acclaimed for Marsters' charismatic performance and the character's wit-driven dialogue that subverted vampire clichés, Spike became a fan favorite, influencing brooding anti-hero tropes in supernatural media; however, season 6's portrayal of his coercive pursuit of Buffy drew retrospective scrutiny for potentially glamorizing abusive dynamics, though the narrative ultimately frames it as destructive and resolved through his self-improvement.^[120]^[122]^[121] In film, Spike of Bensonhurst (1988), directed by Paul Morrissey, follows Brooklyn boxer Spike Fumo (Sasha Mitchell), an unambitious Italian-American who romances a mobster's daughter, faces relocation to a Puerto Rican enclave, and navigates pregnancies and underground fights amid ethnic tensions.^[123] Featuring Ernest Borgnine as the mafia boss, the comedy-drama earned a 6.0/10 IMDb rating for its satirical take on machismo and New York underbelly, with praise for energetic pacing and Mitchell's earnest lead but criticisms of uneven acting, racial stereotypes, and tonal inconsistencies that undermine its social commentary.^[123] Other works include the 1993 live-action Super Mario Bros., where Spike (Richard Michelson) is a henchman to President Koopa, adding comedic thuggery to the adaptation's cult-failure status, and the 2008 low-budget horror Spike, a mutant romance rated 3.2/10 for its derivative Beauty and the Beast premise lacking originality.^[124]^[125]

Music and Performing Arts

Lindley Armstrong "Spike" Jones (December 14, 1911 – May 1, 1965) was an American bandleader and drummer who gained prominence in the 1940s for leading Spike Jones and His City Slickers in satirical, comedic renditions of popular and classical tunes, employing noisemakers such as cowbells, gunshots, and washboards to subvert musical norms.^[126] His ensemble's recordings for RCA Victor, including parodies like "Cocktails for Two" and "Holiday for Strings," blended skilled musicianship with vaudeville-style humor, achieving multiple Billboard chart successes and appealing to audiences through their irreverent critique of Tin Pan Alley conventions.^[127] Jones's approach innovated novelty music by elevating parody to an art form, though its exaggerated antics limited mainstream longevity beyond the postwar era.^[128] Elvis Costello released Spike, his twelfth studio album, on February 6, 1989, via Warner Bros. Records, co-produced with T-Bone Burnett and recorded across sessions in Dublin, New Orleans, and Los Angeles.^[129] The 15-track effort spanned eclectic styles from New Orleans funk in "Chewing Gum" to orchestral pop in "Veronica," which peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart, reflecting Costello's collaborative experimentation with musicians like the Dirty Dozen Brass Band while maintaining his signature lyrical acuity on themes of memory and mortality.^[130] Critically received for its ambition yet critiqued for inconsistency, Spike marked Costello's shift toward broader sonic palettes post-punk roots, influencing subsequent singer-songwriter explorations.^[130] In professional wrestling as a form of scripted performance, Matthew Jonathan Hyson (born August 13, 1970) performed under the ring name Spike Dudley from 1996 onward, debuting in Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) as the diminutive "runt" of the Dudley family stable before transitioning to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in 2001.^[131] Portrayed as an underdog excelling in hardcore matches—winning the WWE Hardcore Championship three times between 2002 and 2004—Dudley's high-flying agility and resilience against larger opponents defined a niche appeal in 1990s-2000s extreme wrestling circuits, though his 5'6" stature constrained main-event pushes.^[131] His ECW tenure, including tag team defenses against the Dudley Boyz, underscored wrestling's performative athleticism, blending athletic precision with kayfabe storytelling for fan engagement.^[132]

Literature and Periodicals

Puckoon, a comic novel by Spike Milligan published in 1963, satirizes the absurdity of bureaucracy through the plight of the fictional Irish village of Puckoon, where a new border drawn by the Boundary Commission in 1924 bisects homes, churches, and even graves, leading to chaotic disputes between Protestant and Catholic residents.^[133] The narrative employs Milligan's signature Goonish humor, blending slapstick with linguistic play, as characters navigate smuggling, mistaken identities, and explosive mishaps, ultimately critiquing partition's real-world irrationality without overt moralizing.^[134] Its influence lies in pioneering postwar British absurdism in prose, predating similar works like those of Douglas Adams, though some critics noted its uneven pacing as reflective of Milligan's bipolar episodes rather than structured satire.^[135] George Orwell's 1931 essay "The Spike," first published in the Adelphi magazine, recounts his firsthand experience in a London workhouse casual ward—a "spike" for vagrants—detailing the dehumanizing routine of enforced labor, meager gruel, and petty tyrannies by staff like the Tramp Major.^[136] Orwell observes the inmates' resigned fatalism amid physical squalor, such as lice infestations and stone-floor discomfort, using the episode to expose interwar Britain's underclass entrapment without romanticizing poverty.^[137] The piece influenced social realist literature by grounding abstract critiques in empirical detail, later incorporated into Down and Out in Paris and London (1933), though its detachment from policy solutions drew charges of observational passivity from contemporaries.^[138] In comics, Sugar and Spike by Sheldon Mayer, published by DC Comics from 1956 to 1972, follows the antics of infant protagonists Sugar Plumm and Cecil "Spike" Wilson, who exhibit superhuman strength and agility while engaging in wordless, parent-baffling escapades that highlight toddler logic's clash with adult norms.^[139] Spike, the more mischievous of the duo, often drives plots involving household destruction or animal alliances, rendered in Mayer's clean, expressive style without dialogue to emphasize visual comedy. The series impacted baby-boomer humor comics by humanizing infancy's chaos, sustaining 98 issues through fan mail-driven longevity, though its formulaic repetition limited crossover appeal beyond niche audiences.^[139] The British anthology comic Spike, launched in the 1970s by DC Thomson, targeted boys with serialized stories spanning war, sci-fi, sports, and humor, featuring characters in football rivalries and athletic feats amid schoolyard adventures.^[140] Its eclectic mix reflected postwar youth culture's blend of escapism and realism, influencing similar weeklies like Buddy, but sales declines led to its merger, underscoring the era's shift toward specialized genres over broad anthologies.^[141] Spike Art Magazine, founded in 2004 and published quarterly in Vienna and Berlin, examines contemporary visual art through critical essays, artist interviews, and thematic issues on topics like institutional critique, maintaining a print focus amid digital proliferation.^[142] Issues such as the 2020 "Museum" edition dissect elitism and colonialism in art spaces, prioritizing unfiltered analysis over promotional fluff, which has earned acclaim for rigor but criticism for occasional opacity accessible only to insiders.^[143]

Economics and Other Uses

Economic Indicators and Data Analysis

In economics, a spike refers to a abrupt and significant upward deviation in an indicator such as prices, volumes, or other metrics from their historical norms or trends, often signaling underlying supply-demand imbalances or external shocks.^[144] These events are analyzed causally to distinguish between transient market corrections and distortions amplified by policy interventions. Empirical data from historical spikes, like commodity price surges, reveal that free-market price mechanisms facilitate rapid reallocation of resources, whereas government controls—such as ceilings or subsidies—frequently prolong scarcity and exacerbate volatility by suppressing natural signaling.^[144] ^[145] Econometric detection of spikes typically identifies them as statistical outliers using methods like z-scores, calculated as z = \frac{x - \mu}{\sigma}, where x is the observation, \mu the mean, and \sigma the standard deviation; values with |z| > 3 are flagged as deviations beyond what normal distributions would predict under stable conditions.^[146] This approach assumes approximate normality in the data series, though modifications like median-based scores address skewness in financial time series. In practice, spikes in indicators like GDP growth or inflation are cross-verified with event studies to isolate causal drivers, such as exogenous supply disruptions versus endogenous policy errors.^[146] A canonical example is the 1973-1974 oil shock, where OPEC's embargo following the Yom Kippur War reduced supply, driving crude prices from $2.90 per barrel in October 1973 to $11.65 by January 1974—a quadrupling that equated to a z-score exceeding 10 standard deviations from prior trends.^[147] Causally, the embargo imposed a classic supply shock, but U.S. price controls on gasoline—enacted under Nixon's 1971 wage-price freeze and partially retained—distorted rationing, leading to long queues and black markets rather than incentivizing conservation or alternative sourcing through higher prices.^[144] Removal of controls in 1974 allowed partial market adjustment, though lingering effects contributed to stagflation; free-market advocates argue unhindered pricing would have mitigated duration by signaling scarcity earlier to producers and consumers.^[145] In financial markets, the Bitcoin price spike of November 2021 exemplifies speculative-driven volatility, peaking at $69,044 on November 10 amid institutional inflows and hype around scarcity narratives, representing a multi-standard-deviation surge from its $30,000 base earlier that year.^[148] Lacking heavy regulation, the asset's free-market dynamics enabled a swift correction to below $20,000 by mid-2022, illustrating how unencumbered trading absorbs shocks via dispersed decision-making, in contrast to intervened markets where bailouts or caps delay liquidation and amplify systemic risks.^[144] Empirical analyses of such events underscore that interventionist responses, observed in critiques of central bank asset purchases during prior bubbles, often inflate asset spikes by distorting capital allocation away from productive uses.^[145]

Miscellaneous Applications

In military applications during the 19th century, spike bayonets served as muzzle-attaching implements that transformed firearms into spear-like weapons for infantry charges, remaining in use from the late 18th century onward in various armies.^[149] These triangular or rod-shaped designs, distinct from later knife bayonets, emphasized simplicity and rapid attachment but were gradually phased out by socket and blade variants as rifle technology advanced.^[150] In botany, the term spike denotes an inflorescence type featuring sessile flowers directly attached to an elongated, unbranched axis, producing dense clusters as observed in gladiolus species, where tall stems bear large, one-sided floral spikes with up to 30 florets per stalk in hybrid varieties.^[151] This structure facilitates pollination efficiency in wind- or insect-dependent plants, with gladiolus exemplifying ornamental spikes reaching 3-6 feet in height.^[152] Hedgehog spines, numbering 5,000 to 7,000 per adult and composed of keratin measuring 2.5-3 cm in length, erect as a primary passive defense mechanism against predators, forming a protective barrier without active projection or barbed detachment.^[153] Unlike porcupine quills, these hollow structures absorb impacts and deter attacks through sharpness and posture alone, aiding survival in nocturnal foraging.^[154]

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A voltage spike is a sudden and brief increase in electrical energy that occurs in a power line, measured in joules rather than volts.
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Tom and Jerry | Mega Compilation | Vol. 10 | The Spike Series
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Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Why Spike Is The Most Iconic Character
Mar 13, 2022 · Spike's relationship with his sires Angelus (David Boreanaz), one of the most infamous vampires in Buffy the Vampire Slayer's history, and ...
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Spike and Rape Culture - Eruditorum Press
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What Buffy Fans Need to Know About Spike's Dark and Complex ...
Oct 27, 2023 · Spike's essence as a vampire bore a captivating paradox, setting him apart from his soulless brethren. Even in his pre-soul state, he defied the ...
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Spike of Bensonhurst (1988) - IMDb
Rating 6/10 (498) Italian kid with boxing dreams falls for mobster's daughter. Faces threats, relocates to impoverished Puerto Rican neighborhood.
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Apr 8, 2025 · Spike is the cousin and henchmen of President Koopa in the 1993 Super Mario Bros. film. He is named after the Spike enemy from the Super Mario games.
[126]
Spike (2008) - IMDb
Rating 3.2/10 (478) SPIKE is a love story with a tragic, spiny mutant in it. It's sort of a cross between BEAUTY AND THE BEAST and EDWARD SCISSORHANDS with a bit more blood. There ...
[127]
Spike Jones | Musical Comedy, Novelty Songs, Orchestra | Britannica
Spike Jones (born Dec. 14, 1911, Long Beach, Calif., U.S.—died May 1, 1965, Los Angeles, Calif.) was a U.S. bandleader known for his novelty recordings.
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Spike Jones Off the Record: The Man Who Murdered Music
Sep 29, 2021 · Spike Jones actually began his career as a jazz and studio drummer. Few probably know that he was the drummer on Bing Crosby's original ...
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Spike Jones - Hollywood Walk of Fame
Lindley Armstrong “Spike” Jones was a popular musician and bandleader specializing in performing satirical arrangements of popular songs.Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
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Spike | ElvisCostello.com
I called T Bone Burnett to co-produce the album. He put Kevin Killen behind the controls and away we went. Sessions were planned for Dublin, New Orleans, ...
[131]
Spike - Elvis Costello | Album - AllMusic
Rating 7.1/10 (674) Spike by Elvis Costello released in 1989. Find album reviews, track lists, credits, awards and more at AllMusic.
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Spike Dudley « Wrestlers Database « - Cagematch
Spike always knew had to entertain the audience. I gave him some extra points that we both have the first name Matthew and were both born in the month of August ...<|separator|>
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Spike Dudley: His Most HARDCORE Moments, What He Said NO To ...
Aug 19, 2025 · Spike Dudley is a retired professional wrestler best known for his time in ECW, WWE and TNA. He sits down with Chris Van Vliet in Providence ...
[134]
https://www.abctales.com/story/barenib/puckoon-novel-spike-milligan
[135]
Puckoon - a novel by Spike Milligan - ABCtales
Sep 12, 2004 · Puckoon - a novel by Spike Milligan. By barenib. Sun, 12 Sep 2004. 2442 reads. Back in 1963 Spike Milligan had his first novel published and
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Puckoon by Spike Milligan - Goodreads
Rating 3.7 (3,881) Puckoon is Spike Milligan's classic slapstick novel, reissued for the first time since it was published in 1963. In 1924 the Boundary Commission is tasked ...
[137]
The Spike - The Orwell Foundation
The woman was sent off to the workhouse, and we others into the spike. It was a gloomy, chilly, limewashed place, consisting only of a bathroom and dining-room ...
[138]
The Spike - George Orwell
The woman was sent off to the workhouse, and we others into the spike. It was a gloomy, chilly, limewashed place, consisting only of a bathroom and dining-room ...
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Chapter 27 - Down and Out in Paris and London - George Orwell ...
The spike consisted simply of a bathroom and lavatory, and, for the rest, long double rows of stone cells, perhaps a hundred cells in all. It was a bare, gloomy ...
[140]
Sugar and Spike and Everything… Um, Like.
Jan 6, 2013 · Sugar Plumm and Cecil “Spike” Wilson were the pint-sized stars of Sugar and Spike, a charming bi-monthly comic that ran from 1956 to 1971.<|separator|>
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British Comic Companion: Spike - downthetubes.net
Spike was a general anthology comic which combined all themes – war, adventure, science fiction, football, athletics and humour, in one weekly package.
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Remembering SPIKE After BUDDY'S sales started dropping, it wasn ...
May 18, 2024 · As with BUDDY, SPIKE was a traditional 'action comic for boys', with many of its strips revolving around football, athletics, school, war, sci- ...Buffy and Spike art by Prof-Dr-Dr-Weird - FacebookI quite enjoyed Spike, the adventure weekly published by D.C. ...More results from www.facebook.com
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Spike Art Magazine - Printed Matter
Free deliveryPublisher. Spike Art Magazine ; City. Wien, Austria ; Year. 2019 ; Pages. 200 p. ; Dimensions. 28 x 21 cm.
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Spike #75 – Closed due to Colonialism, Elitism, and a Private Dinner
Founded by the artist Rita Vitorelli in 2004, Spike (Spike Art Quarterly) is a quarterly magazine on contemporary art published in English which aims at ...
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Why Price Controls Should Stay in the History Books
Mar 24, 2022 · Prices allocate scarce resources. Price controls distort those signals, leading to the inefficient allocation of goods and services.Missing: spikes | Show results with:spikes
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Prices and Price Controls: An Introduction | Cato at Liberty Blog
Aug 19, 2024 · Governments have been interfering with prices for over 4,000 years. Economists overwhelmingly reject the theory that a general system of price ...
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1.3.5.17. Detection of Outliers - Information Technology Laboratory
Although it is common practice to use Z-scores to identify possible outliers, this can be misleading (particularly for small sample sizes) due to the fact ...Missing: econometrics spikes
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Oil Shock of 1973-74 | Federal Reserve History
October 1973-January 1974 These cuts nearly quadrupled the price of oil from $2.90 a barrel before the embargo to $11.65 a barrel in January 1974. In March ...
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Crypto peaked in Nov. 2021: Investors lost more than $2 trillion since
Nov 11, 2022 · In the 12 months since bitcoin peaked at over $68000, the crypto trade has unwound, sending many coins to zero and hedge funds and lenders ...
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Training Bayonets 1858-1912 - Alliance Martial Arts
These spike bayonet was a popular design, and would stick with us in one form or another from 1776 all the way through to the end of the Nineteenth Century.
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USA - 18th and 19th Century Bayonets (to 1865) - WorldBayonets.com
The Pattern 1807 was the first U.S. socket bayonet to have a bridge. The bridge strengthened the rear of the socket against the tendency to spread apart and ...
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Summer Flowering Bulbs: Gladiolus - MU Extension
Sep 27, 2017 · These varieties bear large, showy flowers which botanically are one-sided spikes. Individual flowers (florets) all face in the same direction.
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Gladiolus (group) - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
Grandiflora hybrids. Funnel-shaped, large-flowered gladiolas with 4-6” wide blooms on 3-6' tall scapes. Up to 30 flowers per spike.
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Hedgehog biology
An adult hedgehog has between 5,000 and 7,000 spines on it's body. A hedgehog's spines are its main mode of defence against predators. When threatened, the ...
[155]
https://homeandroost.co.uk/blogs/hedgehogs/hedgehog-spines