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Postcoital bleeding

Postcoital bleeding is vaginal bleeding that occurs during or immediately after sexual intercourse in women of reproductive age. It has a prevalence ranging from 0.7% to 9% among menstruating women, making it a relatively common gynecological complaint.^[1]^[2] The condition arises from mechanical trauma to friable tissues in the genital tract, often linked to benign causes such as cervical ectropion, polyps, atrophy, or infections like cervicitis.^[1]^[3] Less frequently, it signals premalignant or malignant processes, including cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive cervical cancer, with empirical data indicating that 0.6% to 1.7% of cases may involve such pathology.^[4]^[5] Although the absolute risk of malignancy remains low—estimated at approximately 1 in 220 women presenting with the symptom—prompt investigation is essential to identify treatable causes and exclude cancer, typically involving speculum examination, cervical screening, and colposcopy referral for persistent episodes.^[6]^[2]

Definition and Pathophysiology

Definition

Postcoital bleeding refers to vaginal spotting or bleeding that occurs during or immediately after sexual intercourse and is unrelated to menstruation.^[7]^[1] This distinguishes it from intermenstrual bleeding, which arises independently of coitus, or menstrual irregularities tied to the ovarian cycle.^[8] The bleeding typically originates from the genital tract, including the vagina, cervix, or upper structures such as the endometrium or fallopian tubes, due to mechanical trauma or underlying mucosal fragility during penetration.^[9] As a presenting symptom rather than a distinct disease entity, postcoital bleeding signals potential disruptions in the integrity of reproductive tract tissues, warranting evaluation to identify causative pathology.^[1] It manifests in women across reproductive ages as well as postmenopausal individuals, where atrophic changes may exacerbate vulnerability.^[8] Community-based studies report point prevalence ranging from 0.7% to 9%, reflecting variability in self-reporting and demographic factors without implying uniform risk distribution.^[2]^[9]

Pathophysiological Mechanisms

Postcoital bleeding arises primarily from mechanical disruption of the vaginal or cervical mucosa during intercourse, where frictional forces exceed the structural integrity of the epithelium, resulting in rupture of underlying capillaries. In healthy tissue, the stratified squamous epithelium provides a robust barrier against such shear stress, but when compromised, even moderate trauma leads to hemorrhage from exposed submucosal vessels. This process is exacerbated by reduced lubrication or increased tissue vulnerability, lowering the threshold for vascular injury.^[1] Hormonal influences, particularly estrogen deficiency, contribute by inducing epithelial atrophy, characterized by thinning of the vaginal walls and loss of glycogen-rich superficial cells, which diminishes mucosal resilience and vascular support. Postmenopausal women experience this atrophy due to hypoestrogenism, rendering the tissue pale, dry, and friable, such that intercourse-induced friction readily tears the attenuated layers and disrupts fragile capillaries. Empirical observations confirm that up to 40% of such women exhibit symptoms tied to this mechanism, with local estrogen restoration reversing the friability.^[1]^[9] Inflammatory states heighten vascular permeability and epithelial fragility through cytokine-mediated edema and leukocyte infiltration, creating a milieu where minor mechanical insult provokes bleeding from dilated, leaky vessels. Similarly, neoplastic processes erode tissue architecture via invasive growth, exposing and destabilizing submucosal vasculature, which then bleeds persistently upon contact trauma; studies attribute 3-5% of cases to such invasive disruption in cervical malignancies. These mechanisms underscore a causal chain from tissue compromise to hemorrhage, independent of psychological factors.^[1]^[10]

Etiology

Benign and Infectious Causes

Infectious causes of postcoital bleeding primarily involve sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that induce cervicitis, leading to mucosal inflammation and friability that disrupts during intercourse. Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common bacterial pathogen associated with this presentation, accounting for a significant proportion of cases in reproductive-age women, as it erodes the cervical epithelium and promotes vascular fragility.^[11] Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) similarly causes purulent cervicitis with endothelial damage, resulting in spotting or frank bleeding postcoitally, often co-occurring with chlamydia in up to 40% of STI-positive individuals.^[12] Trichomoniasis, a protozoal infection, contributes through vaginitis and cervical erosion, with studies linking it to increased friability in symptomatic patients.^[12] These infections' causal role stems from direct microbial invasion and immune-mediated tissue breakdown, rendering the mucosa prone to mechanical trauma.^[13] Benign structural abnormalities, such as cervical ectropion (eversion of the glandular epithelium), frequently underlie postcoital bleeding in premenopausal women, particularly those using combined oral contraceptives, where prevalence reaches 17-50% due to estrogen-driven columnar cell exposure.^[14] This condition affects 5-25% of women with ectropion experiencing bleeding from easily disrupted superficial vessels during coitus.^[3] Cervical polyps, benign vascular outgrowths influenced by hormonal factors and chronic irritation, cause intermittent bleeding in affected individuals, with postcoital spotting reported as a hallmark symptom from polyp avulsion or vessel rupture.^[15] Traumatic microabrasions from intercourse itself can exacerbate these, especially in the presence of inadequate lubrication, though such cases are self-limited absent underlying pathology.^[7] In postmenopausal women, atrophic changes due to estrogen deficiency lead to vaginal and cervical thinning, with prevalence of symptomatic genitourinary syndrome of menopause estimated at 10-40%, manifesting as postcoital bleeding from mucosal fragility and dryness-induced friction.^[16] This hypoestrogenic state causally reduces epithelial glycogen and vascular integrity, heightening susceptibility to minor shear forces during penetration.^[17] Noninfectious vaginitis or contact irritation may compound this, but empirical data underscore atrophy's predominance in this demographic.^[18]

Neoplastic and Other Serious Causes

Postcoital bleeding serves as a potential harbinger of cervical malignancy, where neoplastic transformation of the cervical epithelium, driven by persistent high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, results in friable tissue prone to hemorrhage upon intercourse-induced trauma. High-risk HPV types, particularly 16 and 18, account for approximately 70% of cervical cancers through integration into host DNA, disrupting tumor suppressor genes like p53 and Rb, and promoting uncontrolled proliferation.^[19] ^[20] In evaluated cohorts of women with postcoital bleeding, cervical cancer prevalence ranges from 0.4% to 5.5%, with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) detected in 6.8% to 17.8% of cases; recent studies report lower invasive cancer rates of 0.6% to 1.16%, reflecting improved screening and HPV vaccination impacts.^[1] ^[4] ^[5] Endometrial carcinoma, though less frequently linked to postcoital bleeding compared to intermenstrual or postmenopausal spotting, can manifest via cervical extension or invasion causing contact hemorrhage, with rare case series noting it among invasive malignancies in up to 4% of postcoital bleeding evaluations.^[21] Vaginal cancers and genital tract lymphomas represent infrequent neoplastic contributors, often presenting with additional symptoms like discharge or ulceration that compound bleeding risk.^[22] Beyond neoplasms, serious non-malignant causes include inherited or acquired coagulopathies, such as von Willebrand disease or anticoagulant overuse, which amplify bleeding from minor cervical trauma or underlying lesions, though these are documented primarily in broader vaginal hemorrhage contexts rather than postcoital-specific data.^[9] Across studies, the overall yield of malignancy or high-grade dysplasia in investigated postcoital bleeding cases underscores a 1% to 5% serious pathology rate, necessitating targeted exclusion to mitigate progression risks despite predominant benign etiologies.^[1] ^[23]

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Prevalence and Incidence

Postcoital bleeding has a reported point prevalence ranging from 0.7% to 9% among menstruating women in community-based studies.^[24] ^[9] One longitudinal assessment documented an annual cumulative incidence of approximately 6% in this demographic.^[2] Over a two-year period, the cumulative incidence has been estimated at 8% in naturally menstruating women.^[21] Prevalence appears elevated in postmenopausal women compared to premenopausal cohorts, though community-level data specific to this group remain limited and often derived from clinical referrals rather than population surveys.^[9] In high-risk subgroups, such as those with persistent symptoms or human papillomavirus positivity, occurrence rates can exceed general population figures, but exact quantifications vary by study design.^[25] Historical data from a Finnish cervical screening program in the 1960s and 1970s indicated that among women presenting with postcoital bleeding, the positive predictive value for cervical cancer was 1 in 220 cases.^[2] Recent systematic reviews and database updates as of 2023 affirm that these prevalence and incidence estimates have remained relatively stable, unaffected by advancements in cervical screening programs.^[9]

Demographic and Behavioral Risk Factors

Postcoital bleeding is more frequent in younger women due to cervical ectropion, where columnar epithelium evaginates onto the ectocervix, exposing fragile vessels prone to trauma during intercourse.^[3] This condition predominates during reproductive years, puberty, and pregnancy, with prevalence estimates of 17-50% and associations with higher parity.^[14] In contrast, postmenopausal women face elevated risk from vaginal atrophy, resulting from estrogen deficiency that thins vaginal and cervical tissues, causing dryness and friability that leads to bleeding upon friction.^[26]^[1] Multiparity constitutes a demographic risk factor, correlating with higher incidence of cervical polyps—a benign cause of postcoital bleeding—typically in women aged 40s-50s.^[1] Prior cervical procedures, such as conization or loop electrosurgical excision, may contribute by inducing scarring or altered vascularity, though direct causation requires case-specific evaluation.^[27] Behaviorally, exposure to high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) through multiple sexual partners represents the paramount modifiable factor, driving progression to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or cancer, both of which manifest as postcoital bleeding; lifetime partners exceeding fivefold increase odds of persistent oncogenic HPV.^[1] Similarly, multiple partners heighten susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections like chlamydia or gonorrhea, precipitating cervicitis with mucosal erosion and bleeding.^[28] Smoking exacerbates these risks by impairing local immunity and promoting neoplastic changes, with studies linking it to doubled odds of postcoital bleeding independent of HIV status.^[29]^[1] Immunosuppression, as in HIV or transplant recipients, further amplifies vulnerability to infections and rapid HPV-related progression.^[1]

Clinical Presentation and Differential Diagnosis

Symptoms and Signs

Postcoital bleeding is defined as vaginal bleeding or spotting that occurs during or immediately after penetrative sexual intercourse, unrelated to menstruation. The bleeding is characteristically fresh, bright red blood from the lower genital tract, often presenting as light spotting rather than profuse hemorrhage, though heavier flows can occur depending on the extent of local trauma or pathology.^[1]^[9] The symptom is frequently painless, distinguishing it from conditions involving deeper pelvic involvement, but dyspareunia is reported in approximately 15% of cases.^[1] Associated features may include abnormal vaginal discharge, such as mucopurulent or blood-tinged types, especially with infectious causes, or pelvic discomfort in select presentations.^[9] Intermenstrual bleeding commonly coexists, reported in up to 30% of women with abnormal uterine bleeding patterns that include postcoital episodes.^[1]^[30] On clinical examination, speculum visualization of the cervix and vagina often reveals contact bleeding upon manipulation, with friable tissue—such as easily disrupted polyps or inflamed mucosa—being a key observable sign.^[1] Systemic manifestations, including fever or weight loss, are uncommon in early or benign presentations but may emerge with progressive neoplastic disease.^[9]

Differential Considerations

Non-gynecologic sources of bleeding may mimic postcoital bleeding if misidentified as vaginal in origin, though such instances are uncommon. Urethral caruncles, benign proliferative lesions at the urethral meatus, can cause bright red bleeding or spotting that patients attribute to the vagina, particularly if noticed after intercourse due to coincidental timing or irritation.^[31] Rectal bleeding from conditions like hemorrhoids or fissures could similarly be misconstrued, especially in cases involving anal intercourse or inadequate source differentiation, but pelvic examination readily distinguishes these by confirming the absence of genital tract pathology.^[32] Coagulopathies represent another category where underlying hemostatic defects amplify minor intercourse-related trauma into noticeable bleeding, without primary genital lesions. Von Willebrand disease, the most prevalent inherited bleeding disorder, predisposes affected women to postcoital bleeding at rates exceeding those in the general population, as factor deficiencies impair clot formation following mucosal friction.^[33] Thrombocytopenia or other platelet disorders may produce analogous effects, though these are rarer contributors to isolated postcoital presentations.^[13] Gynecologic conditions unrelated to contact trauma can simulate postcoital bleeding through temporal coincidence. Breakthrough bleeding from hormonal contraceptives or therapies manifests as unscheduled spotting independent of intercourse, lacking the reproducible mechanical trigger of true postcoital events.^[34] Early pregnancy complications, including implantation bleeding or subchorionic hemorrhage in threatened abortion, may align incidentally with sexual activity but follow cyclical or implantation timelines rather than friction-induced patterns.^[8] Causal differentiation hinges on the strict temporal linkage to intercourse, with empirical data from evaluated cohorts indicating over 90% of cases trace to genital tract friability or lesions, rendering non-genital pursuits low-yield absent corroborative symptoms like dysuria or gastrointestinal complaints.^[1]^[9]

Diagnostic Approach

History and Examination

A detailed history is essential in evaluating postcoital bleeding, focusing on the onset, frequency, duration, and characteristics of the bleeding, such as whether it occurs during or immediately after intercourse, its volume (spotting versus heavy), and any associated pain, discharge, or dyspareunia.^[10] Clinicians should inquire about menstrual history, including cycle regularity, last menstrual period, and postmenopausal status, as well as sexual history encompassing number of partners, condom use, and prior sexually transmitted infections (STIs), to assess infection risks like chlamydia or gonorrhea.^[10] ^[35] Additional elements include obstetric and gynecologic history, contraceptive use (e.g., intrauterine devices or hormonal methods that may cause cervical fragility), smoking status, and systemic symptoms suggestive of malignancy or coagulopathy, with red flags such as persistent or recurrent bleeding in postmenopausal women prompting urgent specialist referral.^[1] Recent guidance emphasizes thorough questioning without dismissal due to patient reluctance, as embarrassment may lead to underreporting of symptoms that require prompt evaluation.^[10] Physical examination begins with inspection of the external genitalia for trauma, lesions, or varicosities, followed by speculum examination to visualize the vagina and cervix for evident causes such as ectropion, polyps, erosions, cervicitis, or friable/neoplastic tissue.^[10] ^[36] Bimanual palpation assesses for uterine or adnexal masses, tenderness, or enlargement, which may indicate underlying pathology like fibroids or ovarian involvement.^[10] If suspicious features are noted—such as an irregular cervix or visible bleeding source—immediate referral for colposcopy is recommended per clinical protocols, prioritizing exclusion of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive carcinoma.^[36] In primary care settings, this examination helps triage cases, though limitations exist if infection or patient factors preclude full visualization.^[37]

Laboratory and Imaging Tests

Laboratory evaluation for postcoital bleeding begins with screening for sexually transmitted infections, including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, using endocervical or vaginal swabs, particularly when cervicitis is suspected based on clinical findings.^[10] A urine or serum β-human chorionic gonadotropin test is advised to exclude pregnancy as a contributing factor.^[10] Cervical cytology via Pap smear is indicated if screening is not current, often combined with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing to assess for dysplasia or neoplasia.^[10] These tests target infectious and precancerous causes, which account for a significant proportion of benign etiologies. Colposcopy with directed biopsy is recommended for persistent postcoital bleeding or abnormal cervical cytology to evaluate for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive cancer.^[38] Studies indicate a low prevalence of cervical cancer in such cases, ranging from 0.6% to 1.16%, yet universal investigation is justified by the high curability of early-detected malignancies.^[4]^[5] Transvaginal ultrasound serves as a primary imaging modality to identify structural abnormalities such as endometrial polyps, fibroids, or thickened endometrium, especially in women over 40 or with risk factors like obesity or irregular cycles.^[10] If ultrasound findings are normal but suspicion persists, sonohysterography may provide further delineation of intrauterine pathology.^[10] Endometrial biopsy is warranted in women aged over 40 years, postmenopausal patients, or those with additional risks for endometrial hyperplasia or cancer, to sample for histological evaluation.^[10] These procedures prioritize high-yield exclusion of serious pathology, despite the overall low diagnostic yield for malignancy in postcoital bleeding cohorts.^[39]

Management and Treatment

Initial Interventions

Upon presentation with postcoital bleeding, initial interventions focus on identifying and addressing potential infectious etiologies while expediting evaluation for malignancy. If clinical findings or patient history suggest cervicitis, such as purulent discharge or high-risk sexual behavior, empiric antibiotic therapy is recommended to cover common pathogens including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, using regimens such as doxycycline 100 mg orally twice daily for 7 days or azithromycin 1 g orally as a single dose.^[40] ^[41] Concurrently, patients should be advised to abstain from sexual activity until STI testing confirms resolution, to mitigate transmission risk and facilitate symptom assessment.^[40] Urgent referral to colposcopy is indicated for all cases of postcoital bleeding to exclude premalignant or malignant cervical lesions, per UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines on suspected cancer recognition, typically via the two-week wait pathway.^[42] ^[43] This approach avoids delays associated with watchful waiting, given the association of unexplained postcoital bleeding with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or cancer in a subset of patients.^[36] Visible abnormalities like polyps or ectropion identified on speculum examination may be treated symptomatically at initial assessment, such as polyp removal or cauterization, but do not obviate the need for specialist referral if bleeding persists.^[44] Supportive care, including water-based lubricants for suspected atrophic vaginitis in perimenopausal or postmenopausal women, is deferred until after speculum examination and basic investigations to prevent masking underlying pathology.^[10] Hemodynamic stabilization is rarely required, as postcoital bleeding typically presents as spotting rather than profuse hemorrhage, but vital signs and hemoglobin assessment are advised if volume loss is suspected.^[10]

Cause-Specific Therapies

For infectious causes such as cervicitis due to Chlamydia trachomatis or Neisseria gonorrhoeae, targeted antibiotic therapy is recommended, typically involving azithromycin 1 g orally as a single dose for chlamydia or ceftriaxone 500 mg intramuscularly plus doxycycline 100 mg orally twice daily for 7 days for gonorrhea, with partner notification and treatment to prevent reinfection.^[28] ^[41] Resolution of symptoms, including postcoital bleeding, occurs in over 90% of cases with appropriate antimicrobial treatment when compliance is ensured, though follow-up testing at 3 months is advised to confirm cure.^[1] Benign structural abnormalities like cervical polyps require polypectomy via hysteroscopy or outpatient excision, which achieves symptom resolution in nearly all cases without recurrence if complete removal is confirmed histologically.^[1] For cervical ectropion, cryotherapy or electrocautery ablation of the eversion is effective, with studies reporting a 72% cure rate for postcoital bleeding at 6 months post-treatment compared to 50% in untreated controls, and minimal complications such as transient discharge.^[45] ^[24] Vaginal atrophy, common in postmenopausal women, responds to low-dose topical estrogen therapy such as estradiol vaginal cream 0.01% applied twice weekly, which restores epithelial integrity and eliminates bleeding in 70-80% of patients within 12 weeks, with systemic absorption minimized compared to oral routes.^[46] Non-hormonal options like moisturizers provide partial relief but are less effective for friable tissue-related bleeding.^[47] Neoplastic causes, particularly cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive carcinoma linked to human papillomavirus (HPV), necessitate staging via colposcopy, biopsy, and imaging, followed by etiology-specific interventions: loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) for early dysplasia with cure rates exceeding 90% for CIN2/3, or for invasive disease, radical hysterectomy, radiation, or platinum-based chemotherapy (e.g., cisplatin) tailored to FIGO stage, achieving 5-year survival rates of 80-90% for stage IB but dropping to 15-20% for stage IV.^[1] Radiotherapy effectively controls bleeding in advanced cases, with response rates over 80% for palliation.^[19] Human papillomavirus vaccination (e.g., quadrivalent or nonavalent formulations) prior to exposure reduces the incidence of HPV-related cervical neoplasia by 70-93% in vaccinated cohorts, thereby decreasing associated postcoital bleeding from precursor lesions, as evidenced by population-level declines in CIN3 rates post-vaccination implementation.^[48] For treatable benign and infectious etiologies, overall symptom resolution exceeds 80-90% with causal therapy, underscoring the value of etiology-directed management over symptomatic approaches.^[1]

Prognosis and Prevention

Outcomes and Complications

Most cases of postcoital bleeding arise from benign etiologies, such as cervical ectropion, polyps, or infections, which carry an excellent prognosis with spontaneous resolution or simple interventions. In premenopausal women, approximately 60% resolve within six months without treatment, and 51% exhibit no recurrence at two-year follow-up.^[1] In instances indicative of premalignancy or malignancy, prognosis depends critically on early detection and staging. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia occurs in 6.8% to 17.8% of evaluated cases, while invasive cervical cancer is identified in 3% to 5.5%.^[1] Patients with postcoital bleeding and underlying cervical cancer frequently present at advanced stages, elevating risks of poorer outcomes compared to asymptomatic detections.^[9] For invasive cervical cancer overall, five-year relative survival reaches 91% when localized but declines to 19% with distant spread, highlighting the causal impact of diagnostic delays on progression from in situ to metastatic disease.^[49] Untreated postcoital bleeding can precipitate complications including iron deficiency anemia from cumulative blood loss, particularly if recurrent or voluminous.^[1] In infectious causes like cervicitis, ascension may yield pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, or ectopic pregnancy. While aggregate mortality is low due to the >90% benign predominance, overlooked neoplastic cases enable tumor advancement, amplifying treatment resistance and lethality.^[1]^[9]

Preventive Measures

Vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) with quadrivalent or nonavalent vaccines, such as Gardasil, targets oncogenic strains responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancers, which frequently present with postcoital bleeding as an early symptom.^[50] ^[51] Large-scale studies demonstrate that HPV vaccination reduces cervical precancer rates by up to 90% in vaccinated cohorts, thereby lowering the incidence of bleeding attributable to HPV-induced dysplasia or malignancy.^[50] Administration is ideally before sexual debut, typically ages 9-12, though efficacy persists with catch-up vaccination up to age 45 for those at ongoing risk.^[51] Safe sexual practices causally mitigate transmission of pathogens underlying infectious cervicitis or ectropion, common benign etiologies of postcoital bleeding. Consistent condom use during intercourse reduces chlamydia and gonorrhea acquisition by 50-90%, pathogens that inflame cervical tissue and provoke bleeding upon friction.^[1] Limiting lifetime sexual partners directly correlates with decreased HPV prevalence and subsequent cervical pathology, as cumulative exposure elevates oncogenic infection risk in dose-dependent fashion per epidemiological data.^[52] Adherence to evidence-based cervical screening protocols enables detection and ablation of precancerous lesions before they progress to symptomatic hemorrhage. Guidelines recommend HPV testing or co-testing with cytology every 3-5 years for women aged 21-65, with colposcopy for high-risk findings, averting up to 80% of invasive cancers that manifest as postcoital bleeding.^[2] In postmenopausal women, where bleeding portends higher malignancy odds (up to 10-15% association with cancer), vigilant screening continuation and prompt evaluation of new symptoms further reduce complication risks.^[2] For atrophy-related fragility in perimenopausal or postmenopausal phases, pre-intercourse application of water-based lubricants minimizes mucosal trauma and friction-induced spotting, supported by clinical observations of reduced bleeding episodes.^[1] Caution with systemic estrogen replacement is warranted, as unopposed therapy elevates endometrial proliferation risks, potentially contributing to hemorrhagic pathologies; combined progestin regimens mitigate this when indicated.^[8]

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Common symptoms include vaginal dryness, irritation, postcoital bleeding, and soreness. ... vaginal estrogen therapy on markers of postmenopausal estrogen status.
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Apr 21, 2025 · Vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA; also referred to as vaginal atrophy, urogenital atrophy, or atrophic vaginitis) results from estrogen loss and is ...
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Apr 16, 2024 · Cervarix has demonstrated a remarkable 93% effectiveness in preventing cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 (CIN3) lesions, irrespective ...
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Apr 27, 2023 · When cervical cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, the 5-year relative survival rate is 91%. When cervical cancer is diagnosed after it ...
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Oct 14, 2020 · Widespread HPV vaccine use dramatically reduces the number of women who will develop cervical cancer, a large study has shown.Missing: neoplasia bleeding
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The HPV vaccine protects against genital warts and most cases of cervical cancer. It protects against cancer of the vagina, vulva, penis or anus caused by HPV.
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In this review, we examine this evidence and the possible mechanisms by which HPV vaccination may prevent these APOs. Large-scale studies linking HPV ...Missing: postcoital | Show results with:postcoital