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Vascular permeability

Vascular permeability refers to the capacity of blood vessel walls, primarily the endothelium, to selectively allow the passage of fluids, solutes, small molecules, and occasionally larger entities such as proteins or cells between the bloodstream and surrounding tissues.^[1] This process is essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis by facilitating nutrient delivery, waste removal, and immune cell trafficking under normal physiological conditions.^[2] In resting states, the endothelial barrier exhibits basal permeability, permitting continuous leakage of solutes and molecules smaller than approximately 40 kDa while restricting larger molecules and cells to prevent uncontrolled extravasation.^[1] The endothelial lining of blood vessels, spanning an estimated surface area of about 7000 m² in humans, forms a dynamic semi-permeable barrier that integrates multiple transport pathways.^[2] Key mechanisms include transcellular transport via vesicular structures like caveolae and fenestrae, which shuttle molecules across endothelial cells, and paracellular transport through regulated intercellular junctions such as adherens junctions (mediated by VE-cadherin) and tight junctions.^[3] These pathways are modulated by the endothelial glycocalyx, a carbohydrate-rich layer that acts as a first line of defense, sieving solutes based on size and charge.^[2] Regulation of vascular permeability is tightly controlled by a variety of physiological and pathological signals, ensuring adaptability to local needs.^[1] Endogenous mediators such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), histamine, bradykinin, and nitric oxide (NO) promote hyperpermeability by activating signaling cascades, including Src kinase-mediated phosphorylation of VE-cadherin, which loosens junctions, and activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) to produce vasodilatory NO.^[3] Conversely, stabilizing factors like angiopoietin-1 enhance barrier integrity, while biomechanical factors such as shear stress from blood flow contribute to endothelial stability.^[3]^[2] This balance is organ-specific; for instance, continuous capillaries in the brain exhibit low permeability to protect the blood-brain barrier, while fenestrated capillaries in the kidneys and intestines allow greater exchange for filtration and absorption.^[1] Dysregulation of vascular permeability underlies numerous pathological conditions, where excessive leakage leads to tissue edema, inflammation, and organ dysfunction.^[3] In acute settings, such as inflammation or sepsis, hyperpermeability in post-capillary venules—induced by cytokines and VEGF—results in plasma extravasation and fibrin deposition, contributing to swelling and impaired gas exchange in conditions like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).^[2] Chronic hyperpermeability is prominent in cancer, where tumor-derived VEGF drives leaky neovessels, elevating interstitial fluid pressure and facilitating metastasis.^[3] It also contributes to complications in diabetes, such as retinopathy and nephropathy.^[4] Additionally, transient increases in permeability occur in wound healing and ischemia-reperfusion injury to support repair.^[5] Understanding these dynamics is crucial for therapeutic interventions, such as anti-VEGF agents in oncology and edema management in cardiovascular diseases.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

Vascular permeability refers to the capacity of blood vessel walls, particularly those of capillaries and post-capillary venules, to permit the selective passage of fluids, solutes, proteins, and cells from the bloodstream into the surrounding interstitial spaces while preserving the overall barrier integrity of the endothelium.^[1] This process ensures controlled exchange essential for tissue nourishment and waste removal, with the endothelial lining serving as the primary regulator of this permeability through its structural and functional properties.^[1] The degree of vascular permeability varies significantly depending on the type of endothelium lining the vessels. Continuous endothelium, characterized by tight junctions and minimal gaps, exhibits low permeability and is predominant in tissues such as muscle, brain, and skin.^[6] In contrast, fenestrated endothelium features pores that increase permeability to allow efficient filtration, as seen in the kidneys and intestines, while sinusoidal (discontinuous) endothelium has large gaps and is highly permeable, facilitating rapid exchange in organs like the liver and spleen.^[6] This variation in endothelial structure governs the selective transport across vessels and is crucial for maintaining physiological homeostasis, though dysregulation can contribute to pathological conditions such as edema and inflammation.^[3] The foundational principles of vascular permeability were first articulated in Ernest Starling's 1896 hypothesis, which described the mechanisms of fluid exchange across capillary walls driven by opposing hydrostatic and oncotic pressures. Starling proposed that net fluid movement between the intravascular and interstitial compartments results from the balance of these forces, laying the groundwork for understanding permeability as a dynamic equilibrium. This concept is quantitatively expressed in Starling's equation for fluid flux:

J_v = K_f \left[ (P_c - P_i) - \sigma (\pi_c - \pi_i) \right]

where J_v represents the net fluid movement per unit surface area and time, K_f is the filtration coefficient reflecting vascular permeability, P_c and P_i are the hydrostatic pressures in the capillary and interstitium, \sigma is the reflection coefficient indicating solute permeability, and \pi_c and \pi_i are the oncotic pressures in the capillary and interstitium, respectively.^[7]

Endothelial Barrier Structure

The vascular endothelium comprises a monolayer of flattened, squamous endothelial cells that lines the luminal surface of all blood vessels, serving as the primary anatomical barrier regulating permeability between blood and tissues. This monolayer exhibits structural heterogeneity adapted to local physiological demands: continuous endothelium, lacking transcellular openings and featuring robust cell-cell junctions, predominates in arteries, veins, and capillaries of the brain, lungs, and skeletal muscle; fenestrated endothelium, characterized by small transcellular pores, is typical in the kidneys and intestines; and discontinuous (sinusoidal) endothelium, with large intercellular gaps and an incomplete basal lamina, occurs in the liver and spleen.^[8]^[9] Endothelial cell-cell contacts are stabilized by specialized junction complexes that maintain barrier integrity. Adherens junctions, mediated by vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), promote adhesion by connecting to the actin cytoskeleton through catenin proteins (α-, β-, p120-, and γ-catenin). Tight junctions seal paracellular pathways via transmembrane proteins such as occludin and claudins (notably claudin-5 in vascular endothelium), anchored intracellularly by zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and linked to the cytoskeleton. Gap junctions, composed of connexin proteins, facilitate intercellular exchange of small molecules and ions for coordinated cellular signaling.^[10]^[9] Underlying the endothelium lies the basement membrane, a specialized extracellular matrix approximately 80 nm thick, composed primarily of type IV collagen, laminin, and proteoglycans, which provides structural support and anchorage for endothelial cells via integrins. Pericytes, perivascular cells embedded within this basement membrane, partially encase capillaries and contribute to barrier reinforcement by promoting endothelial maturation and limiting permeability through direct physical coverage and matrix interactions.^[8]^[11] Vascular beds display organ-specific structural modifications to optimize barrier properties. In the glomerular capillaries of the kidney, for example, endothelial cells form dense clusters of fenestrae—transcytoplasmic pores 50–80 nm in diameter, often spanned by a thin 5–6 nm diaphragm primarily composed of plasmalemmal vesicle-associated protein-1 (PV-1)—that cover up to 50% of the capillary surface, enabling selective molecular filtration while preserving overall endothelial continuity.^[12]^[8]

Mechanisms

Paracellular Transport

Paracellular transport enables the passage of solutes and fluids across the vascular endothelium via diffusion and convection through narrow intercellular clefts between adjacent endothelial cells, a process strictly limited by specialized junctional complexes that prevent unrestricted leakage.^[13] This pathway maintains vascular homeostasis by selectively permitting small hydrophilic molecules while excluding larger plasma proteins under normal conditions.^[14] The primary structural components regulating this transport are adherens junctions and tight junctions. Adherens junctions, anchored by vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), facilitate calcium-dependent adhesion between cells and link to the cortical actin cytoskeleton through catenin proteins, thereby stabilizing the endothelial barrier.^[13] Tight junctions, formed by transmembrane proteins such as claudin-5 and occludin, create a more apical seal and connect to the actin cytoskeleton via zonula occludens (ZO)-1 and ZO-2 proteins, further restricting the effective aperture of the cleft.^[14] These junctions collectively modulate the cleft dimensions, which measure approximately 20 nm in width but are functionally narrowed to permit only solutes smaller than 3 nm in diameter.^[15] The actin cytoskeleton integrates these junctions with the cell interior, transmitting contractile forces that influence cleft patency.^[13] Modulation of paracellular permeability occurs through reversible disassembly of these junctions, often triggered by intracellular signaling. Elevated calcium levels promote the disassembly of VE-cadherin via phosphorylation at tyrosine residues (e.g., Y658 and Y685) by Src family kinases, leading to its endocytosis and transient gap formation between cells.^[14] This calcium-dependent mechanism facilitates rapid, acute increases in permeability, allowing enhanced flux during responses such as wound healing or inflammation.^[13] The quantitative description of paracellular solute flux relies on the permeability coefficient P, where the flux J is given by

J = P \cdot \Delta C

with \Delta C representing the concentration gradient across the endothelial barrier; this relation, rooted in Fick's first law of diffusion, quantifies the route's contribution to overall vascular exchange.^[15]

Transcellular Transport

Transcellular transport in vascular permeability refers to the movement of molecules across endothelial cells through intracellular pathways, primarily via vesicular structures known as caveolae or through specialized pores called fenestrae, enabling the passage of larger solutes such as albumin that cannot readily cross paracellular junctions.^[16] This process, termed transcytosis when vesicular, involves the formation of endocytic vesicles at one plasma membrane, intracellular trafficking, and exocytic fusion at the opposite membrane, allowing selective transport without disrupting the endothelial barrier.^[17] Transcellular transport complements paracellular pathways by facilitating the intracellular shuttling of macromolecules in continuous endothelia, while fenestrae provide direct transcellular pores in specialized vascular beds.^[16] Key components of vesicular transcytosis include caveolae, which are 60-80 nm flask-shaped invaginations coated by the structural protein caveolin-1, essential for vesicle formation and stability.^[17] In receptor-mediated transcytosis, albumin binds to the endothelial surface receptor gp60, a glycoprotein concentrated in caveolae, triggering phosphorylation of gp60 and caveolin-1 to initiate vesicle budding and transport.^[18] For fenestral pores, found in highly permeable endothelia, thin diaphragms span the 50-80 nm openings and incorporate plasmalemma vesicle-associated protein (PV-1), which organizes the diaphragm structure and regulates pore selectivity for plasma proteins.^[19] The mechanisms underlying transcellular transport are energy-dependent, relying on ATP hydrolysis for vesicle budding via GTPases and motor proteins like kinesin and dynein for intracellular movement, as well as N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) for membrane fusion.^[16] Vesicular trafficking is prominent in fenestrated endothelia, such as those in renal glomeruli, where fenestrae facilitate high-permeability filtration of water and small solutes while restricting larger molecules through diaphragm barriers, supporting efficient plasma ultrafiltration.^[19] Transcytosis rates are modulated by caveolae density, which ranges from 200 vesicles per μm³ in arteriolar endothelium to 1,200 per μm³ in venules, and trafficking kinetics that couple rapid endocytosis to exocytosis, influencing overall permeability.^[16] For instance, the fractional albumin escape rate, a measure of transendothelial albumin flux, reflects transcytotic efficiency and can increase under conditions altering vesicle dynamics, though it remains low in healthy continuous endothelium to maintain barrier integrity.^[20]

Regulation

Molecular and Cellular Regulators

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a primary mediator that enhances endothelial permeability by activating Src kinase and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway, leading to disassembly of adherens junctions such as VE-cadherin complexes.^[21] This signaling cascade promotes actin cytoskeleton reorganization and endothelial contraction, facilitating paracellular leakage within minutes to hours.^[22] In contrast, angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) stabilizes the endothelial barrier by binding to the Tie2 receptor, activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and suppressing inflammatory responses, thereby reducing junctional disruption and plasma extravasation.^[23] Angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), however, antagonizes Tie2 signaling in inflammatory contexts, destabilizing junctions and increasing permeability by promoting endothelial activation and leukocyte recruitment.^[24] Inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) induce endothelial gap formation by upregulating adhesion molecules and activating myosin light chain kinase, which disrupts tight and adherens junctions over hours.^[25] TNF-α specifically triggers tyrosine phosphorylation of vascular endothelial-cadherin and actin stress fiber formation, compromising barrier integrity.^[26] Similarly, IL-1β enhances permeability through tissue factor-dependent mechanisms, leading to procoagulant changes and intercellular gaps in activated endothelium.^[27] Intracellular signaling pathways fine-tune these responses; the RhoA/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) pathway drives actin stress fiber assembly and endothelial cell contraction, increasing paracellular permeability in response to mediators like thrombin or cytokines.^[28] Activation of RhoA recruits ROCK to phosphorylate myosin light chain, promoting junctional disassembly and gap formation essential for hyperpermeability.^[29] Conversely, the PI3K/Akt pathway provides barrier protection by enhancing endothelial survival, junctional stability, and nitric oxide production, counteracting permeability-inducing signals.^[30] The endothelial glycocalyx, a luminal polysaccharide layer, acts as a mechanosensor and signal transducer, modulating permeability by restricting access to receptors and influencing downstream pathways like RhoA in response to fluid shear or inflammatory cues.^[31] Cellular interactions further regulate permeability; pericytes communicate with endothelial cells via platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB, which binds PDGF receptor-β on pericytes to promote their recruitment and stabilize vessels by enhancing junctional integrity and reducing leakage.^[32] This crosstalk maintains barrier function during angiogenesis and homeostasis.^[33] Leukocyte adhesion molecules, including intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), facilitate transient junction opening during immune cell transmigration; ligation by leukocyte integrins signals to remodel actin and VE-cadherin, allowing diapedesis without chronic barrier loss.^[34] ICAM-1 engagement specifically promotes endothelial signaling that coordinates paracellular or transcellular migration routes.^[35] Regulation of vascular permeability exhibits temporal dynamics, with acute responses occurring within minutes via histamine, which activates G-protein-coupled receptors to rapidly induce RhoA-mediated contraction and gap formation for immediate fluid extravasation.^[36] In chronic settings, VEGF sustains permeability over hours through prolonged Src/ERK activation and junctional remodeling, supporting processes like tissue repair but risking edema if unchecked.^[37] These phases highlight the endothelium's adaptive control, balancing rapid defense with sustained homeostasis.^[1]

Biomechanical Factors

Hemodynamic forces play a critical role in regulating vascular permeability through shear stress and hydrostatic pressure gradients. Physiological levels of laminar shear stress, typically 10-20 dyn/cm² in arteries, exert a protective effect on the endothelial barrier by reinforcing cell-cell junctions via mechanosensing pathways involving PECAM-1, which transduces fluid forces to modulate adherens junction stability. Chronic exposure to such shear stress reduces endothelial permeability to macromolecules like albumin by approximately 50%, mediated by the PI3K-NO-cGMP signaling axis that strengthens barrier integrity. In contrast, hydrostatic pressure gradients drive transendothelial filtration, as described by Starling's principle, where the difference between capillary hydrostatic pressure and interstitial pressure promotes fluid efflux when positive, thereby influencing overall vascular leakiness. Interactions between endothelial cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) further modulate permeability through adhesion and mechanical cues. Integrin-mediated adhesion, particularly via β1 integrins binding to laminin and collagen IV in the basement membrane, anchors endothelial cells and stabilizes VE-cadherin at adherens junctions, thereby maintaining low paracellular permeability. Pathological increases in ECM stiffness, such as those reaching 40 kPa in fibrotic or aged tissues, disrupt this balance by enhancing Rho kinase activity, promoting stress fiber formation, and weakening junctional integrity, which elevates endothelial permeability and facilitates leukocyte extravasation. Cellular mechanics within endothelial cells also govern barrier function, with contractility and the glycocalyx layer as key elements. Endothelial contractility, driven by myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)-induced phosphorylation of myosin light chain, generates actomyosin tension that forms intercellular gaps and induces hyperpermeability during inflammatory stimuli. The endothelial glycocalyx, a surface proteoglycan layer, acts as a mechanoprotective sieve; its shedding—elevated in conditions like trauma (e.g., syndecan-1 levels >200 ng/ml) and sepsis—exposes the endothelium, increasing hydraulic conductivity and vascular leakiness by compromising charge-based repulsion of plasma proteins. Quantitatively, the endothelial permeability coefficient (P) is inversely modulated by wall shear stress (τ), where elevated physiological τ reinforces adherens junctions and reduces P, as evidenced by chronic shear exposure halving macromolecular flux compared to static conditions.

Physiological Functions

Nutrient and Fluid Homeostasis

Vascular permeability plays a crucial role in fluid dynamics by enabling capillary filtration, which supplies interstitial fluid to hydrate tissues throughout the body. This process involves the movement of water and solutes from the bloodstream into the interstitium, driven by hydrostatic pressure gradients across the capillary wall. Under normal conditions, this filtration is balanced by the lymphatic system's drainage of excess interstitial fluid back into the circulation, preventing accumulation and maintaining tissue volume homeostasis.^[38]^[39] The selective nature of vascular permeability facilitates efficient solute exchange, allowing essential small molecules such as oxygen and glucose to diffuse readily from blood to tissues while restricting larger proteins like albumin to preserve oncotic pressure within the vasculature. This size- and charge-dependent barrier function ensures nutrient delivery without excessive protein loss, which could disrupt osmotic balance. Organ-specific variations enhance this precision; for instance, the blood-brain barrier exhibits particularly low permeability to maintain a stable neuronal environment, permitting only small, lipophilic molecules like O₂ and glucose to cross via passive diffusion while excluding proteins through tight junctions and efflux transporters.^[39]^[40] Hormonal regulators integrate with vascular permeability to fine-tune water and electrolyte balance, particularly in the kidneys. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin) enhances water reabsorption by increasing the permeability of renal collecting ducts, indirectly supporting vascular fluid dynamics through conserved plasma volume. Aldosterone, acting via mineralocorticoid receptors on endothelial cells, modulates vascular permeability in renal vessels, promoting sodium retention and fluid homeostasis while temporarily increasing endothelial permeability to macromolecules under physiological demands.^[41]^[42] Evolutionary adaptations in vascular structure, such as fenestrated capillaries, optimize permeability for specialized functions like hormone release in endocrine glands. These vessels, characterized by transcellular pores, are prevalent in glands including the adrenal cortex, thyroid, and pancreas, where they enable rapid bidirectional exchange of hormones, nutrients, and signaling molecules between blood and endocrine cells. For example, in pancreatic islets, fenestrated capillaries facilitate insulin secretion into the circulation, underscoring their role in metabolic homeostasis. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling drives fenestration formation, ensuring high permeability tailored to glandular needs.^[43]

Immune Cell Extravasation

Immune cell extravasation, also known as leukocyte transmigration, is a critical process in immune surveillance where circulating leukocytes exit the bloodstream to enter tissues, facilitated by regulated vascular permeability that allows selective cellular passage without compromising barrier integrity. This multistep cascade begins with tethering and rolling, where leukocytes interact with endothelial selectins such as P-selectin and E-selectin via ligands like PSGL-1, slowing their movement under blood flow shear stress.^[44] Subsequent activation occurs when chemokines presented on the endothelial surface bind G-protein-coupled receptors on leukocytes, inducing intracellular signaling that activates integrins for stronger adhesion.^[45] The process advances to firm adhesion, where activated integrins such as LFA-1 (αLβ2) and Mac-1 (αMβ2) bind endothelial counter-receptors like ICAM-1 and ICAM-2, forming shear-resistant bonds that halt leukocyte rolling and enable spreading and crawling along the endothelium.^[44] Finally, diapedesis involves the leukocyte migrating across the endothelial barrier, primarily through paracellular routes (70-90% of cases) between adjacent endothelial cells or, less commonly, via transcellular routes through the endothelial cell body. Adhesion molecules like PECAM-1 and CD99 play essential roles in diapedesis by promoting transient opening of endothelial junctions, such as through VE-cadherin dissociation and recycling of the lateral border recycling compartment, allowing leukocyte passage while minimizing plasma leakage and preserving vascular integrity.^[46] Vascular permeability exhibits tissue-specific variations to balance immune access with barrier protection; in post-capillary venules of lymph nodes, high endothelial venules (HEVs) display elevated permeability optimized for rapid lymphocyte extravasation, supporting the influx of approximately 5 × 10^6 naive T and B cells per second in humans via specialized adhesion molecules and chemokine gradients like CCL19/CCL21.^[47] In contrast, the blood-brain barrier maintains low permeability through tight junctions, favoring transcellular diapedesis for restricted leukocyte entry, such as in neuroinflammatory conditions, to prevent widespread immune infiltration.^[48] This regulatory balance is maintained by mechanisms that limit excessive extravasation, including chemokine gradient modulation and resolution mediators like resolvins released by perivascular cells, which downregulate adhesion molecule expression and integrin activation to avert tissue damage while ensuring ongoing immune surveillance. Adhesion molecules, such as selectins and integrins, serve as key regulators in this context, coordinating the transient permeability changes essential for controlled transmigration.^[44]

Pathological Aspects

Inflammation and Edema

In inflammation, vascular permeability increases through mechanisms involving both acute and chronic mediators. In acute responses, histamine released from mast cells binds to H1 receptors on endothelial cells, inducing cytoskeletal rearrangements that form transient paracellular gaps, allowing plasma leakage. Similarly, bradykinin, generated via the kinin-kallikrein system, activates B2 receptors to promote endothelial contraction and junctional disruption, exacerbating permeability in conditions like allergic reactions. In chronic or severe inflammation, such as cytokine storms, proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-α trigger sustained endothelial barrier breakdown by downregulating junctional proteins such as VE-cadherin, leading to prolonged leakage. This heightened permeability facilitates the formation of edema, characterized by the extravasation of protein-rich fluid into the interstitial space, which elevates tissue osmotic pressure and causes swelling. Edema types include pitting edema, where pressure displaces fluid in dependent areas like the legs, and anasarca, a severe generalized form involving widespread fluid retention. Compartment-specific manifestations, such as pulmonary edema in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), result in alveolar flooding that impairs gas exchange, while cerebral edema can lead to increased intracranial pressure and neurological compromise. Clinical examples highlight the pathological impact: in sepsis, bacterial toxins and cytokines induce systemic endothelial dysfunction, promoting widespread capillary leak and multi-organ edema; allergic reactions, like anaphylaxis, cause rapid histamine-mediated vascular gaps leading to angioedema; and ARDS often features neutrophil-driven permeability increases in the lungs, contributing to hypoxemia. Therapeutic strategies target these processes, such as anti-VEGF agents that stabilize junctions and reduce leakage in inflammatory contexts like airway inflammation. The consequences of unchecked permeability include impaired oxygen delivery due to interstitial fluid accumulation, tissue hypoxia, and organ dysfunction, as seen in septic shock where renal and hepatic failure ensues from hypoperfusion. Resolution involves endothelial repair mechanisms, including upregulation of angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), which activates Tie2 receptors to reinforce adherens junctions and restore barrier integrity, thereby limiting ongoing edema.

Tumor Angiogenesis and Metastasis

In tumor angiogenesis, the angiogenic switch occurs when hypoxic or growing tumors overexpress vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), particularly VEGF-A, leading to the rapid formation of abnormal, leaky blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to support tumor expansion.^[49] These vessels, often termed "mother vessels," develop from pre-existing venules through basement membrane degradation and pericyte detachment, resulting in thin-walled sinusoids with heightened permeability mediated by vesiculo-vacuolar organelles that facilitate plasma protein extravasation.^[49] High VEGF-A levels induce hyperpermeable structures, contrasting with lower doses that form more normal capillaries, thereby enabling efficient nutrient delivery but compromising vessel integrity.^[49] This increased vascular permeability underpins the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, where nanosized therapeutics preferentially accumulate in tumor tissue due to leaky tumor vasculature and impaired lymphatic drainage.^[50] Tumor vessels' fenestrations allow nanodrugs to extravasate into the interstitial space, where they are retained, achieving up to a twofold higher concentration compared to normal tissues, though this often remains insufficient for complete tumor eradication without optimized formulations.^[50] The EPR effect has been leveraged in clinical nanomedicines, such as liposomal doxorubicin, to improve targeted drug delivery in solid tumors.^[50] Altered vascular permeability plays a critical role in metastasis by facilitating tumor cell intravasation into the bloodstream and extravasation into distant organs, processes enhanced by the degradation of endothelial barriers.^[51] Factors like VEGF and secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) weaken adherens junctions, such as VE-cadherin, promoting tumor cell egress from primary sites.^[51] Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), including MMP-3 and ADAM17, further degrade junctional proteins like ZO-1 and occludin, increasing permeability and enabling tumor cell transmigration across the endothelium during both intravasation and extravasation.^[51] Therapeutic strategies targeting this dysregulation include vessel normalization, where low-dose anti-angiogenic agents like bevacizumab, a VEGF-A monoclonal antibody, prune immature vessels and restore endothelial integrity to reduce permeability.^[52] This normalization improves pericyte coverage, enhances perfusion, and lowers interstitial fluid pressure, creating a transient window for better penetration of chemotherapeutics and immunotherapies, as evidenced in trials for glioblastoma and breast cancer where it prolonged progression-free survival.^[52] In specific cancers, such as glioblastoma, tumor-induced permeability breaches the blood-brain barrier (BBB), with differentiated glioblastoma cells releasing interleukin-6 (IL-6) to activate STAT3 signaling in endothelial cells, downregulating tight junction proteins like occludin and ZO-1, thereby increasing paracellular leakage.^[53] This heightened permeability facilitates nutrient influx and drug access but exacerbates edema and invasion. For metastasis, enhanced permeability in target organs like the lungs and liver promotes colonization; for instance, loss of endothelial endomucin (EMCN) in lung vasculature increases leakiness via reduced ZO-1 and claudin-5, recruiting neutrophils to form a premetastatic niche that aids tumor cell extravasation and settlement.^[54] Similar mechanisms in the liver, driven by venous drainage patterns, amplify metastatic efficiency in colorectal and other cancers.^[55]

Assessment Methods

In Vitro Techniques

In vitro techniques for assessing vascular permeability primarily utilize cell culture models to recreate endothelial barriers in controlled laboratory settings. Endothelial monolayers, often derived from human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), are commonly cultured on porous transwell inserts to form a barrier between apical and basolateral compartments.^[56] Permeability is quantified by measuring the flux of macromolecular tracers such as fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled dextran (typically 10-70 kDa) or fluorescein across the monolayer, where increased passage indicates disrupted barrier function.^[57] These assays allow for the evaluation of permeability changes induced by stimuli like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), providing insights into paracellular transport mechanisms.^[58] Another established method involves electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS), which noninvasively monitors endothelial barrier integrity through real-time impedance measurements.^[59] In ECIS setups, HUVECs or other endothelial cells are grown on gold electrodes, and alternating current is applied to detect changes in resistance and capacitance as cells adhere and form junctions; a decrease in transendothelial resistance signals increased permeability.^[60] This technique is particularly useful for dynamic studies of barrier disruption over time, such as during inflammatory responses.^[61] Advanced in vitro assays extend these models to more physiologically relevant conditions, including three-dimensional (3D) organoids and microfluidic chips. Vascularized organoids, generated from endothelial cells co-cultured with pericytes or stem cell-derived components, enable assessment of permeability in a 3D architecture that mimics tissue microenvironments.^[62] Microfluidic devices, often incorporating HUVECs in channels subjected to fluid shear stress (e.g., 5-20 dyn/cm²), simulate vascular flow while measuring tracer diffusion to evaluate shear-dependent permeability.^[63] Additionally, small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown techniques are employed to test specific regulators; for instance, siRNA targeting caveolin-1 in endothelial monolayers increases permeability to albumin, highlighting its role in caveolar transport.^[64] Similarly, knockdown of MARCKS protein via siRNA enhances hydrogen peroxide-induced permeability, demonstrating actin cytoskeleton involvement.^[65] A key metric in these techniques is transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), which quantifies junctional integrity by measuring the electrical resistance across the endothelial layer using volt-ohm meters.^[66] TEER values typically range from 20-100 Ω·cm² for HUVEC monolayers, with higher resistance indicating tighter barriers; reductions correlate with permeability increases, as validated in transwell and microfluidic systems.^[67] This metric provides a rapid, label-free assessment complementary to flux assays.^[68] These in vitro approaches offer advantages such as high throughput for screening permeability modulators, precise molecular control via genetic tools like siRNA, and ethical benefits over animal models.^[56] However, limitations include the absence of systemic interactions, such as immune cell recruitment or multicellular signaling, and challenges in replicating complex in vivo hemodynamics, which can lead to overestimation or underestimation of permeability compared to physiological conditions.^[63] Despite these constraints, advancements in 3D and microfluidic systems are bridging gaps toward more accurate modeling.^[69]

In Vivo Measurements

In vivo measurements of vascular permeability provide critical insights into systemic and tissue-level barrier function in living organisms, capturing dynamic interactions that simplified models cannot replicate. These techniques quantify the leakage of solutes, proteins, or fluids from blood vessels into surrounding tissues, often using animal models like mice or rats for preclinical studies, with adaptations for human clinical assessment. Common approaches include tracer-based extravasation assays and advanced imaging, allowing evaluation of permeability under physiological or pathological conditions, such as inflammation or tumor growth.^[70] Dye-based methods remain foundational for assessing protein and macromolecular permeability. The Evans blue extravasation assay, introduced in the mid-20th century and refined for modern use, involves intravenous injection of Evans blue dye, which binds tightly to plasma albumin, forming a complex that normally remains intravascular. Upon vascular leakage, the dye-albumin conjugate extravasates into tissues, where it can be quantified spectrophotometrically after extraction with formamide, providing a measure of protein permeability; for example, increased blue coloration in lung tissue indicates heightened permeability in models of acute lung injury. This method is particularly valued for its simplicity and sensitivity to large-molecule leakage, though it requires tissue homogenization, limiting spatial resolution.^[71]^[72] Fluorescent dextrans offer a complementary approach for evaluating size-selective permeability. These polysaccharides, labeled with fluorophores like fluorescein or rhodamine and available in molecular weights from 4 kDa to 2 MDa, are injected intravenously to probe the endothelial barrier's pore size distribution. Smaller dextrans (e.g., 10-40 kDa) extravasate more readily through paracellular junctions, while larger ones (e.g., 150-500 kDa) highlight transendothelial transport; leakage is visualized via fluorescence microscopy or quantified by tissue extraction and fluorimetry. In mouse models of sepsis, for instance, elevated extravasation of 70 kDa dextran correlates with barrier disruption, enabling differentiation between transient and sustained permeability changes.^[73]^[74] Imaging modalities enable real-time, non-invasive visualization of permeability dynamics. Intravital microscopy, often using two-photon excitation for deeper tissue penetration, allows direct observation of tracer leakage from microvessels in exposed tissues like the cremaster muscle or dorsal skinfold window chambers. Fluorescent dextrans or quantum dots injected intravenously reveal leakage kinetics, with permeability calculated as the rate of fluorescence intensity increase in the perivascular space; this technique has quantified VEGF-induced permeability increases in tumor vessels, reaching peaks within minutes.^[75]^[76] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with gadolinium-based contrast agents assesses clinical permeability, particularly in edema-prone regions like the brain. Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) tracks gadolinium extravasation, modeling transfer constants (K^trans) to quantify endothelial leakiness; in brain tumor patients, elevated K^trans values (e.g., >0.1 min^-1) indicate disrupted blood-brain barrier integrity. Albumin-binding gadolinium probes, such as gadofosveset, enhance specificity for protein-level permeability by mimicking plasma proteins.^[77]^[78] Positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) facilitate molecular imaging of permeability, especially in oncology. PET tracers like ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA conjugates or ¹⁸F-labeled albumin analogs extravasate based on barrier integrity, with standardized uptake values reflecting leakage; in preclinical cancer models, PET has shown 2-3-fold higher permeability in angiogenic vessels compared to normal tissue. SPECT with ^99mTc-labeled dextrans offers similar quantification but with lower resolution, useful for lymph node mapping in permeability-related metastasis. These nuclear techniques provide whole-body assessment but are limited by radiation exposure.^[79]^[80] Physiological metrics offer indirect but integrative evaluations of permeability. Lymph flow rates, measured via cannulation of lymphatic vessels or lymphoscintigraphy, increase proportionally with interstitial fluid accumulation from leaky vessels; in rodent models of inflammation, flow rates can rise 5-10-fold, reflecting compensatory drainage. Tissue wet-to-dry weight ratios assess edema as a proxy for fluid extravasation, calculated post-desiccation; ratios exceeding 5:1 in pulmonary tissue signal severe permeability in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Microdialysis probes implanted in tissues sample interstitial solutes, with elevated protein or lactate levels indicating barrier breach; this technique has detected doubled albumin concentrations in brain interstitium during stroke.^[81]^[82] Recent advancements include ex vivo assessment of deep tissue capillary permeability, such as in cardiac tissue. This method involves intravenous injection of fluorescent dextran (e.g., 40 kDa) into mice, followed by heart excision, freezing, sectioning, and fluorescence microscopy to measure the diffusion area of leaked dextran outside capillaries (stained with GSL-IB4). A threshold diffusion area (e.g., 1.8–2.2) quantifies permeability, revealing age-related changes (e.g., reduced diffusion in aged mice). As of October 2025, this technique provides insights into nutrient supply in healthy deep tissues and disease models.^[83] These in vivo methods offer high translational relevance, bridging preclinical findings to human diseases like edema in inflammation, but face limitations including invasiveness in animals (e.g., surgical windows for microscopy) and ethical concerns in humans, where radiation or contrast agents pose risks. Quantitative imaging like DCE-MRI balances non-invasiveness with accuracy, though calibration across species remains challenging.^[84]

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[8]
The vascular basement membrane in the healthy and pathological ...
The vascular basement membrane contributes to the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is formed by brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs).
[9]
Glomerular endothelial cell fenestrations: an integral component of ...
GEnC fenestrations are transcytoplasmic holes, specialized for their unique role as a prerequisite for filtration across the glomerular capillary wall.
[10]
Endothelial cell junctions and the regulation of vascular permeability ...
This review focuses on three primary signaling pathways initiated within endothelial cells by the binding of vasoactive factors and leukocyte adhesion.
[11]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5624399/
[12]
Signaling Mechanisms Regulating Endothelial Permeability | Physiological Reviews | American Physiological Society
Below is a merged summary of the quantitative aspects of paracellular permeability, combining all the information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize the key information (e.g., definitions, formulas, qualitative aspects, and URLs) across the segments. Following the table, I will provide a narrative summary that integrates the qualitative and quantitative insights, ensuring all details are retained.
[13]
Molecular determinants of endothelial transcytosis and their role in ...
Oct 1, 2007 · Transcytosis via caveolae is an important route for the regulation of endothelial barrier function and may participate in different vascular diseases.
[14]
Intracellular transport and regulation of transcytosis across the blood ...
Dec 6, 2018 · In peripheral blood vessels, there is strong evidence for the role of caveolae in transcellular transport. Caveolae are 60–80 nm flask-shaped ...
[15]
Gp60 Activation Mediates Albumin Transcytosis in Endothelial Cells ...
Activation of gp60 stimulates the Src PTK signaling pathway, and thus regulates the transcytosis of albumin across the endothelial cell monolayer.
[16]
The diaphragms of fenestrated endothelia – gatekeepers of vascular ...
Fenestral and stomatal diaphragms are endothelial subcellular structures of unknown function that form on organelles implicated in vascular permeability: ...
[17]
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00018-018-2982-x
[18]
VEGF increases endothelial permeability by separate signaling ...
We tested the hypothesis that VEGF regulates endothelial hyperpermeability to macromolecules by activating the ERK-1/2 MAPK pathway.
[19]
H-Ras Regulates Angiogenesis and Vascular Permeability by ...
May 8, 2008 · We conclude that downstream of VEGF, H-Ras serves as a cellular switch that controls neovascularization and vascular permeability by activation ...
[20]
Signaling and Functions of Angiopoietin-1 in Vascular Protection
Apr 28, 2006 · Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) has powerful vascular protective effects: suppressing plasma leakage, inhibiting vascular inflammation, and preventing endothelial death.
[21]
Endothelial destabilization by angiopoietin-2 via integrin β1 activation
Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) supports endothelial stabilization via Tie2 activation. Angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) functions as a context-dependent Tie2 agonist/antagonist ...
[22]
TNF-α increases tyrosine phosphorylation of vascular endothelial ...
TNF-α-induced loss of endothelial barrier function is temporally coincident with actin reorganization and intercellular gap formation (7). TNF-α increases the G ...
[23]
Cytokines and vascular permeability | Cell Biochemistry and ...
(2002) Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β mediate endothelial permeability induced by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated whole blood. Crit. Care Med. 30, ...
[24]
Interleukin-1β induced vascular permeability is dependent on ...
These data demonstrate that IL-1β induces marked changes in permeability across activated endothelium via a TF dependent mechanism and suggest that modulation ...
[25]
Activation of RhoA by Thrombin in Endothelial Hyperpermeability
Thus, activation of Rho kinase by thrombin is involved in the thrombin-induced MLC phosphorylation and is required for the proper formation of stress fibers and ...
[26]
Review Rho GTPases and the regulation of endothelial permeability
Two Rho family GTPases, Rho and Rac, have emerged as key regulators acting antagonistically to regulate endothelial barrier function.
[27]
Role of Akt Signaling in Vascular Homeostasis and Angiogenesis
PI3K-Akt signaling axis is activated by a variety of stimuli in endothelial cells and regulates multiple critical steps in angiogenesis, including endothelial ...
[28]
ENDOTHELIAL GLYCOCALYX: PERMEABILITY BARRIER ... - NIH
The endothelial glycocalyx is a polysaccharide-rich layer (over 400 nm thick) that acts as a barrier and mechanosensor, limiting access to the endothelium.
[29]
Pericyte-Endothelial Cross-Talk: Implications and Opportunities for ...
Pericytes play an important role in regulation of endothelial cell proliferation and differentiation, contractility and tone, and stabilization and permeability ...
[30]
Endothelial PDGF-B retention is required for proper investment of ...
We conclude that retention of PDGF-B in microvessels is essential for proper recruitment and organization of pericytes and for renal and retinal function in ...Missing: crosstalk | Show results with:crosstalk
[31]
Endothelial Junction Regulation: A Prerequisite for Leukocytes ...
Activation through cytokines deposited on endothelial cells leads to activation of leukocyte integrins and firm adhesion to ICAM-1 or VCAM-1 (2). Adhered ...
[32]
Leukocyte rolling and adhesion via ICAM-1 signals to endothelial ...
Leukocyte rolling and adhesion both contribute to regulation of microvascular permeability to albumin via ligation of ICAM-1.
[33]
RhoA and ROCK mediate histamine-induced vascular leakage and ...
Apr 10, 2015 · Among them, histamine plays a critical role in increased vascular permeability caused by multiple chronic and/or life-threatening inflammatory ...
[34]
Dissecting VEGF-induced acute versus chronic vascular ...
Oct 22, 2021 · It is widely accepted that VEGF-induced vascular permeability is increased in both acute and chronic disease conditions, such as inflammation, ...
[35]
The Lymphatic Vasculature - Capillary Fluid Exchange - NCBI
Interstitial fluid, formed from the extravasation of solute and fluid from the capillaries, enters blind-ended sacs composed only of an endothelial layer that ...
[36]
Lymphatic Vascular Permeability - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Vascular permeability endows blood vessels with the ability to provide nutrients, hormones, signaling molecules, and fluid to all the tissues of the body.
[37]
The blood–brain barrier: Structure, regulation and drug delivery
May 25, 2023 · Blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a natural protective membrane that prevents central nervous system (CNS) from toxins and pathogens in blood.
[38]
Physiology, Vasopressin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 14, 2023 · ADH then acts primarily in the kidneys to increase water reabsorption, thus returning the osmolarity to baseline. ADH secretion also occurs ...
[39]
Aldosterone Modulates Endothelial Permeability and Endothelial ...
Dec 3, 2012 · Because formation of actin stress fibers suggests involvement of the RhoA/ROCK pathway, we performed RhoA activation assays. Aldo induced a very ...<|separator|>
[40]
Heterogeneity and Dynamics of Vasculature in the Endocrine ...
The specialized microvascular endothelium of endocrine glands is highly permeable to allow rapid hormone release and response to changes in homeostasis ( ...
[41]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526069/
[42]
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.196832
[43]
PECAM‐1 supports leukocyte diapedesis by tension‐dependent ...
May 3, 2021 · Here we show that PECAM‐1 mediates leukocyte diapedesis in vivo and in vitro by interfering with VE‐cadherin. This is based on the following ...
[44]
High endothelial venules (HEVs) in immunity, inflammation and cancer
High endothelial venules (HEVs) are specialized blood vessels mediating lymphocyte trafficking to lymph nodes (LNs) and other secondary lymphoid organs.
[45]
Mechanisms for transcellular diapedesis: probing and pathfinding by ...
Sep 1, 2009 · Immune-system functions require that blood leukocytes continuously traffic throughout the body and repeatedly cross endothelial barriers ...
[46]
Why are tumour blood vessels abnormal and why is it important to ...
Feb 24, 2009 · Tumours initiate new blood vessel formation by the local, unbalanced overexpression of VEGF-A. As was noted more than 20 years ago, tumour ...
[47]
Nanodrug Delivery: Is the Enhanced Permeability and Retention ...
The EPR effect improves nanosized drug accumulation in the extravascular space of tumors. In normal organs, circulating nanosized drugs are cleared ...Introduction · Enhanced Permeability and... · How to Improve the EPR Effect
[48]
Regulation of vascular permeability in cancer metastasis - PMC - NIH
Vascular permeability is highly correlated with the extravasation of tumor cells because tumor cells must break through the endothelial cell barrier. Some ...
[49]
Normalization of the tumor microenvironment by harnessing ... - Nature
Nov 1, 2023 · VEGF signaling remains the major target in vascular normalization. Many solid tumors overexpress factors involved in the VEGF signaling pathway, ...
[50]
Blood-brain barrier permeability increases with the differentiation of ...
Nov 1, 2024 · Our work demonstrates for the first time that the degree of GBM differentiation influences BBB permeability. The crosstalk between GBM cells ...
[51]
Loss of endothelial EMCN drives tumor lung metastasis through the ...
Oct 2, 2022 · The loss of endothelial EMCN caused an increase in vascular permeability, produced a premetastatic niche and promoted tumor lung metastasis.
[52]
Endothelial Pim3 kinase protects the vascular barrier during lung ...
Dec 3, 2024 · Venous circulation from most organs drains into the lungs, while veins from the gut drain into the liver, promoting metastasis in these organs.
[53]
In Vitro Methods for Measuring the Permeability of Cell Monolayers
This review summarizes the commercially available in vitro systems used to measure the permeability of cellular monolayers. The presented techniques are ...
[54]
An Experimental Workflow for Studying Barrier Integrity, Permeability ...
Jul 30, 2021 · The paracellular permeability of the HUVEC monolayers was determined by measuring the flux of 10 kDa fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) labelled ...
[55]
A Facile Method to Probe the Vascular Permeability of Nanoparticles ...
Mar 31, 2017 · Together, these stabilize the inter-endothelial junctions between endothelial cells, thereby reducing paracellular permeability. This reduction ...
[56]
Electric cell-substrate impedance sensing for the quantification of ...
Mar 28, 2014 · Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) is an in vitro impedance measuring system to quantify the behavior of cells within adherent cell layers.Missing: permeability | Show results with:permeability
[57]
Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing for the Quantification of ...
Oct 22, 2013 · This protocol reviews Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing, a method to record and analyze the impedance spectrum of adherent cells.
[58]
Electrical cell‐substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) in lung biology ...
Jul 19, 2024 · This mini-review summarizes recent progress in electrical cell-substrate impedance sensing of primary lung endothelial and epithelial cells ...
[59]
Vascularized organoids on a chip: Strategies for engineering ...
Here, we review recent advancements in vascularizing organoids and engineering in vitro capillary beds, and further explore strategies to integrate them on a ...
[60]
Engineering Organ-on-a-Chip Systems for Vascular Diseases
Oct 12, 2023 · This review provides an overview of recent advancements in engineering organ-on-a-chip systems for modeling vascular diseases.
[61]
siRNA-induced caveolin-1 knockdown in mice increases lung ...
To address the role of caveolin-1 in regulating lung vascular permeability, in the present study we used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to knock down caveolin-1 ...
[62]
MARCKS protein mediates hydrogen peroxide regulation of ... - PNAS
We explored the role of MARCKS in the H2O2-induced increase in endothelial permeability, using a siRNA construct to specifically knock down MARCKS expression in ...
[63]
Measurement of Transendothelial Electrical Resistance in Blood ...
Measurement of TEER is considered a sensitive, reliable, and noninvasive method for evaluating barrier integrity and permeability of an endothelial cell ...Missing: vascular | Show results with:vascular
[64]
The Ohm-azing custom-made Transendothelial Electrical ...
Apr 1, 2024 · TEER measurement determines cell monolayer resistance, and is a measure of cell barrier functionality. To additionally assess the permeability ...
[65]
Transendothelial electrical resistance measurement by a ... - Frontiers
Jul 13, 2023 · Transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurement is a widely used non-invasive and label-free strategy to monitor endothelial ...Abstract · Introduction · Materials and methods · Results and discussion
[66]
Vascular organoids: unveiling advantages, applications, challenges ...
Oct 10, 2023 · Therefore, here we explore different aspects for the development of advanced 3D in vitro disease models that recapitulate human blood vessel ...
[67]
Measuring Vascular Permeability In Vivo - PMC - NIH
Here, we describe and discuss a conventional 2D imaging method to measure vascular permeability, which was originally documented by Gerlowski and Jain in 1986.
[68]
An in vivo Assay to Test Blood Vessel Permeability - PMC - NIH
Mar 16, 2013 · The assay we are describing, also known as Miles assay, is a well-established method to test vascular permeability in vivo. The assay is based ...
[69]
An Optimized Evans Blue Protocol to Assess Vascular Leak ... - JoVE
Sep 12, 2018 · In this article, we describe a protocol, using the Evans blue dye method, for assessing plasma extravasation in the organs of FVBN mice. This ...
[70]
Real-Time Visualization and Quantitation of Vascular Permeability In ...
The leakage of small versus large molecular weight dextrans from the vasculature in this model may provide a high-resolution measure of vascular permeability ...
[71]
96 perfusable blood vessels to study vascular permeability in vitro
Dec 22, 2017 · Diffusion of dextran into the adjacent collagen gel provides a measure for the permeability of the microvessels. In vivo, macromolecules above ...Methods · Results · Effect Of Vegf On Vascular...
[72]
Intravital analysis of vascular permeability in mice using two-photon ...
Jun 4, 2013 · In this study, we report an intravital evaluation system for vascular permeability in mice using two-photon microscopy.
[73]
Real-Time Imaging Reveals Local, Transient Vascular Permeability ...
Sep 1, 2015 · Here we show, using intravital high-resolution two-photon microscopy, that transient vascular permeability events are restricted to TMEM sites ...
[74]
Increased Vascular Permeability Measured With an Albumin ...
Dec 9, 2016 · We investigated whether vascular permeability measured in vivo by magnetic resonance imaging using the albumin-binding contrast agent, gadofosveset, is a ...
[75]
On the Use of DSC-MRI for Measuring Vascular Permeability
Jan 1, 2016 · Estimates of vascular permeability in brain tumors may be simultaneously acquired from multiple-echo DSC–MR imaging via K trans.
[76]
PET Imaging of Angiogenesis - PMC - NIH
PET imaging can also be used to derive data on blood volume and vascular permeability. Blood volume imaging with PET uses 15O-CO or 11C-CO carbon monoxide.
[77]
Molecular imaging of angiogenesis with SPECT
Jul 9, 2010 · SPECT imaging is more widely available than PET imaging and the radionuclides used for SPECT are easier to prepare and usually have a longer ...
[78]
Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Formation and Transport: Physiological ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Normally, when microvascular fluid filtration increases, lymphatic pumping and active lymph flow rates increase within minutes, limiting the ...
[79]
Overview of Microdialysis - PMC - PubMed Central
The technique of microdialysis enables the monitoring of neurotransmitters and other molecules in the extracellular environment.Missing: lymph wet dry
[80]
Monitoring Vascular Permeability and Remodeling After Endothelial ...
Apr 14, 2015 · In our study, we found that the highest vascular permeability occurred 7 days after vascular injury, as measured by in vivo and ex vivo methods, ...Animals/endothelial... · In Vivo Mri Protocol At 3t · Results