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Condom

A condom is a thin, sheath-like barrier device, typically constructed from latex, polyurethane, or polyisoprene, that is worn over the erect penis during heterosexual or homosexual penetrative intercourse to impede the transfer of semen and thereby diminish the likelihood of unintended pregnancy as well as the transmission of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, though it offers limited protection against skin-to-skin pathogens such as herpes or human papillomavirus.^[1]^[2] Internal variants, inserted into the vagina or anus prior to intercourse, function analogously by lining the receptive orifice.^[3]^[2] Historical records indicate condom-like devices originated in antiquity, with the earliest documented reference from around 3000 BCE involving King Minos of Crete using a goat's bladder to avert conception amid fertility issues, while archaeological finds from ancient Egypt, Asia, and Rome reveal linen sheaths oiled with substances like cedar resin for similar prophylactic aims.^[4] By the 16th century, European anatomists such as Gabriele Falloppio described linen coverings doused in chemical solutions to ward off syphilis, and animal membrane versions—derived from sheep or pig intestines—gained traction in the 17th and 18th centuries among the affluent for both disease prevention and birth control, though their porous nature curtailed efficacy against microscopic pathogens.^[4]^[5] Vulcanization of rubber in the 1840s enabled mass production of seamless, reusable latex sheaths by the late 19th century, markedly enhancing reliability and accessibility, with thinness and elasticity improving further via electronic testing protocols post-World War II.^[4]^[5] Peer-reviewed analyses affirm that consistent, correct application of male condoms substantially curtails HIV acquisition risk—by 80-95% in serodiscordant heterosexual couples per meta-analyses—while also mitigating gonorrhea, chlamydia, and syphilis transmission, albeit with typical-use failure rates for contraception reaching 13-18% annually owing to breakage, slippage, or inconsistent deployment.^[6]^[7] Female or internal condoms exhibit comparable protective profiles against HIV when paired with male variants, though data on standalone efficacy remain sparser due to lower adoption.^[8]^[2] Despite endorsements from public health bodies for dual prevention of conception and infection, condoms neither eradicate all STI vectors nor substitute for abstinence or mutual monogamy in causal risk reduction, with empirical lapses in usage undermining population-level outcomes in high-prevalence settings.^[9]^[6]

Functions

Contraception

The condom serves as a barrier contraceptive by encasing the erect penis in a sheath that contains ejaculate, thereby preventing sperm from entering the vaginal canal and reaching the cervix during penile-vaginal intercourse. This mechanism relies on the impermeable material—typically latex, polyurethane, or polyisoprene—forming a continuous seal that blocks the direct pathway for spermatozoa to access the female reproductive tract, where conception occurs upon union with an ovum.^[10]^[11] Penile sheaths functioning as barriers for fertility control date to ancient civilizations, including Egypt and Rome, where rudimentary devices made from animal membranes or linen were employed to contain semen and avert unwanted pregnancies amid preferences for smaller families. These early implementations underscore the condom's longstanding causal role in interrupting the sperm-ovum encounter essential for reproduction.^[12] Under ideal conditions of perfect use—defined as correct application, no slippage or breakage, and consistent employment—condoms achieve a 98% contraceptive efficacy rate, resulting in approximately 2 pregnancies per 100 women over one year of use.^[13]^[11] Condoms exhibit compatibility with adjunctive measures such as spermicides, which immobilize or destroy sperm upon contact; certain condom variants incorporate spermicidal lubricants like nonoxynol-9 to bolster barrier efficacy through dual mechanical and chemical disruption of sperm viability. They also pair with fertility awareness techniques, wherein users apply condoms selectively during fertile phases pinpointed via indicators like cycle tracking, basal body temperature shifts, or cervical mucus changes, thereby layering probabilistic avoidance with physical containment.^[14]^[15]

STI Prevention

Condoms function as a physical barrier that prevents direct contact between bodily fluids containing pathogens and mucous membranes, thereby reducing the transmission risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) primarily spread through semen, vaginal fluids, or blood. This mechanism is most effective for fluid-borne STIs such as HIV, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, where consistent and correct use has been associated with substantial risk reductions in multiple prospective studies. For instance, a meta-analysis of serodiscordant couples estimated condom effectiveness at preventing HIV transmission at approximately 80%, with ranges from 60% to 96% depending on study design and adherence.^[7] Similarly, systematic reviews of epidemiologic data indicate that consistent condom use correlates with 60-80% lower odds of acquiring gonorrhea and chlamydia among men and women, particularly when infections involve covered genital sites.^[16]^[17] In high-risk populations, such as those attending sexually transmitted disease clinics, longitudinal cohort studies have demonstrated near-zero incident cases of gonorrhea or chlamydia among individuals reporting condom use during every sexual act over follow-up periods.^[18] These findings underscore the causal role of barrier protection in interrupting pathogen transfer during intercourse, though efficacy diminishes with inconsistent application or slippage. Prospective analyses further link regular condom use to lower overall STI incidence in groups with multiple partners, supporting the intervention's value in targeted prevention efforts despite challenges in real-world adherence.^[19] However, condoms provide limited protection against STIs transmitted primarily through skin-to-skin contact outside the covered area, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and syphilis. Empirical data from transmission studies show minimal to modest reductions in these infections, as lesions or viral shedding often occur on external genital skin, scrotum, or perianal regions not shielded by the condom.^[20] For example, while some cohort evidence suggests a 30-50% decrease in HSV-2 acquisition with consistent use among women, protection for men is negligible, and overall efficacy remains inferior to that for fluid-mediated pathogens due to incomplete coverage.^[21] Syphilis and HPV similarly evade full barrier isolation, with studies indicating little preventive benefit when primary transmission routes bypass the condom's sheath.^[22] This limitation highlights the need for complementary strategies, like vaccination for HPV, in comprehensive STI control.^[23]

Other Applications

Specialized condoms without spermicides or lubricants are employed in semen collection for infertility diagnostics and treatments, enabling sample acquisition during intercourse to yield specimens with superior motility and viability compared to masturbation-derived samples.^[24] These medical-grade devices, such as the Male-Factor Pak, facilitate natural coital collection while preserving sperm integrity, offering a less stressful alternative for couples undergoing fertility evaluations.^[25] Condom catheters, also known as external or Texas catheters, provide a non-invasive method for managing urinary incontinence in men by fitting over the penis to channel urine into a drainage bag, reducing infection risks associated with indwelling catheters.^[26] Clinical guidelines prefer these sheaths for patients without urinary retention, as they minimize urinary tract infections; a study reported lower catheter-associated infection rates with condom catheters versus urethral ones in comparable cohorts.^[27] In field medicine and survival scenarios, condoms serve utilitarian roles due to their waterproof, elastic properties. Military survival kits, including U.S. forces' SRU-16 packs since the 1930s, incorporate non-lubricated condoms to store up to one liter of water or protect equipment like rifle muzzles from moisture and debris.^[28] Improvised applications include creating tourniquets for hemorrhage control or occlusive dressings over wounds to prevent contamination, leveraging the material's sterility and stretch for emergency hemostasis and barrier function.^[29] In adult film production, condoms form part of occupational health protocols to mitigate STI transmission risks among performers, with California regulations like Measure B (2012) mandating their use during penetrative scenes, alongside performer STI testing and producer licensing.^[30] Proposition 60 (2016), though rejected by voters, sought statewide enforcement of condom usage, barrier protection, and post-exposure prophylaxis funding, reflecting efforts to standardize safety amid industry-specific exposure hazards.^[31] Compliance varies, with Los Angeles County reporting enforcement challenges but sustained use in licensed productions to align with Cal/OSHA bloodborne pathogen standards.^[32]

Effectiveness

Contraceptive Efficacy Rates

The contraceptive efficacy of male condoms is assessed through failure rates representing the percentage of women experiencing unintended pregnancy within one year of use. Perfect-use rates derive from clinical trials or controlled studies where condoms are applied consistently and correctly every time, minimizing errors such as slippage or breakage. In these scenarios, the failure rate for male condoms stands at 2%.^[33]^[34] Typical-use rates, drawn from large-scale surveys like the National Survey of Family Growth, incorporate real-world behaviors including inconsistent application, improper storage, or occasional non-use during intercourse. For male condoms, these rates range from 13% to 18% annually, with recent U.S. data from 2006–2010 reporting 13%.^[33]^[35] This disparity underscores the method's dependence on user compliance, as even minor deviations amplify pregnancy risk compared to perfect execution. In comparison to other methods, condoms exhibit a wider gap between perfect and typical efficacy due to their barrier mechanism requiring per-act intervention, unlike user-independent long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs). For instance, intrauterine devices (IUDs) maintain failure rates below 1% under both perfect and typical use, while oral contraceptives show 0.3% perfect and 7% typical failure.^[33]^[34] Abstinence, when fully adhered to, yields a 0% rate, though real-world adherence mirrors typical-use challenges for behavioral methods.^[34] These differences highlight causal factors rooted in method design and execution reliability rather than inherent biological efficacy.

STI Protection Efficacy

Condoms reduce the transmission risk of fluid-borne sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV, gonorrhea, and chlamydia by creating a physical barrier that prevents direct contact with semen, vaginal fluids, or urethral discharge. For HIV, consistent condom use in heterosexual encounters lowers acquisition risk by approximately 80%, according to a Cochrane systematic review of observational studies, with some estimates reaching 87% overall and up to 96% in high-adherence subgroups.^[36] ^[7] This efficacy stems from blocking viral particles in infectious fluids, though randomized controlled trials directly isolating condom effects on HIV are ethically infeasible, relying instead on prospective cohort data adjusted for confounding behaviors.^[37] Bacterial STIs like gonorrhea and chlamydia show 50-90% risk reduction with consistent use, particularly for cervical or urethral infections in receptive partners, as evidenced by reviews synthesizing serologic and culture-based outcomes.^[38] ^[39] Protection is higher against endocervical gonorrhea (up to 90% in some cohorts) than pharyngeal or rectal strains, reflecting fluid exposure dynamics rather than complete impermeability of latex or polyurethane materials, which lab tests confirm block microbes exceeding 0.1 microns.^[40] For contact-transmitted STIs, including herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and human papillomavirus (HPV), efficacy drops to 20-50% due to viral shedding or lesions on uncovered genital skin, such as the base of the penis, scrotum, or vulva. A pooled analysis of six prospective studies reported a 30% lower HSV-2 incidence with consistent condom use among discordant couples.^[41] Similarly, meta-analyses indicate limited HPV risk reduction (10-50%), as warts or oncogenic strains persist beyond the condom's sheath coverage during typical intercourse.^[42] Syphilis transmission, involving skin or mucosal chancres, yields partial protection only when lesions fall within the barrier area, underscoring that efficacy constraints arise from anatomical exposure gaps, not barrier failure per se.^[43]

Influencing Factors

Inexperienced users exhibit higher rates of condom application errors and associated failures compared to those with prior use. Inexperience has been identified as a key individual-level risk factor for problems including slippage, breakage, and incomplete coverage during intercourse.^[44] Observational studies report common errors among all users, such as delayed application (9-12% of events) and early removal (3-12%), but these occur more frequently without established routines.^[45] Proper fit further modulates effectiveness; condoms perceived as too loose increase slippage risk, while those too tight elevate breakage and discomfort, prompting removal or non-use.^[46] Lubrication compatibility directly impacts structural integrity and friction-related failures. Oil-based lubricants degrade latex condoms, raising breakage likelihood by weakening the material, whereas water- or silicone-based options are compatible and reduce overall failure odds when added (odds ratio 0.11 for protection).^[47]^[48]^[49] Inadequate lubrication heightens friction, contributing to tears, while excess in certain contexts like vaginal sex can paradoxically increase slippage without affecting breakage rates.^[50] Behavioral context influences adherence and execution. Impulsive or unplanned encounters correlate with reduced consistency, as impulsivity overrides self-efficacy in decision-making, leading to skipped or abbreviated use.^[51]^[52] Surveys among young adults reveal consistent use in only about 39% of encounters overall, dropping further under influences like alcohol or in casual settings where availability or negotiation falters.^[53]^[54] These factors compound in high-frequency partnerships, where repeated errors accumulate despite availability.^[55]

Failure Mechanisms

One prevalent category of condom failure arises from errors in application technique, such as unrolling the condom prior to placement on the penis or failing to pinch the tip reservoir, which traps air and elevates pressure leading to potential rupture or slippage during thrusting.^[56] Empirical assessments among heterosexual couples report slippage rates of 1.1% per intercourse event, often attributable to inadequate lubrication or improper sizing selected without attention to fit.^[57] Inexperienced users exhibit higher incidences, with slippage during withdrawal reaching 4.4% in self-reported data from over 13,000 condom uses.^[58] Breakage during use, typically ranging from 1-3% across studies, frequently results from mechanical damage inflicted by users, including tears from fingernails or jewelry while handling or unrolling the sheath.^[59] ^[60] These incidents underscore the causal role of inattentiveness, as proper inspection and gentle manipulation mitigate such risks, though direct attribution to fingernails remains anecdotal in larger datasets due to underreporting.^[61] Improper storage exacerbates degradation through exposure to friction, heat, and pressure; for instance, carrying condoms in wallets—a practice acknowledged by 19% of surveyed users—compromises latex integrity via repeated folding and body warmth, predisposing to microscopic tears upon deployment.^[62] Guidelines from manufacturers emphasize cool, dry conditions to preserve elasticity, as prolonged wallet confinement accelerates oxidative weakening akin to environmental stressors.^[63] Early or premature removal before ejaculation completion, observed in 14% of condom-use episodes in clinic-based samples, often stems from perceived loss of tactile feedback or erection maintenance challenges induced by the barrier.^[64] Fit and sensation complaints correlate strongly with this behavior, interrupting continuous protection and elevating exposure risk, as users prioritize comfort over sustained coverage.^[65] Rates vary from 1.4% to 26.9% across global studies, highlighting the need for user education on adapting to initial desensitization without disengaging the device.^[66]

Product Defects and Breakage

Condom manufacturing involves rigorous quality control, including electronic testing for microscopic holes and tensile strength assessments per ISO 4074 standards, yet inherent material vulnerabilities can lead to defects such as pinholes or weakened walls from inconsistencies in latex compounding or vulcanization. Laboratory burst pressure tests on fresh batches typically yield breakage rates below 2%, with airburst failure rates under 1% for compliant products, indicating low defect prevalence in controlled production.^[67] However, variability across manufacturers persists; for instance, FDA inspections have found up to 15.6% of sampled batches failing dimensional or integrity checks, correlating with elevated mechanical failure risks.^[68] Ultrathin latex variants, often under 50 micrometers, exhibit comparable lab breakage rates to standard thicknesses when adhering to international standards, as material thinning does not inherently compromise tensile strength if polymer cross-linking is optimized.^[69] Clinical simulations confirm no statistically significant increase in rupture under simulated use for certified ultrathin condoms, though non-compliant or experimental formulations have shown up to 2-3 times higher failure in independent evaluations.^[70] Polyurethane alternatives, lacking natural rubber's elasticity, demonstrate higher inherent breakage—around 7% in controlled trials versus 1% for latex—due to brittleness under shear stress.^[71] Latex sensitivity represents a material-specific defect, with type I IgE-mediated allergies affecting 1-6% of the general population, manifesting as urticaria or anaphylaxis upon contact and prompting rejection of latex condoms in favor of synthetics.^[72] Prevalence rises to 4-10% among high-exposure groups, underscoring the need for hypoallergenic alternatives despite latex's dominance in 80-90% of markets.^[73] Oxidative degradation from environmental factors like ozone or heat compromises condom integrity over time, with manufacturers assigning a maximum 5-year shelf life based on accelerated aging tests showing peroxide buildup weakening rubber matrices.^[74] Empirical data from stored lots reveal breakage escalating from 3.5% in new inventory to over 18% in those exceeding 5 years, effectively multiplying failure odds by factors of 5 or more due to reduced elongation at break.^[75] Post-expiration use thus amplifies defect risks independent of handling, as polymer chain scission reduces burst strength by 25% or greater thresholds observed in degradation modeling.^[76]

Real-World Empirical Data

Large-scale studies indicate that typical-use condom failure rates for pregnancy prevention range from 13% to 15% annually, substantially higher than the 2-3% observed under perfect-use conditions due to inconsistencies in application and usage frequency.^[42]^[77] In real-world scenarios, these failures encompass breakage, slippage, and non-use, with aggregated data from diverse populations revealing per-act mechanical issues at rates of 1-3% for breakage and 0.6-9% for slippage, though cumulative reporting in high-risk groups can exceed 25% over short periods like one month.^[78]^[79]^[80] Among U.S. adolescent cohorts, surveys of sexually active youth aged 14-17 report condom failures (including breakage, slippage, or unintended pregnancy) in 30-34% of cases over 90-day periods, with younger teens experiencing slightly lower rates but overall prevalence unaffected by gender.^[81]^[82] This contrasts with idealized efficacy claims, as self-reported data from over 900 adolescents highlight user errors amplifying risks despite consistent intent.^[83] Longitudinal trends in Europe, per 2024 WHO data from adolescent health surveys across 44 countries, show condom use at last intercourse declining from 70% to 61% among boys and 63% to 57% among girls since 2014, coinciding with rising STI incidence including syphilis and gonorrhea.^[84]^[85] These shifts underscore real-world divergences from controlled trial outcomes, where failure rates remain under 2% per act but scale upward with inconsistent adherence in population-level monitoring.^[86]^[70]

Types and Materials

External Condoms

External condoms, commonly referred to as male condoms, are barrier devices consisting of a thin, flexible sheath intended to cover the erect penis during penetrative sex. The sheath unrolls from a reinforced base ring over the length of the penis to a tapered tip, which typically includes a small reservoir pouch at the end to contain ejaculate and minimize leakage upon withdrawal. This design physically blocks semen from contacting the partner's genital tract, serving as the primary mechanism for contraception and STI prevention in standard use.^[87] Available in various nominal widths—generally ranging from 40 mm to 60 mm—to match penile girth, external condoms address fit variations that influence performance. Narrower options (e.g., 40-49 mm) suit smaller girths, while wider variants (e.g., 54-60 mm) accommodate larger dimensions, with standard sizes around 52 mm fitting average measurements. Proper sizing enhances adherence, as ill-fitting condoms increase slippage risks; studies indicate that custom-fitted designs can reduce breakage rates to 0.7% from 1.4% observed with off-the-shelf standards, though slippage may vary by individual anatomy.^[88]^[89] Standard external condoms often incorporate interior treatments, such as light silicone coatings or cornstarch powder, to prevent the material from adhering during unrolling and application, thereby promoting secure retention once positioned. Exterior surfaces are commonly pre-lubricated with water- or silicone-based agents to decrease friction and tearing risks during intercourse, though users must avoid oil-based substances that degrade latex variants. These features prioritize ease of deployment and stability without compromising the barrier integrity.^[90]^[91]

Internal Condoms

Internal condoms, also known as female condoms, consist of a loose-fitting nitrile or polyurethane pouch approximately 17 cm in length with flexible rings at both ends. The inner ring, which is closed, is compressed and inserted into the vagina to cup over the cervix, while the outer ring remains partially external to cover the vulva and the base of the penis during intercourse.^[92] This design creates a barrier that lines the vaginal walls, preventing direct contact between semen and the vaginal interior, and provides coverage extending beyond the vaginal opening unlike external condoms.^[93] Insertion involves applying water- or silicone-based lubricant to the inner and outer surfaces, squeezing the inner ring between thumb and finger, and advancing it deep into the vagina similar to a tampon until it reaches the cervix, which typically requires practice due to the need for precise placement.^[94] The device can be inserted up to eight hours prior to intercourse, allowing for spontaneity, but common user challenges include difficulty in achieving correct positioning, with studies reporting that up to 50% of initial users find insertion uncomfortable or complex, leading to higher rates of misdirection or invagination (pushing inward during use) compared to external condoms.^[95] ^[96] In terms of coverage, internal condoms enclose more external genital area, including the labia, potentially reducing skin-to-skin transmission risks for certain STIs beyond what external condoms achieve, though clinical evidence for superior STI protection remains inconclusive due to limited randomized trials.^[97] Contraceptive efficacy under perfect use approximates 5% failure rate, paralleling external condoms, but typical-use failure rises to 21% owing to elevated initial user errors such as slippage or incomplete coverage.^[33] ^[98] Availability of internal condoms is restricted compared to external variants, with global market share estimated below 5% of total condom sales, attributed to higher per-unit costs (often 2-3 times that of male condoms) and lower consumer familiarity; they are primarily sold through specialized health outlets or online rather than widespread retail.^[99] ^[95] The second-generation FC2 model, made of thinner nitrile for reduced noise and improved comfort over the original polyurethane FC1, represents the predominant type available since its FDA approval in 2009.^[100]

Specialized Variants

Polyurethane condoms serve as a primary alternative to latex for individuals with latex allergies, offering comparable barrier protection against pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections while avoiding allergic reactions.^[101]^[102] These condoms, made from a synthetic plastic, transmit body heat more effectively than latex, enhancing natural sensation during use.^[101]^[103] They are typically thinner and more flexible, though some studies indicate a higher breakage rate compared to latex, necessitating careful handling.^[104]^[105] Textured condoms, featuring ribs, studs, or dots on the surface, are designed to increase friction and stimulation for partners, particularly the receiving partner, without compromising structural integrity or protective efficacy when manufactured to standard specifications.^[106]^[107] These variants maintain the same barrier function as smooth condoms, effectively preventing fluid exchange, provided they are used correctly and with adequate lubrication to mitigate potential irritation from added friction.^[108]^[109] In 2023, ONE Condoms introduced Flex, the first commercial condom enhanced with graphene—a single-layer carbon material integrated into latex—to achieve greater thinness, strength, and flexibility.^[110]^[111] This innovation results in 85% improved body heat transfer relative to standard latex condoms, promoting a more skin-like feel while preserving durability and vegan compatibility.^[110]^[112] Empirical testing supports its tensile strength exceeding typical latex, addressing limitations in prior thin condoms.^[113]

Usage Guidelines

Correct Application Methods

Correct application of external condoms begins with verifying the product's integrity and suitability prior to use. Inspect the packaging for damage and confirm the expiration date, as expired or compromised condoms exhibit increased failure rates due to material degradation.^[1] Carefully open the wrapper using fingers or scissors to avoid tearing the condom itself, which can create micro-tears leading to breakage during intercourse.^[114] Ensure the penis is fully erect before application to facilitate proper unrolling and coverage. Pinch the reservoir tip between thumb and forefinger to expel air, creating space for ejaculate and reducing pressure that could cause bursting. Place the unrolled condom over the glans and roll it down the shaft to the base, ensuring no twists or folds remain, as incomplete coverage heightens slippage risk.^[1]^[115] If lubrication is needed, apply only water- or silicone-based products to the exterior, avoiding oil-based substances that weaken latex integrity.^[116] Involving a partner in verification can enhance accuracy; after unrolling, both parties should confirm full coverage from tip to base without excess bunching. During intercourse, monitor for signs of slippage or discomfort, pausing to readjust if necessary. Post-ejaculation, while the penis remains erect, hold the condom's rim firmly at the base and withdraw slowly to prevent spillage or dislodgement, which accounts for a primary mode of user error.^[115] Tie off the open end, dispose in a trash bin rather than flushing, and never reuse the condom.^[1] For internal condoms, application differs: insert the lubricated pouch into the vagina or anus prior to penetration, using the flexible ring to position it correctly, and ensure it remains in place without double-sheathing over an external condom.^[3] These protocols, informed by clinical demonstrations and user trials, prioritize mechanical integrity to minimize causal pathways to failure such as air entrapment or inadequate adhesion.^[114]

Storage and Maintenance

Condoms require storage in a cool, dry location to preserve their structural integrity, with recommended temperatures ranging from above 0°C (32°F) to below 37.8°C (100°F), shielded from direct sunlight, humidity, and ozone-emitting sources such as electric motors or electronics.^[117] ^[118] Prolonged exposure to environmental stressors like heat, moisture, ultraviolet radiation, and ozone accelerates latex degradation through oxidation and surface cracking, potentially reducing burst pressure by up to 56% after 48 hours of ozone contact in controlled tests.^[76] ^[118] ^[119] Prior to use, packaging integrity must be verified; damaged foil wrappers compromise the barrier against air and contaminants, elevating defect risks as evidenced by manufacturer quality controls.^[120] ^[121] Extended storage in wallets or pockets should be avoided, as friction and body heat can weaken the material over time.^[122] ^[123] Shelf life varies by material and is determined through accelerated aging tests simulating environmental exposure; natural rubber latex condoms typically remain effective for five years from manufacture, polyurethane types for four to five years, and lambskin variants for two to three years.^[120] ^[124] ^[125] Expiration dates, printed on individual packets, indicate the point at which tensile strength and elasticity may decline sufficiently to impair reliability, necessitating discard thereafter.^[126] ^[127]

Contextual Adaptations

For activities involving higher friction, such as anal intercourse, which lacks natural lubrication and elevates the baseline risk of condom slippage or breakage to approximately 2-7% in some studies, the application of additional compatible lubricant—water- or silicone-based—is advised to minimize mechanical stress on the material.^[128]^[129] Randomized trials demonstrate that proper lubrication during anal sex yields clinical failure rates under 1% for breakage and slippage combined, underscoring the causal role of reduced friction in preserving condom integrity.30195-6/fulltext) Oil-based products must be avoided, as they degrade latex and exacerbate failure risks.^[130] In water-exposed scenarios, like bathing or pool activities, condom efficacy can diminish due to dilution of water-based lubricants leading to slippage or increased friction, compounded by potential material weakening from chlorine or prolonged heat exposure.^[131] Silicone-based lubricants are preferable, as they resist washing away and maintain barrier function longer in aqueous environments.^[132] While standard latex condoms remain viable for brief encounters, non-latex alternatives like polyisoprene may offer enhanced heat transfer and user comfort without compromising durability in moist conditions, though all types warrant limited submersion time to avoid degradation.^[133] During group sexual encounters with multiple partners, guidelines emphasize using a new condom for each penetrative act or partner switch to prevent cross-contamination of bodily fluids and reduce STI transmission risks, as reusing a single condom facilitates pathogen bridging between individuals.^[134]^[135] Public health authorities, including the CDC, reinforce this by mandating fresh barriers per sex act to align with empirical evidence on infection chains in concurrent partnerships.^[136]

Historical Development

Pre-19th Century Origins

The earliest textual references to condom-like devices appear in ancient myths and medical writings, though archaeological evidence remains scant and debated among historians. A legendary account from ancient Crete describes King Minos using a goat's bladder as a sheath to contain semen, employed by his wife Pasiphae to mitigate a curse causing poisonous ejaculate; this narrative, preserved in later classical texts, suggests rudimentary awareness of barrier methods for disease or fertility control around the 2nd millennium BCE, but lacks physical corroboration.^[4]^[137] In ancient Rome, sheaths crafted from linen or animal intestines and bladders—typically sheep or goat—were reportedly used to curb infection spread, with possible employment of muscle tissue from deceased animals for similar purposes; these were non-industrial, laboriously prepared from natural materials, and restricted to elite or military contexts due to production constraints.^[4]^[138] Asian traditions independently developed glans-enclosing caps from oiled silk or paper in China and Japan, predating European contact, primarily for disease prevention among courtesans or nobility before the 15th century, highlighting regionally varied but similarly primitive fabrication reliant on animal or vegetal sourcing.^[137] During the Renaissance in Europe, Italian anatomist Gabriello Falloppio detailed a linen sheath in his 1564 treatise De Morbo Gallico, designed as a prophylactic against syphilis; tied with ribbon, these glans caps represented an advancement in documented form but persisted as artisanal items from linen, silk, or animal membranes, underscoring pre-industrial limitations in scalability and material durability.^[42]^[139] The term "condom" emerged in the late 17th century, with etymological roots possibly tracing to Italian guantone (a large glove) or Latin condus (receptacle), reflecting its conceptual role as a protective enclosure rather than a standardized product.^[140]^[4] Physical artifacts, such as pig-intestine sheaths from 1640 Sweden and animal-membrane examples from 1647 England, provide the oldest verifiable remains, confirming sporadic elite usage amid broader textual allusions.^[141]

19th to Early 20th Century Innovations

The development of vulcanized rubber marked a pivotal innovation in condom production during the 19th century. In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered the vulcanization process, which involved treating raw rubber with sulfur and heat to create a durable, elastic material resistant to cracking and environmental degradation. This breakthrough, patented by Goodyear in 1844, transformed condoms from fragile animal membrane sheaths into more reliable and manufacturable products, facilitating greater scalability in production.^[137]^[142] By 1855, the first vulcanized rubber condoms entered production, initially crafted by wrapping thin strips of rubber solution around cylindrical molds and curing them under heat, yielding sheaths approximately 2-3 mm thick. Mass commercialization followed in the late 1850s, as major rubber manufacturers adopted the technology to produce condoms alongside items like hoses and footwear, drastically lowering prices from several dollars per unit to pennies and expanding availability beyond elite markets. This industrial shift emphasized prophylactic uses against venereal diseases, aligning with public health concerns amid urbanization and military mobilizations.^[142]^[4]^[143] Regulatory hurdles emerged in the early 20th century, particularly in the United States, where the Comstock Act of 1873 classified contraceptives as obscene materials, banning their interstate mailing and advertising. This legislation, enforced vigorously until the 1920s, compelled manufacturers to market condoms discreetly as "health appliances" for disease prevention rather than contraception, limiting open innovation and distribution. Gradual legal challenges and societal shifts began alleviating these constraints by the 1930s, paving the way for broader acceptance.^[144]^[145]^[146]

Mid-20th Century to Present Advances

During World War II, condom production in the United States surged to address military needs for preventing venereal diseases among troops. Manufacturers produced approximately 1.44 million condoms daily, with significant portions allocated for armed forces distribution.^[142] The U.S. Army routinely issued six condoms per serviceman monthly as part of prophylaxis efforts.^[147] In the 1950s and 1960s, manufacturing innovations yielded thinner latex condoms with added lubrication and reservoir tips, introduced commercially around 1957, enhancing user comfort and efficacy.^[148] These developments coincided with the post-war economic boom and the 1960 approval of oral contraceptives, though condoms retained roles in disease prevention amid shifting contraceptive landscapes.^[143] From the 1970s onward, quality controls advanced through standardized testing for tensile strength and defect rates, reducing breakage incidents. In the 21st century, the FDA implemented special controls for natural rubber latex male condoms, mandating performance criteria like minimum burst volumes and sterility assurance to minimize failure risks.^[149] Concurrently, non-latex alternatives like polyurethane gained regulatory clearance for allergy-prone users, with guidance on material testing issued in 2018.^[150] Global distribution efforts by organizations such as UNFPA expanded access in low-resource settings, procuring and delivering billions of units annually to support public health initiatives against unintended pregnancies and STIs.^[151] These regulatory and logistical evolutions have correlated with documented declines in manufacturing defects, from historical rates exceeding 5% to under 1% in modern quality-assured products.^[42]

Societal Impacts

Global Prevalence and Trends

Globally, male condoms account for approximately 10% of contraceptive methods used by women of reproductive age (15-49 years), based on 2019 United Nations estimates for married or in-union women. In less developed regions, this figure stands at 8.9%, reflecting limited integration into overall contraceptive mixes dominated by female-oriented methods like injectables and implants, whereas developed regions report 16.3% usage, driven by dual emphasis on pregnancy and STI prevention.^[152] Regional disparities are pronounced, with Europe and Northern America at 14.6% condom reliance among women of reproductive age, supported by widespread availability and public health campaigns. In sub-Saharan Africa, usage remains below 5%, constrained by supply chain issues and preferences for long-acting methods amid high fertility desires. Demographic health surveys consistently link these variations to education levels and access: higher female education correlates with increased adoption, as informed individuals weigh STI risks more heavily, while proximity to distribution points—such as clinics or schools—boosts consistent use by overcoming logistical barriers.^[152]30160-X/fulltext)^[153] Recent trends show stagnation or reversal in youth usage, per 2024 WHO analysis of Health Behaviour in School-aged Children surveys across Europe, Central Asia, and Canada. Among sexually active 15-year-olds, condom use at last intercourse declined from 70% to 61% for boys and 63% to 57% for girls between 2014 and 2022, coinciding with rising STI diagnoses and unintended pregnancies. This drop correlates with shifts toward hormonal contraceptives, which offer convenience but less STI protection, alongside emerging tools like fertility-tracking apps that may encourage cycle-based avoidance over barriers, though data emphasize access to comprehensive options as key to reversing declines.^[84]^[85]

Religious and Ethical Viewpoints

The Catholic Church teaches that the use of condoms constitutes artificial contraception, which is intrinsically immoral because it deliberately separates the unitive and procreative meanings of the marital act, violating natural law by frustrating the generative purpose inherent to human sexuality.^[154] This doctrine was authoritatively restated in Pope Paul VI's encyclical Humanae Vitae on July 25, 1968, which rejected all direct methods of birth control, including barriers like condoms, in favor of periodic continence through natural family planning to respect the body's fertility cycles.^[154] Natural law arguments, rooted in the teleological view that sexual acts must remain open to life as designed by rational nature, underpin this opposition, positing that any intentional impediment to conception perverts the act's final cause.^[155] Protestant denominations exhibit significant variation on condom use; historically, major figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned contraception as contrary to God's command to be fruitful, a stance held by all Christian traditions until the early 20th century.^[156] The Anglican Lambeth Conference of 1930 marked the first official endorsement of contraception in limited cases for married couples facing economic hardship, a position that influenced many subsequent Protestant groups to accept barrier methods like condoms within marriage to regulate family size responsibly.^[157] Today, liberal Protestant churches, such as mainline denominations, generally permit condom use without doctrinal prohibition, provided it aligns with marital fidelity and stewardship, while conservative evangelicals and some Reformed traditions retain reservations, emphasizing Scripture's pro-natalist themes and potential risks of decoupling sex from reproduction.^[158]^[159] In Islam, condom use is often deemed permissible (mubah) for temporary spacing of children or averting health risks, provided it occurs with spousal consent and does not lead to permanent sterilization or harm to marital relations, as supported by interpretations of hadiths allowing coitus interruptus ('azl) during the Prophet Muhammad's time.^[160] Scholarly fatwas from bodies like Al-Azhar University affirm non-permanent methods like condoms to prevent disease transmission or economic strain, though conservative clerics caution against their promotion encouraging extramarital sex or undermining population growth encouraged in some Quranic verses.^[161] This stance prioritizes harm prevention (darura) over absolute procreation, but prioritizes abstinence or marital restraint as primary virtues. Hindu traditional teachings do not prohibit contraception, viewing decisions on family limitation as a personal dharma matter for householders (grihasthas), with ancient texts like the Arthashastra (circa 300 BCE) mentioning herbal barriers akin to modern methods for population control.^[162] Condoms are thus acceptable within marriage to balance worldly duties and spiritual aims, though scriptures emphasize procreation for ancestral rites (pitri-rina) during fertile years, rendering widespread use uncommon in orthodox practice where restraint or natural methods prevail over artificial intervention.^[163] Ethical concerns in Hinduism focus less on natural law per se and more on non-violence (ahimsa) and karmic consequences, avoiding methods seen as disrupting cosmic order but tolerating barriers that do not terminate life post-conception.^[164]

Educational and Policy Influences

In the United States, school-based condom availability programs implemented in various districts during the 1990s and 2000s aimed to reduce unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections among adolescents, yet empirical evaluations reveal mixed outcomes regarding behavioral impacts. While several studies reported no overall increase in sexual activity or earlier age of sexual initiation following program rollout, a 2018 analysis of policy variations across states found that greater school condom access correlated with a 12% rise in teen fertility rates, suggesting potential risk compensation where perceived protection encouraged higher-risk behaviors rather than consistent safe practices.^[165] ^[166] ^[167] Policy debates over abstinence-only versus comprehensive sex education have centered on their effects on delaying sexual debut, with evidence indicating that programs emphasizing abstinence or delay tactics often outperform purely contraceptive-focused approaches. A review of 22 rigorous evaluations showed that 17 reported statistically significant delays in sexual initiation and reductions in early sexual activity among participants in abstinence-promoted curricula, contrasting with meta-analyses from public health institutions claiming limited efficacy for abstinence-only models.^[168] Hybrid policies incorporating both delay messaging and contraceptive information, as required in 42 U.S. states by 2023, have demonstrated associations with postponed onset of intercourse in longitudinal studies of pre-teens, potentially mitigating incentives for premature experimentation.^[169] ^[170] Globally, campaigns by organizations such as WHO and UNAIDS have promoted widespread condom distribution and education since the 1980s to combat HIV transmission, yet consistent use remains suboptimal despite billions in funding. The 2016 UNAIDS Prevention Gap Report highlighted a shortfall of over 3 billion male condoms annually in sub-Saharan Africa alone, with usage rates plateauing below targets and failing to reach 80-90% efficacy levels assumed in models, as real-world adherence hovers around 50% or less in high-risk populations due to factors like inconsistent access and behavioral resistance.^[171] ^[172] These gaps underscore how promotional strategies may overestimate compliance, inadvertently fostering overreliance on imperfect tools without addressing root causes of irregular application.^[173]

Controversies and Criticisms

Discrepancies in Public Health Claims

Public health authorities frequently cite condom efficacy rates based on perfect use scenarios, reporting approximately 98% effectiveness in preventing pregnancy and substantial reductions in sexually transmitted infection (STI) transmission when used correctly and consistently every time.^[2]^[13] However, these figures derive from controlled conditions assuming flawless application, which overlook the substantial gap to typical use outcomes in broader populations, where failure rates climb to 13-18% for pregnancy prevention—representing an over eightfold increase in unintended pregnancies compared to perfect-use estimates.^[33]^[11] For STIs, while consistent correct use reduces HIV transmission risk by 80-95% in some models, real-world typical use yields lower protection due to inconsistent application, with population-level data showing persistent transmission rates among condom promoters.^[2]^[174] Clinical studies often underreport mechanical failures like breakage and slippage, which can reach 2-3% per use in general cohorts but escalate to 31-37% over periods in high-risk groups such as men who have sex with men (MSM) or HIV-serodiscordant couples, particularly during anal intercourse where per-act failure rates range from 1.8% to 8%.^[175]^[176]^[86] These errors are frequently minimized in promotional materials, as self-reported data in trials may exclude non-compliant users or fail to capture all incidents, leading to optimistic aggregates that do not reflect scenarios involving lubrication deficits, improper sizing, or vigorous activity.^[177] A review of 10 studies on HIV transmission contexts found breakage frequencies varying widely up to 37%, underscoring how selective reporting in lower-risk trial subsets distorts broader applicability.^[177] Such discrepancies arise partly from selection biases in efficacy trials, which enroll motivated participants under supervision, yielding failure rates unrepresentative of population-level behaviors where impulse-driven decisions—exacerbated by alcohol, spontaneity, or partner dynamics—predominate over rational deliberation.^[178] Real-world surveys reveal inconsistent use correlates with higher sex act frequency and lower socioeconomic factors, inflating errors beyond trial benchmarks by up to 50% in vulnerable subgroups.^[55] Public health messaging that privileges perfect-use ideals without emphasizing these behavioral realities fosters overconfidence, as evidenced by sustained STI epidemics despite widespread condom promotion, implying causal oversights in assuming uniform actor rationality across diverse contexts.^[174]^[178]

Promotion of Risky Behaviors

The promotion of condoms as a primary preventive measure against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unintended pregnancies has been critiqued through the lens of moral hazard, an economic principle where reduced perceived risks from protective measures incentivize riskier behaviors. In sexual health contexts, this manifests as individuals engaging in more frequent or unprotected casual encounters, assuming condom use mitigates consequences, thereby offsetting potential benefits of availability. Studies on analogous interventions, such as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV, demonstrate this dynamic, with users reporting increased partner numbers post-adoption due to lowered caution.^[179] Similar patterns appear in condom distribution programs, where school-based initiatives correlate with elevated sexual activity rather than solely safer practices, as participants perceive diminished costs to experimentation.^[180] Empirical data underscore persistent STI escalation despite widespread condom promotion and access. In the United States, reported cases of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis nearly doubled from approximately 1.2 million in 2001 to 2.5 million in 2021, even as public health campaigns emphasized barrier methods since the 1980s AIDS crisis.^[181] Globally, adolescent condom use declined from 2014 to 2022 across European regions, coinciding with rising STI incidences among youth, suggesting behavioral adaptations outpace protective adherence.^[84] This trend aligns with risk compensation theory, where condom emphasis dilutes incentives for abstinence or partner limitation, as evidenced by longitudinal analyses linking perceived efficacy to higher partner counts.^[182] Among youth, condom-focused education campaigns have shown mixed effects on debut timing, with some longitudinal cohorts indicating no delay or even acceleration in sexual onset. For instance, urban minority adolescents exposed to such programs exhibited earlier initiation linked to subsequent multi-partner risks, contrasting with unexposed peers who deferred activity.^[183] Early debut, often post-campaign exposure, predicts doubled odds of multiple partners and STI acquisition into adulthood, per cohort studies tracking from adolescence.^[184] Condom-centric strategies may undervalue empirically superior alternatives like delayed initiation or monogamy, which yield lower STI rates and improved relational stability. Delaying sexual activity until later adolescence correlates with reduced long-term infection risks and fewer partners, as synthesized from outcome data across demographics.^[185] Monogamous patterns, by minimizing exposure networks, outperform promiscuity in health metrics, with early serial partnering elevating concurrency risks during infectious windows.^[186] These approaches, though less promoted, demonstrate causal advantages in averting cumulative harms when behavioral costs remain unmitigated by perceived safeguards.^[187]

Environmental and Health Trade-offs

The production of latex condoms relies on natural rubber harvested from Hevea brasiliensis trees, primarily in Southeast Asia, where expanding plantations have contributed to the loss of over 4 million hectares of tropical forest in the region over the past three decades, exacerbating biodiversity decline and habitat fragmentation. ^[188] ^[189] Lifecycle assessments indicate that raw material acquisition, particularly rubber cultivation and processing, accounts for significant environmental burdens, including energy-intensive operations and potential water pollution from latex concentration. ^[190] ^[191] Synthetic alternatives, such as polyisoprene condoms, derive from petroleum-based processes and generate 1.5 to 2.5 times higher overall environmental impacts across categories like global warming potential and resource depletion compared to natural rubber counterparts. ^[192] Annually, an estimated 10 to 35 billion condoms are manufactured and discarded worldwide, contributing to landfill accumulation as latex decomposes slowly over years without full biodegradability, while synthetic variants add to non-recyclable plastic waste due to additives and chemical treatments. ^[193] ^[194] ^[195] Disposal practices, including flushing, have led to sewage blockages and marine litter, though condoms represent a minor fraction of total plastic pollution; synthetic materials may fragment into microplastics over time, amplifying long-term aquatic ecosystem risks. ^[196] These waste volumes underscore a trade-off wherein the preventive health utility of widespread condom use—reducing unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections—offsets per-unit disposal burdens but strains waste management systems globally. Latex condoms pose health risks for individuals with type I hypersensitivity, affecting approximately 4.3% of the general population and up to 9.7% of healthcare workers with repeated exposure; symptoms in condom users include localized itching and swelling in 84% of cases, with 25% experiencing urticaria, angioedema, or respiratory distress. ^[73] ^[197] This has driven adoption of non-latex options like polyurethane or polyisoprene, which mitigate allergic reactions but exhibit 3 to 5 times higher breakage rates, potentially compromising barrier efficacy, and incur elevated production costs and environmental footprints. ^[198] ^[192] Thus, addressing latex-related health concerns through synthetic shifts introduces causal trade-offs: reduced individual allergy risks at the expense of broader ecological impacts and possibly diminished protective reliability.

Ongoing Research

Efficacy and Behavior Studies

Recent randomized controlled trials have investigated behavioral interventions to enhance condom adherence, revealing variable success in promoting consistent and correct usage. The Home-based Intervention Strategy (HIS-UK), evaluated in a 2024 UK trial among men aged 16-25, distributed condom kits with varied types and lubricants alongside educational materials to improve experiences and reduce chlamydia incidence compared to standard condom distribution. Participants reported high acceptability of the kits, which facilitated experimentation and addressed common barriers like discomfort, though the intervention's impact on chlamydia positivity rates required further longitudinal analysis to confirm adherence gains.^[199] ^[200] Similarly, brief interventions incorporating condom demonstrations have demonstrated potential to influence both behavioral outcomes, such as increased usage intentions, and nonbehavioral factors like self-efficacy in youth populations.^[201] Demographic analyses from cohort studies highlight disparities in condom use failures, with adolescents experiencing elevated rates of 5-20% due to factors including inexperience and inconsistent application, exceeding adult benchmarks. Among ethnic minorities, such as African American youth, qualitative data from 2023-2024 inquiries identify contextual contributors to failures, including interpersonal dynamics and access barriers, leading to higher unintended exposure risks compared to majority groups. These gaps persist despite targeted outreach, underscoring the need for culturally tailored strategies to mitigate behavioral lapses in high-risk subgroups.^[202] ^[203] ^[204] Emerging research on digital tools for long-term tracking integrates mobile apps with reminders to sustain adherence, showing promise in altering usage patterns through enhanced self-monitoring. A 2024 eHealth intervention trial among men who have sex with men reported significant reductions in condomless anal sex via app-delivered modules that boosted attitudes and self-efficacy toward consistent use. Analogous app-based systems for adolescent sexual health, tested in 2025 protocols, aim to link reminders with pre-visit prompts, potentially elevating condom uptake by addressing forgetfulness and reinforcing habits over extended periods.^[205] ^[206] ^[207] However, systematic reviews of such reminders yield mixed results on sustained behavioral change, emphasizing the causal role of user engagement over mere notifications.^[208]

Technological Innovations

The integration of graphene into condom manufacturing represents a notable advancement in material science applications for barrier contraception. In October 2023, ONE Condoms introduced Flex, the first commercially available condom enhanced with graphene, a carbon-based nanomaterial known for its exceptional strength and thinness.^[209] This product utilizes patented technology to combine graphene with latex, resulting in a condom that is among the thinnest on the market while offering 85% greater body heat transfer than standard latex variants, thereby enhancing sensory transmission between partners.^[210] Independent testing and user feedback indicate improved durability and flexibility, with the graphene infusion contributing to a natural charcoal hue and reduced breakage risk under stress, as verified through the company's decade-long research and development process.^[111] By December 2024, Flex became available in select Walmart stores, marking a transition from prototype to market entry and demonstrating feasibility for scaled production without compromising vegan-friendly, non-GMO standards.^[211] Spray-on condom prototypes explore polymer-based formulations for on-demand, custom-fit application, addressing limitations of pre-manufactured sizes. Developed initially in 2006 by German inventor Jan Vinzenz Krause, the concept employs a cylindrical chamber with nozzles that dispense fast-drying liquid latex or similar polymers, forming a tailored sheath in approximately 5-10 seconds.^[212] Demonstrations at events like the 2007 International Condom Congress highlighted potential for precise fit via automated coating, with polymers selected for elasticity and biocompatibility to minimize slippage or tears.^[213] However, feasibility tests revealed challenges, including extended drying times up to 3 minutes in early models, which disrupted usability and contributed to limited commercialization despite ongoing refinements in polymer chemistry.^[214] Market analyses project modest growth for spray-on variants, with the segment valued at USD 120 million in 2024 and forecasted to reach USD 250 million by 2033, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of about 8.5% driven by demand for personalized protection.^[215] Early-stage research into smart condoms incorporates embedded microsensors for real-time monitoring, though prototypes remain pre-commercial. Conceptual designs propose integrating conductive elements or pH-sensitive indicators to detect breakage via electrical conductivity changes or fluid leakage, potentially triggering haptic or app-based alerts. Such innovations draw from broader wearable sensor technologies but face hurdles in biocompatibility, cost, and regulatory approval for intimate use, with no verified market entries as of 2025.^[216] Feasibility evaluations emphasize the need for non-toxic, flexible sensor arrays that withstand mechanical stress without altering condom integrity, positioning these as long-term R&D prospects rather than immediate alternatives.

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While latex allergy is rare, affecting 1 to 6 percent of the general population, it is much more common in employees who work in the medical or dental health ...
[73]
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The average prevalence of latex allergy worldwide remains 9.7%, 7.2%, and 4.3% among healthcare workers, susceptible patients, and general population, ...Missing: rejection | Show results with:rejection
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[PDF] Annex 9 - United Nations Population Fund
The longer the condoms are stored before packaging the more oxidation can occur, with a build-up of hydroperoxides in the rubber that could shorten the ...
[75]
Study to determine the correlation between condom breakage in ...
Breakage rates ranged from 3.5% in a new lot to 18.6% in one lot 81 months old. Based on these field results, tensile and airburst tests appear to be highly ...Missing: defects | Show results with:defects
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Latex condom deterioration accelerated by environmental factors
Results revealed that there was marked deterioration of the condom wall after exposure to ozone after 6-48 hours. Mechanical strength was also decreased after ...
[77]
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Condom failure rate is a whopping 13% with typical use, which means that condoms are not effective at preventing pregnancy.Missing: large- | Show results with:large-
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The rate of complete slippage was 0.63% and total failure, clinical breaks plus complete slips, was 1.04%. These rates are lower than those in other studies ...
[79]
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A similar proportion of condoms slip off completely. However, rates of breakage and slippage vary widely across studies (<1–22% for breakage and 0–9% for ...
[80]
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Aug 9, 2025 · A prospective study using two brands of condoms found that of 405 condoms used for intercourse, 7.9% either broke during intercourse or ...
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At first intercourse (median age 15 years) 54% reported using condoms only, 11% dual OC and condoms, 4% OC only, 4% emergency contraception, and 21% no ...
[82]
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More than one-third of the adolescents (34.1%) reported condom failure in the past 90 days.
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Aug 29, 2024 · An urgent report from the WHO Regional Office for Europe reveals that condom use among sexually active adolescents has declined significantly since 2014.
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New WHO/HBSC report reveals alarming decline in adolescent ...
Decline in condom use: The proportion of sexually active adolescents using condoms at last intercourse fell from 70% to 61% among boys and 63% to 57% among ...
[86]
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Oct 30, 2019 · For vaginal sex, there were 48/2533 (1.9%) condom failures, with failure levels ranging across the three types of condoms from 0.95% to 2.72%.
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Both external and internal condoms prevent pregnancy by physically containing the semen. During sexual intercourse, they block sperm from entering the vagina.
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Male condoms typically vary in length from roughly 170–220 millimeters (mm), or 6.7–8.7 inches (“), and in width from 40–60mm, or 1.6–2.4”.Missing: variations percentage
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Fitted condoms had less breakage (0.7%) than standard (1.4%), but more slippage for some. They may be valuable for larger penile dimensions.<|separator|>
[90]
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Apr 22, 2024 · Water-based or silicone lube are always safe to use with any kind of condom. Don't use anything that has oil in it, like lotion, vaseline, or ...
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[92]
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Once inserted, an internal condom lines the walls of the vagina or anus and allows for insertion and movement of a penis, sex toy, or fingers.How do I use an internal... · How do I buy internal condoms?
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Using an internal condom Hold the inner ring and insert the condom into the vagina. Put a finger into the condom and push it as far into the vagina as you can. ...Missing: mechanism | Show results with:mechanism
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In addition to slippage, insertion has been shown to be challenging for FC users. In a study of the short-term acceptability of the Woman's Condom (a slight ...
[97]
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Mar 12, 2020 · The effectiveness of female condoms for preventing HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remains inconclusive.
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During perfect (consistent and correct) use of the method, the 6-month accidental pregnancy rates were 2.6 and 9.5 for the US and Latin American centers, ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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Female Condoms Market Size ($1.26 Billion) 2030
Female condoms market valued at $752 Mn in 2024, projected to reach $1.26 Bn by 2030 at 7.4% CAGR, says Strategic Market Research.
[100]
Performance and safety of the second-generation female condom ...
However, studies of contraceptive effectiveness and those showing effectiveness or reductions in STI incidence with these new female condoms are still needed.<|separator|>
[101]
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Apr 27, 2020 · ... transmission, polyurethane condoms are a solid option for folks with latex sensitivity ... “They also heat up more naturally than latex condoms ...Pregnancy · STIs · Pros · Cons
[102]
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May 9, 2023 · Polyurethane condoms do not contain latex allergens. · These condoms transfer body heat. · These condoms are strong and provide enough lubrication ...
[103]
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Mar 30, 2021 · Since polyurethane condoms are thinner and not as tight, they're more sensitive. Polyurethane also transmits heat more efficiently than latex.
[104]
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[29] Polyurethane condoms are preferred by those who are allergic to latex condoms.[29,52] However, the rate of polyurethane condom breakage is higher when ...
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Jan 13, 2025 · But they won't reduce sensitivity for your partner. On the outside, the condoms are studded and lightly lubricated for heightened pleasure.Lambskin & Textured · Lubricated & Spermicidal · Flavored & PeMissing: interior retention<|control11|><|separator|>
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ONE Condoms launches graphene-enhanced condoms
Oct 18, 2023 · It provides incredible thinness, strength, flexibility, and heat transfer – all the things you want in a condom. Our hybrid graphene-latex ...
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ONE® Flex®: The World's First Condom Enhanced with Graphene
ONE® Flex® is one of the world's thinnest condoms and provides 85% more body heat transfer than standard latex condoms.
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Dec 1, 2022 · check that the condom is not expired; · carefully open the package without tearing it; · pinch air out of the tip of the condom; · unroll condom ...Missing: steps | Show results with:steps
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How to use a condom · Make sure the penis is fully erect. · Open the packet carefully so you do not damage the condom. · Hold the tip of the condom to squeeze out ...
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This document provides general information on using male condoms, including dos and don'ts, and instructions on putting on and taking off a male condom.
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Store condoms in cool, dry spaces (below 100°F, above 32°F), out of direct sunlight, in a safe container, not a wallet, and use the "first in, first out" rule. ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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Exposure to direct sunlight or fluorescent (tube) light, heat, humidity, moisture, and ozone can considerably shorten the shelf life of male latex condoms.
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Sep 20, 1988 · Environmental factors such as heat, humidity, ultraviolet radiation and ozone may damage condoms enough to cause breakage and allow the passage ...
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Store condoms in a cool, dry place, away from moisture, sharp objects, and extreme temperatures. Check the expiration date, usually on the package. Most Trojan ...Missing: guidelines | Show results with:guidelines
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Before you go out, put a few condoms in your purse or jacket pocket. It's also OK to carry them in a front pants pocket for a few hours. You can put any ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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May 1, 2018 · The average condom shelf life is three to five years, depending on the manufacturer and how it's stored. Expired condoms are often drier and weaker.Type of condom · Why does storage matter? · Where to find the date
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Jan 6, 2023 · A condom has a shelf life of 5 years from manufacture. We write a “best-before” date on the label of the packets. The condoms are always manufactured 5 years ...
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Sep 26, 2018 · Some studies indicate that overall breakage and slippage rates in anal are similar to those in vaginal sex: around 2 percent. Others have found ...
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For Anal Sex, Condoms With Lube Slip or Break Less Than 1% of ...
Nov 5, 2019 · Previous research has found that condoms have a 6% to 7% failure rate for anal sex. Aaron J. Siegler, PhD, of the department of behavioral ...Missing: extra | Show results with:extra
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Condoms provide protection against both sexually transmitted infections (STI) and pregnancy. Lubricants enhance condom use, as they help.
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Sexual Activities and Changes in Condom Use in Group Sex Events ...
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If participants are not changing condoms while engaging in sexual activities with multiple sex partners, this increases the risk of sexually transmitted ...
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Primary Prevention Methods - CDC
In addition, consistent and correct use of latex condoms reduces the risk for HPV infection and HPV-associated diseases, genital herpes, syphilis, and chancroid ...
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Sep 16, 2024 · Ancient Romans reportedly used linen sheath condoms, as well as those made from the intestines or bladder of a sheep or a goat, to prevent the spread of ...
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In 1872, the Comstock Act had prohibited interstate commerce in obscene literature and immoral material. Condoms and other forms of birth control fell under ...Missing: sales | Show results with:sales
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Oct 24, 2022 · 1957 – Here came another great thing: the first lubricated latex condom. It's also thinner, tighter and now has a reservoir tip. We love it.
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Some contraceptive methods such as male condom, withdrawal and rhythm methods have been used for millennia while methods such as the pill and intrauterine ...
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A Systematic Global Review of Condom Availability Programs in ...
The studies examined here show that CAP is effective in increasing students' condom use. Increased condom use translates to positive sexual health outcomes ...Impact On Students' Sexual... · Impact On Condom Acquisition... · Discussion<|separator|>
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Jun 9, 2021 · Rates of condom use have stopped increasing short of UNAIDS targets and funding from donors is declining.
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In general, the failure rate for perfect use (i.e., a condom used correctly at every act of intercourse) is approximately 3%, and for typical use (condoms not ...
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Feb 22, 2016 · Condom breakage was reported by 4.4% (28/635) participants who engaged in receptive anal intercourse and 3.5% (16/459) participants who engaged ...Missing: extra | Show results with:extra
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Jul 16, 2019 · Since 2011, the typical use failure rate has fluctuated between 13 and 18 percent, according to a variety of studies. There are many factors ...<|separator|>
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The majority of the empirical evidence on this question finds that condom programs did not increase teen sexual activity; examples include Martinez-Donate et ...Missing: debut | Show results with:debut
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Men are using condoms less, even as syphilis and other STDs surge
Nov 23, 2022 · The United States recorded nearly 2.5 million cases of chlamydia, gonorrhea and syphilis in 2021, more than doubling in the past two decades, ...<|separator|>
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Condoms and seat belts: The parallels and the lessons | Request PDF
Aug 5, 2025 · ... condom promotion can be undermined by unintended changes in sexual risk perception and behavior. ... moral hazard may decrease its benefits. We ...
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Nov 1, 2001 · Minority adolescents who initiate sexual activity early engage in behaviors that place them at high risk for negative health outcomes.
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Rubber drives 'at least twice' as much deforestation as previously ...
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How Mounting Demand for Rubber Is Driving Tropical Forest Loss
Dec 4, 2023 · The growing market for rubber is a major, but largely overlooked, cause of tropical deforestation, new analysis shows.
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life cycle assessment of a natural rubber condom
Feb 12, 2020 · It is known that natural rubber plantations can pose high risks to the local environment, such as deforestation and loss of biodiversity, loss ...
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Evaluating environmental performance of concentrated latex ...
Jul 1, 2015 · The production of concentrated latex is an energy-intensive process, and contributes to several environmental problems such as water pollution ( ...Missing: deforestation | Show results with:deforestation
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(PDF) Evaluation of the potential environmental impacts of condom ...
Jul 31, 2021 · PDF | This study aims to analyse the potential environmental impact of natural rubber (NR) condoms over its entire life cycle.
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Eco-friendly sex: What is it and how does it impact on climate change?
Oct 25, 2021 · The UN Population Fund estimates around 10 billion male latex condoms are manufactured each year and most are disposed of in landfills. That's ...Missing: worldwide volume
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Sustainable Pleasure: Make Love not Trash - World Cleanup Day
Sep 3, 2022 · However, in 2020, more than 35 billion condoms were sold, used and thrown away globally. While your safety while making love still remains ...Missing: per volume
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Birth Control for Mother Earth | STANFORD magazine
The 10 billion condoms purchased every year globally pile into landfills and take months to biodegrade. Even so, throwing them in the trash is far better ...
[196]
Safe and sustainable waste management of self care products - NIH
Apr 1, 2019 · An estimated five billion packets of condoms are sold annually, which contribute to beach litter, blockage of sewage systems, and breeding of ...
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Allergy to latex condoms - PubMed
The results of the survey reveal that the 79 (84%) reported local itching and swelling and 25% had cutaneous urticaria, angioedema, and/or respiratory symptoms.
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Dec 18, 2024 · Enhancing condom use experiences among young men to improve correct and consistent condom use: feasibility of a home-based intervention strategy ...
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Aug 1, 2024 · We explored participants' experiences in a randomized controlled trial that evaluated the Home-Based Intervention Strategy (HIS-UK) to improve male condom use ...
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Aug 23, 2023 · Our review found evidence that brief interventions with condom demonstrations have potential effects on behavioral and nonbehavioral outcomes.<|separator|>
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The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning and context of self-reported “condom failure” among sexually active African American adolescents.
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Reported condom use and condom use difficulties in street outreach ...
Refusal rates were for African Americans 48%, Hispanics 44%, Whites 42 ... rate of failure to use condoms. For reported difficulty of using a condom ...
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Ehealth interactive intervention in promoting safer sex among men ...
Nov 9, 2024 · Our findings indicate that the intervention significantly reduced condomless anal sex behaviors by enhancing self-efficacy and attitudes toward condom use.Results · Discussion · Methods
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Ehealth interactive intervention in promoting safer sex among men ...
Nov 9, 2024 · Our findings indicate that the intervention significantly reduced condomless anal sex behaviors by enhancing self-efficacy and attitudes toward condom use.
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A Previsit Mobile Health App (Health-E You/Salud iTu) for Male ...
Oct 15, 2025 · The efficacy trial will evaluate the extent to which the app improves SRH care receipt and condom use among sexually active male adolescents.
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Family Planning Reminder Systems: An Updated Systematic Review
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https://onecondoms.com/blogs/news/press-release-announcing-the-worlds-first-graphene-condom-one-flex
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ONE® Flex®: The World's First Condom Enhanced with Graphene ...
Dec 17, 2024 · One of the world's thinnest condoms, offering 85% more body heat transfer than standard latex condoms, is now available to purchase in select Walmart stores ...
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ONE® Flex®: The World's First Condom Enhanced with Graphene ...
Dec 17, 2024 · Because ONE® Flex® molecularly combines latex with graphene, the condom increases body heat transfer by 85% compared to standard latex condoms.
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Dec 4, 2006 · The plan is to make the product ready for use in about five seconds and offer a more effective contraceptive that fits better than standard one- ...
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[215]
Spray-on Condom Market Size, Competitive Industry & Forecast 2033
Rating 5.0 (54) Explore the Spray-on Condom Market forecasted to expand from USD 120 million in 2024 to USD 250 million by 2033, achieving a CAGR of 8.5%.Missing: 2030 | Show results with:2030
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'Smart' machine components alert users to damage and wear
Jul 30, 2018 · With the embedded sensors, mechanics would be alerted to any blade damage promptly so it can be addressed. "This changes the way we look at ...Missing: condoms R&D