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Push of pike

The push of pike was a brutal form of close-quarters infantry combat prevalent in European warfare from the late 15th to the mid-17th century, involving dense formations of pikemen armed with 18- to 20-foot-long ash spears clashing directly against one another in a contest of mass, momentum, and endurance.^[1] In this tactic, opposing pike blocks—often numbering in the thousands—would advance at a run or trot until their spear points met, leading to a chaotic "push" where front ranks thrust and parried while rear ranks shoved forward with their shoulders and poles, aiming to break the enemy's formation through sheer pressure or exhaustion.^[1] If the initial pike engagement stalemated, the fight frequently devolved into "bad war," a disordered melee where soldiers dropped their cumbersome pikes and resorted to shorter weapons like swords, daggers, or halberds for hand-to-hand combat amid the tangle of fallen poles and bodies. This tactic emerged as a core element of pike and shot warfare, where pikemen formed protective squares or blocks to shield slower-reloading arquebusiers and musketeers from cavalry charges and enemy infantry, allowing firepower to soften targets before the decisive pike clash.^[1] Popularized by Swiss mercenaries in the late 15th century, who used deep pike columns to dominate battlefields against feudal knights, the push of pike became a hallmark of Renaissance armies including German Landsknechts and Spanish tercios—hybrid formations blending pikes with sleeves of shot for combined arms effectiveness.^[1] It exemplified the era's emphasis on disciplined mass infantry over individual prowess, with battles often hinging on morale and cohesion rather than maneuver, as the physical toll of pushing in heavy armor under fire could quickly collapse lines.^[2] Notable engagements featuring the push of pike occurred during the Italian Wars, such as the Battle of Pavia in 1525, where Imperial German and Spanish pikemen engaged French forces in prolonged melees that contributed to the capture of King Francis I, highlighting the tactic's role in decisive outcomes.^[1] By the 17th century, amid the Thirty Years' War and English Civil Wars, the rise of more reliable firearms and bayonets rendered pure pike pushes rarer, evolving the tactic into hybrid charges that foreshadowed linear infantry doctrines.^[3] Despite its ferocity, the push of pike underscored the era's grim reality: survival depended on unbreakable unit solidarity, as isolated pikemen were vulnerable to envelopment or artillery.^[2]

Definition and Overview

Definition

The push of pike was a melee infantry tactic employed in late medieval and early modern European warfare, particularly from the 15th to 17th centuries, involving opposing formations of pikemen charging toward each other to lock their weapons horizontally and engage in a massed shoving contest aimed at breaking the enemy's line through physical pressure and pike thrusts.^[1]^[4] This direct confrontation transformed the pike from a defensive tool into an offensive one, where dense blocks of soldiers advanced in coordinated unison to overwhelm foes, often following initial exchanges of missile fire in pike-and-shot armies.^[5] Key characteristics of the push of pike included the front ranks of each formation bearing the primary burden of pike thrusts, parrying, and compressive force, while rearward ranks provided forward momentum by physically shoving their comrades ahead, creating a collective "shoving match" that tested endurance, discipline, and unit cohesion.^[1]^[5] Contemporaries viewed it as exceptionally brutal—sometimes termed the Italian "guerra cattiva" or "bad war"—due to the high risk of impalement, crushing injuries, and exhaustion, with the tactic demanding tight formations where the first three to seven ranks absorbed most casualties before a potential shift to hand-to-hand combat if pikes were discarded.^[1]^[4] Typically brief yet decisive, the engagement lasted only minutes until one side recoiled or collapsed under the strain, allowing supporting troops to exploit the breach and pursue the routing enemy, though it frequently resulted in devastating losses for entire companies involved in the clash.^[5]^[1]

Historical Significance

The push of pike served as the decisive phase in pike-heavy battles from the late 15th to the late 17th centuries, where the collapse of infantry lines often determined the outcome and created opportunities for cavalry charges or musket volleys to exploit breakthroughs.^[2] In formations like the Spanish tercio, it represented the culminating shock action after preparatory arquebus fire, aiming to shatter enemy cohesion through massed pike thrusts, though its static nature frequently led to protracted, indecisive engagements until tactical reforms emphasized mobility and firepower.^[2] This tactic's centrality underscored infantry's evolving dominance over cavalry in European warfare, shaping battle resolutions until bayonets and improved firearms rendered it obsolete by the early 18th century.^[6] The push of pike inflicted disproportionate casualties on front-rank pikemen due to the intense close-quarters crushing and stabbing, influencing shifts in army compositions to mitigate such vulnerabilities. In the English Civil War, early infantry ratios favored pikemen at two-to-one over musketeers to ensure defensive solidity against cavalry, but rising matchlock effectiveness reversed this to one pikeman per two shot by the war's end, as seen in the New Model Army, reducing reliance on high-risk melee.^[6] These losses not only depleted elite front lines but also pressured commanders to integrate more ranged elements, accelerating the transition from pike-dominant to gunpowder-centric infantry tactics across Europe.^[6] Culturally, the push of pike was perceived as both an honorable test of resolve and a terrifying ordeal, epitomized by the Italian term "guerra cattiva" or "bad war," particularly the intense clashes between rival Swiss and Landsknecht mercenaries coined during the Italian Wars to describe the brutal pike engagements.^[7] Contemporary engravings, such as Hans Holbein's early 16th-century depiction of entangled Swiss and Landsknecht pikemen resorting to swords and daggers, captured its grim chaos, highlighting the mercenaries' refusal to yield and the resulting high mortality that horrified Italian observers.^[7] This duality reinforced pike combat's status as a symbol of martial virtue amid its visceral horror, influencing literary and artistic portrayals of Renaissance warfare.^[7]

Historical Development

Origins in Medieval Warfare

The push of pike tactic originated in the late medieval period as infantry adapted long spears and early pikes to counter the dominance of mounted knights in feudal warfare, drawing conceptual inspiration from ancient Greek phalanx formations but tailored to the fragmented battlefields and heavy armor of 14th-century Europe. These early tactics emphasized dense, schiltron-like arrays where foot soldiers presented overlapping points to repel cavalry charges, marking a shift toward professionalized infantry capable of offensive pressure rather than mere defense.^[8] In Switzerland and southern Germany, 14th-century mercenaries pioneered such formations during conflicts with Habsburg forces, using long spears (12-15 feet) in compact groups to withstand knightly assaults, as exemplified at the Battle of Laupen in 1339 where Swiss spearmen formed early haufen squares to secure victory. The Battle of Sempach in 1386 further demonstrated this potential, with around 1,500 Swiss halberdiers and spearmen employing massed close combat to defeat 4,000 Austrian knights, shedding heavy armor for mobility and pushing forward in coordinated waves to break the enemy line despite numerical inferiority. This engagement, though relying more on halberds than pikes, evolved the concept of collective infantry pressure, influencing subsequent German and Swiss mercenary practices in regional skirmishes.^[9] A pivotal refinement occurred after the Swiss defeat at Arbedo in 1422, where Milanese men-at-arms exploited gaps in halberd lines; in response, a 1422 diet at Lucerne mandated pike adoption as the primary weapon, with shafts up to 18 feet enabling rear ranks to support the front in unbreakable walls. This led to the key innovation of massed column pushes, where Swiss and emulating German pikemen advanced in deep formations—front ranks thrusting horizontally while followers filled breaches—transforming individual spear use into synchronized pressure tactics refined through professional training. Concurrently, Scottish schiltrons provided parallel precedents, with spearmen forming defensive circles to resist English cavalry at battles like Bannockburn (1314) during the Wars of Scottish Independence, and later adaptations during the Hundred Years' War resisted longbow volleys. In Italian city-state wars, such as Guelph-Ghibelline clashes, early 14th-century spearmen in condottieri armies similarly used dense arrays, with the pike's invention in Turin around 1327 facilitating initial experiments in infantry drives against rival militias.^[8]^[9]

Evolution in the Early Modern Period

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the push of pike spread across Europe through the Italian Wars (1494–1559), where Swiss and German mercenaries, organized in deep square formations, employed the tactic as a core element of their aggressive infantry assaults, often clashing in brutal hand-to-hand contests known as "bad war."^[10] This approach was adapted by professional armies, notably in the Spanish tercio, a mixed formation of approximately 3,000 men comprising a central block of pikemen—typically 10 or more ranks deep for resilience in the push—flanked by arquebusiers who delivered coordinated volleys to soften enemies before close engagement.^[11] The integration of firearms allowed tercios to transition seamlessly from ranged fire to pike pushes, enhancing the tactic's versatility against diverse threats like cavalry or rival pike squares. In the 17th century, the push of pike underwent refinements amid the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and English Civil War (1642–1651), as armies adjusted to the growing dominance of muskets by employing deeper pike blocks—up to 10 ranks in Dutch-style formations—to shield shot units and maintain cohesion under fire.^[12] At the Battle of Breitenfeld on September 17, 1631, Swedish forces under Gustavus Adolphus exemplifies this evolution; after musket salvos disrupted imperial lines, advancing brigades executed a decisive push of pike against Tilly's veterans, causing disorder and contributing to the rout of the Catholic army.^[13] In the English Civil War, similar deeper configurations protected musketeers during charges, with pushes occasionally resolving stalled infantry clashes, as seen in the static engagements at Edgehill.^[12] The tactic's institutionalization reflected its adoption by standing armies in Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Sweden, where it influenced professionalization and mercenary practices. Spanish tercios, sustained by long-term contracts for veteran pikemen, emphasized endurance in prolonged pushes through rigorous training outlined in service agreements.^[14] Dutch reforms under Maurice of Nassau, detailed in drill manuals like Jacob de Gheyn's Wapenhandelinghe (1607), standardized pike maneuvers in smaller, linear battalions to build discipline and stamina for sustained engagements, a model exported via mercenary service across Europe.^[15] Swedish innovations under Gustavus Adolphus further refined this by integrating shallower pike walls—often six ranks deep—within brigade systems, supported by countermarch musket fire, to enable rapid advances culminating in pushes that prioritized mobility and endurance in extended campaigns.^[12]

Regional Variations

In Southern Europe, particularly during the Italian Wars, the push of pike was characterized by shorter, more fluid engagements within Spanish tercio formations, where pikemen formed the core defensive block supported by arquebusiers for firepower and rodeleros—sword-and-buckler men—to infiltrate and exploit gaps created by the initial pike clash. This integration allowed for dynamic maneuvers amid high mercenary involvement, including Swiss and Landsknecht contingents, whose clashes earned the nickname "Bad War" for their unrelenting brutality without quarter.^[1] Northern European variations, exemplified by Swiss and German Landsknecht forces, emphasized rigid, deep pike squares—often 10,000 strong—for overwhelming mass in the push, with the Swiss prioritizing high mobility and aggressive charges to shatter cavalry and the Landsknecht incorporating halberdiers and two-handed swordsmen (Doppelsöldner) to disrupt enemy pike tips during the melee.^[1] These formations, up to 18 feet in pike length, relied on disciplined ranks to maintain cohesion under pressure, as seen in their mutual rivalries during the Swabian War and Italian campaigns.^[16] In the British Isles, adaptations to wet, uneven terrain during the English Civil War (1642–1651) and Irish Wars led to shallower pike lines and reduced reliance on prolonged pushes, with infantry often operating in looser orders to navigate bogs and hills; push of pike rarely occurred in Ireland, where skirmishing predominated over hand-to-hand pike clashes.^[17] Scottish forces in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms employed similar pike blocks but with parliamentarian drills favoring integrated shot support, contrasting royalist emphasis on traditional mass pushes in drier English fields.^[12] Eastern influences diverged from dense Western pushes, as Ottoman janissaries favored volley fire from matchlocks over rigid pike engagements, using lighter spears and azap auxiliaries for mobility when facing European-style formations, while Polish winged hussars countered pike pushes with heavy cavalry charges rather than infantry melee.^[18]

Tactics and Techniques

Formations and Preparations

Pike blocks for the push of pike were typically organized as dense rectangular formations comprising around 500 men or more, with depths varying from 6 to 20 ranks depending on the era, nationality, and tactical needs to maximize thrusting power and stability during the clash. In these setups, the front rank often knelt or braced their pikes at a low angle toward the ground to anchor the formation, while the middle ranks held pikes at approximately 45 degrees and the rear ranks positioned theirs horizontally to provide forward momentum and support.^[1] This structure allowed the entire block to function as a unified mass, with the collective weight and coordination of the pikemen enabling a sustained push against the enemy line. Preparatory drills emphasized maintaining closed order during advances, with units marching at a quick pace to close distances efficiently before the engagement.^[12] At close range from the foe, the command would be given to lower pikes horizontally in unison, transforming the formation into a bristling wall of spear points ready for impact.^[1] Coordination with accompanying shot—arquebusiers or musketeers—was crucial; these troops typically delivered initial volleys from the flanks before retiring behind or into the pike block for protection as the push commenced.^[12] Environmental factors influenced formation adjustments, particularly terrain that could hinder mobility or stability.^[1] Commanders sought to avoid soft or muddy ground, where pike slippage could disorder the ranks and expose the unit to collapse during the advance.^[1] Synchronization relied on audible signals such as drum beats or shouted commands to ensure precise timing across the block, preventing gaps that might invite penetration by the enemy.^[12]

The Engagement Process

The engagement process in a push of pike commenced with the two opposing formations closing to within striking distance, where the front ranks lowered their pikes to chest height, allowing the weapon points to interlock with those of the enemy in a dense wall of spearheads. The leading pikemen then initiated thrusts aimed at disrupting the opposing line by creating gaps through stabs or deflections, while the rear ranks maintained close order and advanced steadily on foot to exert collective pressure on their own front.^[19] This preparatory phase transitioned seamlessly from the advance described in pike square formations, ensuring the unit's cohesion under fire.^[19] Once engaged, the dynamics of the push developed as a test of collective momentum, with the rearward pikemen—often supported by secondary weapons like halberds in the flanks—propelling the formation forward in a coordinated surge akin to a human wave, compressing the front lines against the enemy.^[19] Pikemen in the melee endured constant threats from enemy pike points probing for vulnerabilities, forceful shield bashes to unbalance foes, and the intense physical strain of bodily compression within the tightly packed ranks, where movement was severely limited and fatigue set in rapidly.^[19] These clashes often lasted 1 to 5 minutes in 17th-century English engagements, concluding when one side reached exhaustion, suffered a collapse in morale, or yielded ground due to the unrelenting pressure.^[19] Casualty patterns during the push were concentrated among the front two to three ranks, where soldiers faced the highest risk of penetrating stabs from pikes or crushing injuries from the weight of their own formation bearing down amid the chaos.^[19] Overall losses per engagement ranged from 10 to 30 percent of the involved pikemen in such contexts, with rates escalating significantly if the formation lacked adequate support from adjacent shot or cavalry elements to relieve pressure.^[19]

Breaking the Push

The push of pike often reached a breaking point when the immense physical strain caused the front ranks to buckle, with pikemen exhausted from the relentless shoving and thrusting, leading to dropped weapons or involuntary gaps in the formation as soldiers faltered under the weight of their 18-foot pikes and the press of bodies behind them.^[20] If these gaps widened or the rear ranks perceived disorder ahead, panic could spread, prompting flight that triggered a full rout of the unit.^[21] Once signs of collapse appeared, commanders exploited them by deploying supporting specialists to widen the breach; in German Landsknecht formations, doppelsöldner armed with two-handed swords or halberds would charge into the openings to hack aside pike shafts and disrupt the enemy ranks, while Spanish rodeleros—sword-and-buckler men integrated into tercio pike blocks—rushed forward similarly to shatter the opposing line in close quarters.^[21]^[11] Following such breakthroughs, cavalry units typically pursued the disintegrating infantry, turning local failure into battlefield catastrophe through relentless charges on the fleeing masses.^[1] To prevent or counter an impending push, tacticians emphasized weakening the enemy beforehand via flanking maneuvers that exposed vulnerable sides of the dense pike block, or through coordinated fire from arquebusiers and light infantry (velites) to thin ranks and induce disorder prior to contact.^[20]^[1] In uncommon instances of evenly matched forces, the mutual exhaustion of prolonged shoving could result in a temporary stalemate, with both sides disengaging without decisive penetration until external factors intervened.^[21]

Equipment and Training

The pike was the central weapon of the push of pike tactic, consisting of a long wooden shaft made from durable ash wood, typically measuring 4 to 5 meters in length during the 16th century, with an iron spearhead featuring a leaf- or diamond-shaped point approximately 15 to 30 centimeters long.^[1]^[22] The overall weight of the pike ranged from 3 to 6 kilograms, necessitating two-handed use to manage its length and balance effectively during combat.)^[23] Variations in pike design emerged to suit different tactical needs and regional preferences. Swiss pikes, renowned for their role in mercenary infantry, were often longer at around 5.5 meters to provide superior reach in dense formations against cavalry charges.^[23] By the late 16th and into the 17th century, pikes were progressively shortened to approximately 3 meters in some armies, particularly as half-pikes, to enhance maneuverability in more flexible, smaller units integrated with firearms.^[1] The butt end of many pikes was reinforced with an iron shoe or cap, allowing pikemen to brace the weapon firmly against the ground for stability during defensive stands.^[24] Pikemen carried their weapons using sashes or baldrics slung over the shoulder for ease during marches, though in battle they were gripped directly with both hands. Related weapons included the partisan, a polearm with a broad, sword-like spearhead on a shaft of similar length to the pike, primarily wielded by officers to direct formations and parry threats without disrupting the pike wall.^[25]^[26]

Armor and Pikeman Role

Pikemen in early modern European infantry formations, particularly within Spanish tercios, typically wore partial plate armor to balance protection against edged weapons and cavalry charges with the need for maneuverability during prolonged engagements. Front-rank pikemen, known as coseletes, were equipped with breastplates, tassets covering the thighs, and morion helmets, providing defense against thrusts and slashes while allowing for pike handling. Rear-rank soldiers often carried lighter or no body armor beyond a simple morion helmet and ruff collar to preserve mobility in dense formations, with total armor weights ranging from 10 to 15 kg.^[27]^[28] Within the tercio structure, pikemen constituted approximately one-third of the infantry, forming a central block that integrated with arquebusiers and swordsmen to create a combined-arms unit resilient to both infantry assaults and cavalry.^[29] This central pike core shielded the "wings" of shot troops during advances, preventing enemy cavalry from disrupting reloading lines and enabling the tercio to close distances under fire.^[11] Pikemen's heavy pikes and armor made them vulnerable to concentrated musket fire at range, necessitating the "push of pike"—a decisive melee clash where their formation's cohesion allowed dominance over opposing infantry.^[30] The role of pikemen evolved from elite shock troops in Swiss mercenary squares, where they formed nearly the entire infantry as aggressive, lightly armored vanguard units, to a standardized component in linear infantry tactics by the mid-seventeenth century.^[30] In tercios and subsequent armies, this shifted to protective support for expanding firearm elements, with ratios "doubling" to two gunners per pikeman, emphasizing pikemen's defensive function over offensive primacy.^[31]

Training Methods

Training for the push of pike demanded rigorous physical conditioning and precise coordination to withstand the intense, close-quarters combat of interlocking pike formations. Daily drill routines focused on mastering pike handling, including postures for advancing, wheeling, and charging, often using padded or blunted pikes to simulate engagements without risk of injury. Soldiers practiced these maneuvers in formation to ensure seamless transitions, such as lowering pikes in unison for a charge or rotating ranks during wheeling to maintain defensive integrity. Endurance was built through extended marching exercises carrying approximately 15-20 kg loads, encompassing the pike (typically 3-6 kg) and armor along with basic gear, to replicate the fatigue of battlefield advances over long distances.^[32]^[33]^[34] Mercenary professionalism among Swiss and German pikemen emphasized structured apprenticeship under veteran leaders, fostering discipline essential for the push. In Swiss cantons, compulsory military service from ages 16 to 60 instilled early familiarity with pike formations through community-based training, where recruits learned from seasoned fighters in oath-bound units to achieve rapid, cohesive movements. German Landsknecht companies, often instructed by Swiss experts, organized into hierarchical regiments where front-rank veterans guided newer members in collective drills, prioritizing rank order to avert disorder during clashes. Elizabethan-era manuals reinforced this by detailing command sequences for pike postures, stressing unwavering discipline to counter panic in dense ranks.^[35]^[36]^[33] Psychological preparation centered on cultivating unit cohesion and resilience against the terror of impalement in the push. Repeated mock pushes during drills exposed soldiers to the chaos of thrusting pikes, gradually desensitizing them to the fear of penetration through controlled repetition. Cohesion was reinforced via cultural practices, including martial songs and chants sung during marches to boost morale and synchronize steps, as seen in Landsknecht traditions like "Unser Liebe Fraue," which evoked religious fervor and camaraderie. Swiss units similarly drew on communal oaths and battle hymns to transform individual dread into collective ferocity, ensuring pikemen held formation under pressure.^[35]^[37]

Notable Engagements

Italian Wars

The push of pike played a pivotal role in the infantry clashes of the Italian Wars (1494–1559), where dense formations of pikemen from rival mercenary groups, particularly Swiss and German landsknechts, collided in brutal melees that often determined battlefield outcomes. These engagements highlighted the tactic's reliance on disciplined, deep pike squares to deliver overwhelming shock, integrated with emerging artillery and firearms for combined arms effects. Mercenary landsknechts, emulating Swiss methods, frequently faced off against their Swiss counterparts in service to opposing powers like France and the Holy League, leading to intense pushes that tested the limits of pike cohesion and morale.^[38]^[39] A foundational example occurred at the Battle of Ravenna on April 11, 1512, during the War of the League of Cambrai, where French forces under Gaston de Foix employed landsknecht pike blocks as shock troops against the Spanish tercios of Ramón de Cardona. The French infantry, numbering around 8,500 pikemen and crossbowmen, advanced across a defensive dike under heavy arquebus fire from entrenched Spanish positions, suffering initial repulses that cost over 1,200 lives before a renewed push breached the tercio lines in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Spanish tercios, with a 6:1 ratio of pikes to arquebuses organized in three defensive lines totaling 10,000 foot, held firm initially behind wagon forts and trenches, but the French outflanked them through coordinated cavalry charges, forcing a collapse of the infantry melee. This push of pike, supported by French artillery, routed the Spanish, though de Foix's death in the pursuit limited strategic gains; casualties reached approximately 5,000 French (mostly landsknechts) and 16,700 Spanish killed, wounded, or missing.^[40]^[41] The Battle of Marignano on September 13–14, 1515, further exemplified the tactic's ferocity and vulnerabilities, as 20,000 Swiss pikemen assaulted French positions under King Francis I near Milan to reclaim the duchy for the Sforza. Swiss columns, in densely packed pike formations up to 10,000 strong, charged across marshy ground and a canal despite devastating French artillery barrages, engaging in prolonged pushes against French landsknecht allies and gendarmes; the Swiss maintained square integrity even under fire, but repeated assaults over two days exhausted their ranks. French combined arms—artillery inflicting heavy losses, supported by Venetian arquebusiers and cavalry countercharges—shattered the Swiss momentum, marking the first major defeat of the hitherto invincible Swiss infantry. Casualties were staggering, with estimates of 3,000–8,000 French dead or wounded and 8,000–14,000 Swiss, compelling Swiss withdrawal and negotiations that ended their dominance in Italian campaigns.^[42]^[43] These battles underscored the push of pike's effectiveness in countering heavy cavalry, as deep pike squares repelled French gendarmes and Spanish lancers at Ravenna and Marignano, forcing reliance on firearms and entrenchments to break the stalemates. The tactic's integration with artillery demonstrated early combined arms doctrine, influencing widespread European adoption of pike-based infantry over traditional knightly charges by mid-century.^[39]^[43]

Wars of the Three Kingdoms

During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1651), the push of pike reached a mature phase in British and Irish warfare, integrated into pike-and-shot formations but increasingly subordinated to musket fire and cavalry maneuvers. By the mid-17th century, infantry regiments typically featured a ratio of two musketeers to one pikeman, reflecting adaptations to enhance firepower while retaining pikes for close-quarters defense against cavalry and enemy infantry.^[12] This period saw the tactic employed in decisive engagements, where pikemen advanced behind musket volleys to deliver massed thrusts, though such clashes were often brief and resolved by flanking attacks rather than prolonged shoving matches. The Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645 exemplified the push of pike's role in the English Civil War, as the Parliamentarian New Model Army under Sir Thomas Fairfax clashed with Royalist forces led by Prince Rupert. After a single exchange of musket volleys at close range—within 12 paces—the infantry lines collided in a fierce push of pike, with Royalist foot under Lord Astley initially driving back the Parliamentarians, including commander Philip Skippon who was severely wounded by a musket ball.^[44] Parliamentarian reserves rallied, and with cavalry support, they counterattacked, breaking the Royalist center and forcing a rout that captured nearly all 4,000 Royalist infantrymen.^[45] This engagement, detailed in contemporary accounts like Joshua Sprigge's Anglia Rediviva, highlighted how the push could turn the tide when combined with coordinated arms but faltered against superior numbers and reserves.^[45] Similarly, at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650, Oliver Cromwell's English forces faced a larger Scottish army under David Leslie in a nightmarish terrain of fog and ditches. Scottish pikemen, forming about 40% of infantry brigades like Sir James Lumsden's, repelled initial English assaults in a grueling push of pike after musket fire, with Cromwell noting that his "first foot... received some repulse which they soon recovered."^[46] English regiments under George Monck, using 16-foot pikes, held firm against charges from elite units like Lawers' Highlanders, but the push proved indecisive until English cavalry exploited gaps to shatter the Scottish right flank, leading to approximately 3,000 Scottish deaths and 10,000 captures.^[47] As described in Cromwell's letters, the tactic sustained morale amid chaos but relied on shot and horse for victory.^[46] Tactical adaptations during these wars emphasized shallower pike blocks to accommodate growing firearm dominance, drawing from Swedish innovations with ranks only six men deep rather than the deeper Dutch tercios of 10 or more.^[12] This allowed broader fronts for musket sleeves to deliver overlapping volleys before pikemen closed for the push, which often lasted mere minutes and was vulnerable to cavalry charges on disordered flanks. In the Irish Confederate Wars (1641–1649), returning veterans like Owen Roe O'Neill introduced continental pike-and-shot tactics, blending long pikes with muskets and residual sword use in hybrid close-combat scenarios, as seen in production of pike heads alongside edged weapons at Confederate forges.^[48] These formations, influenced by Flanders campaigns, supported defensive stands but struggled against professional English units.^[48] Overall, the wars underscored the waning decisiveness of the push of pike, as improving musket rates—up to three shots per minute by 1650—shifted emphasis to shot for breaking enemy lines, with pikes primarily bolstering morale and anti-cavalry roles in an era of combined arms.^[12] Engagements like Naseby and Dunbar demonstrated that while the tactic remained psychologically vital, fostering cohesion in the "push," victories increasingly hinged on firepower and mobility, foreshadowing the pike's obsolescence.^[46]

Decline and Legacy

Factors Contributing to Decline

The advent of effective bayonets marked a pivotal advancement in firearms that contributed significantly to the obsolescence of the push of pike. The plug bayonet, introduced in French service around 1671 and adopted by the English army by 1672, enabled musketeers to attach a short blade to the musket's muzzle for melee defense, though it temporarily prevented firing. This was superseded by the socket bayonet, developed circa 1688 and detailed in military treatises by 1697, which allowed the weapon to be loaded and fired with the bayonet fixed, effectively merging the protective role of the pike with the projectile power of the musket. By the early 18th century, this innovation permitted armies to increase the ratio of shot to pike dramatically; for instance, the French abolished the pike entirely in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession, shifting to all-infantry armed with bayoneted muskets for greater firepower and versatility.^[49] Tactical evolutions toward linear formations and coordinated volley fire further diminished the viability of massed pike pushes. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, infantry increasingly deployed in shallow lines—typically two or three ranks deep—rather than the deep blocks required for pike engagements, maximizing the volume of musket fire while enhancing mobility. This shift was exemplified in the campaigns of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), where commanders like the Duke of Marlborough emphasized rapid volleys followed by bayonet charges at battles such as Blenheim (1704) and Ramillies (1706), rendering the slow, momentum-dependent advance of pike formations ineffective against disciplined firepower. Lighter, more maneuverable infantry units prioritized ranged engagements over close-quarters pushes, as deep pike squares became vulnerable to flanking maneuvers and artillery.^[50] Economic pressures accelerated the transition by favoring the scalability of musket-equipped forces over specialized pike units. While initial musket costs were high, improvements in production by the 1680s made firearms more affordable and easier to supply in large numbers compared to the physical demands and selective recruitment for pikemen, who required exceptional strength and height for effective formation. The last significant employment of pikes occurred during the Great Northern War (1700–1721), where Swedish line infantry maintained a ratio of approximately 48 pikemen to 82 fusiliers per company for defensive purposes against cavalry, while Russian forces began phasing them out around 1709 in favor of socket bayonets. Even in these conflicts, the pike's role waned as bayoneted infantry proved sufficient for both defense and offense, marking the tactic's effective end by the 1720s.

Influence on Later Warfare

The push of pike exerted a significant doctrinal legacy on subsequent military tactics, particularly in the transition from early modern to linear warfare. The tactic's emphasis on dense infantry formations delivering overwhelming physical pressure evolved directly into the 18th-century bayonet charge, where musketeers fixed bayonets and advanced en masse to break enemy lines through shock rather than firepower alone. This shift retained the core principle of coordinated mass assault, as seen in the replacement of pikes with bayonets around 1700, allowing infantry to combine volley fire with close-quarters pushing and thrusting.^[3] Similarly, the pike square's role in withstanding cavalry and opposing infantry influenced the development of the infantry square in 18th- and 19th-century armies. By forming a hollow square with bayonets presented outward, troops could repel mounted charges much like pikemen repelled horsemen during a push, maintaining internal cohesion against envelopment. In Napoleonic warfare, these concepts manifested in linear formations that advanced under fire to deliver volleys followed by bayonet assaults, embodying massed pressure to shatter enemy morale and order.^[51] In modern times, the push of pike lives on through historical reenactments organized by societies like The Sealed Knot, Europe's premier English Civil War group, where participants don period armor and simulate pike blocks clashing in controlled melees to demonstrate the tactic's physical demands and tactical nuances. Video games, such as the Total War series, recreate these dynamics by modeling pike units in deep formations that lock and push against foes, educating players on the era's infantry dominance while emphasizing unit cohesion. Films like Alatriste (2006) depict the push in Thirty Years' War battles, portraying the chaotic yet disciplined scrum of tercios to highlight its brutality and strategic role. Scholarly analyses underscore the push of pike's contribution to the professionalization of European armies, as executing it demanded extensive drill to preserve alignment amid chaos, fostering the discipline seen in standing forces like the New Model Army.

References

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Pikes: A Versatile and Deadly Weapon - Warfare History Network
The pike was an 18-20 foot ash-handled spear, used in formations as a portable palisade for both defense and offense, and was a versatile polearm.
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[PDF] Swarming and the Future of Warfare - DTIC
The "push of pike" of the 1 6 th century became the bayonet charge of the ... Hildinger's review of various historical sources and modern experts.
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[PDF] Distributed Concentration: Rethinking Decisive Battle. - DTIC
arquebus fire would prepare an enemy for the decisive "push of pike". In reality, the ungainly tercio often precluded any attempts at decisive offensive ...
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[PDF] Pennsylvania Magazine - Journals
in English military history. The infantry ... At first the main infantry weapon was the pike and the successful. "push of pike" was the only tactical goal.
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[PDF] Elizabethan Soldiers' Perception and Practice of the Laws of Armed ...
displayed, and the two corps came to push-of-pike (figure 15).324. Ensigns and standards had notable importance in European military culture. These played a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
Soldiers of the Civil Wars - BCW Project
By the end of the English Civil War, the ratio ... The two sides would then push physically until one or other of them gave way (known as "push of pike").
[7]
[PDF] Fortune, Misfortune, and the Decline of the Machiavellian Heroic ...
Fig. 3: Hans Holbein the Younger. Bad War. Early 16th century (engraving), Albertina, Vienna. Page 6 ...
[8]
Sociobiology and History in Early Swiss Warfare - ResearchGate
Between 1300 and 1500 CE Swiss military infantry units achieved virtually unique success in their coordinated use of pikes as weapons.
[9]
[PDF] The Swiss in the Swabian War of 1499 - BYU ScholarsArchive
pike square.41. The Swiss were most often tactically on the offensive, so the pike squares were mainly used to penetrate enemy formations. The. 40 Elgger ...
[10]
The Swiss Pikemen: Europe's Most Deadly Middle Age Military ...
Jun 2, 2022 · Origins of the Swiss Pikemen: The Disaster of Arbedo At the Battle of Sempach in 1386, the Swiss armies, armed primarily with halberds (a ...
[11]
Landsknechte: In service to an empire - Historia Scripta
Apr 18, 2024 · ... bad war.” The long spear shafts are their pikes, which became awkward to handle if the push of pike became too disorganized. In that case ...
[12]
The Pike and Shot of the Spanish Tercio | Military History Matters
May 11, 2011 · The pikemen required depth to ensure a solid enough formation to resist opposing phalanxes when it came to 'push of pike'. The arquebusiers ...
[13]
Pike & Shot Tactics - BCW Project
The positioning of the arquebusiers meant that the tercio could concentrate firepower on an attack from any direction, while the arquebusiers could fall back ...
[14]
(PDF) Breitenfeld and Montecuccoli. How to learn from a Battle
... push of pike, putting one of their battailes in disorder, fell on the execution, so that they were put to the route». The sudden rout of Tilly's battle ...
[15]
(PDF) Spanish Tercios1536-1704 - Academia.edu
... Spanish Tercios in the Naples garrison should be made were stipulated in clothing contracts. ... Tercio's companies had its own standard the use of the pike ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
[PDF] Prince Maurice (1567-1625) and the Dutch Contribution to the Art of ...
War to Maurice was not just the push of pike or the fall of shot. It was moral and social: war was an enterprise of teamwork and talent. So he listened to ...
[17]
Rodeleros - Wikipedia
When the Spanish adopted the colunella (the first of the mixed pike and shot formations), they used small groups of sword and buckler men to break the deadlock ...
[18]
The Landsknecht: His Recruitment and Organization, With Some ...
Swiss contingents, a larger proportion of Spanish infantrymen carried weap- ons which were far more manageable. This meant that in close fighting pike- men and ...
[19]
Strategy and Tactics in Irish Warfare, 1593-1601 - jstor
Sep 5, 2025 · The troops fought generally in loose or skirmishing order, and matters rarely came to 'push of pike' or the hand-to- hand combat of opposing ...
[20]
Did the Ottomans use pike a shot warfare and how much ... - Quora
Nov 15, 2022 · Initially, firearms were used to provide support for pike formations, softening up the enemy and keeping enemy forces at bay while the pike ...
[21]
[PDF] The Face of Roman Battle - Gwern.net
Face of Battle. Keegan's distinctive contribution was to move beyond the ... re-enactment groups trying to display the famous 'push of pike' do often engage in ...
[22]
Vol. 86, No. 4 October 2022 - The Society for Military History
“The 'Push of Pike' in Seventeenth-Century English Infantry Combat,” by ... The First World Empire: Portugal, War, and Military Revolution, edited by ...
[23]
The Works of Nicholas Machiavel/Volume 4/The Art of War/Book 2
Sep 14, 2024 · Upon this account they still use the Pike, a weapon that enables them not only to keep off the horse, but very often break ... push of the pikes.
[24]
The Armory Article 10 - Pikes Part 2 - Matrix Games
Aug 13, 2024 · The push-of-pike was what occurred when two pike blocks charged into one-another. In the event that neither force broke and ran before ...
[25]
The 14th century pike and its measurements - Deventer Burgerscap
Feb 8, 2016 · The first can be found in an article by Müller-Hickler from 1906 where he writes that the citizens of Turin in the north of Italy had to have ...Missing: invention historical
[26]
The Swiss pike - jstor
The Swiss pike, adopted in the 15th century, was a 2.5-3.5kg, slightly under 5m long ash wood weapon, used in formations, not as an individual weapon.
[27]
The Pike in the Medieval Era: The Long Arm of the Infantry
In the 1300s, the Swiss cantons, made up of mostly peasants and townsfolk, began organizing into tight pike formations to fight off feudal knights and invaders.What Exactly Is A Pike? · Historical Origins &... · How Was The Pike Used?
[28]
Collections: The Mediterranean Iron Omni-Spear
Nov 10, 2023 · Winged Spear with a small mace head at the butt-end (instead of a stabbing spike). It wont work well as a throwing spear, but it seems ...
[29]
What is a partisan? - Arms & Armor
Sep 15, 2023 · Today we take a look at an original early 16th century partisan, a type of elite pole-arm from the late medieval and Renaissance period.Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
[30]
Partisan | Cleveland Museum of Art
The partisan, a staff weapon with a symmetrical head, was carried by infantry officers and members of princely bodyguards during the 1600s and 1700s.Missing: early modern
[31]
Set of pikeman's armour, 1640 (c) | Online Collection
A pikeman's armour could weigh between 20 and 30 kg; many men abandoned it because of its weight. Around two-thirds of the men in a Civil War infantry ...
[32]
THE TERCIOS - jstor
During most of the sixteenth century, pikemen became a main- stay of the Span- ish army. Here we will examine their role and interdependence with the other.
[33]
[PDF] Evolutions and Revolutions in Western Warfare
Keegan, John. The Face of Battle. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1976. Knox, MacGregor, ed. The Dynamics of Military Revolution: 1300 ...
[34]
Spanish Tercio - War History - WarHistory.org
Dec 13, 2024 · These were newly reformed units with added pikes and more arquebusiers, which gave the Swiss a taste of their own famous “push of pike.” The ...
[35]
Wapenhandelinghe van Roers Musquetten ende Spiessen
Oct 20, 2023 · Wapenhandelinghe van Roers Musquetten ende Spiessen ("The Exercise of Arms For Calivers, Muskets, and Pikes") is a Dutch drill manual illustrated by Jacob de ...Missing: Wapenhandeling training
[36]
Directions for musters Wherein is shevved the order of drilling for the musket and pike. Set forth in postures, with the words of command, and brief instructions for the right use of the same. | Early English Books Online 2 | University of Michigan Library Digital Collections
### Summary of Pike Drill Routines from "Directions for musters" (1638)
[37]
[PDF] LOADS CARRIED BY SOLDIERS: HISTORICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL ...
Loads currently recommended by the U.S. Army infantry school are 33 kg for an approach march load (45% of body weight) and 22 kg for a combat load (30% of body ...
[38]
Caste, Skill, and Training: The Evolution of Cohesion in European ...
Jul 2, 2014 · The men of a Swiss pike column knew that life as well as victory depended on an ability to move quickly and in good order. The Swiss soldier ...
[39]
Landsknecht: The 'Garishly' Effective Footsoldier Of 16th Century
Dec 9, 2019 · Adopting the early Renaissance tactics of massed pikemen formations, partly influenced by the Reisläufer (Swiss mercenaries), these Landsknecht ...
[40]
"Unser Liebe Fraue" - Song of The Landsknechts - YouTube
Aug 19, 2020 · The landsknecht were a German mercenary unit created to combat the dominance of Swiss mercenaries. The institution lasted from the end of ...Missing: pike | Show results with:pike
[41]
(PDF) The Black Bands of Giovanni: Infantry and Diplomacy During ...
... Landsknechts in a bloody 'push of pike'. As always when German and Swiss troops were involved, the melee was particularly violent, and when their formation ...
[42]
Guns Vs Pikes in the Habsburg-Valois Wars - HistoryNet
Jul 14, 2017 · By the time of the Italian wars, the martial services of the Swiss were in great demand. ... The artillery struggled to keep up with the pike ...
[43]
Death of the Fox: Battle of Ravenna (1512) - Warfare History Network
Even before the battle began, there was disagreement among the generals as to the best strategy. ... pike madly in a wide arc knocking pikes from the hands ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[44]
Storm of steel - jstor
On 5 October 1511, the. Holy League was formed and the armies began to move. The Battle of Ravenna, 11 April 1512 ... Keeping the pike square intact, they started ...
[45]
A blow to Swiss ambitions - jstor
Road to pike and shot Militarily, the Battle of Marignano was a hard-fought major victory for the French. At the end of the day, Francis was master of the ...Missing: push | Show results with:push
[46]
[PDF] English Heritage Battlefield Report: Naseby 1645 - Historic England
The chief Royalist source for the Battle of Naseby is Sir Edward Walker's Brief Memorials of the Unfortunate. Success of His Majesty's Army and Affairs in ...
[47]
Scottish Civil War: Battle of Dunbar - HistoryNet
Jun 12, 2006 · Musketeers exchanged fire while the foot battle, the so-called 'push of pike,' began. 'Our first foot, after they discharged their duty, ...
[48]
English Civil War Battle of Dunbar, 1650 - Warfare History Network
“One of the Scots brigades of foot would not yield, though at push of pike ... Cromwell reported 30 killed, although the English undoubtedly lost more men than ...
[49]
Guest blog: The 17th Century Military Revolution on the Celtic ...
Mar 16, 2015 · Those Irishmen that flocked to the colours of the Confederacy in 1641 would have been the veterans of pike and shot warfare in Flanders and ...
[50]
1704 The Bayonet Supercedes the Pike
### Summary: 1704 Bayonet Supersedes the Pike
[51]
(PDF) The development of new infantry tactics during the early ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This paper presents an agent-based model (ABM) designed to help understand European military tactics during the eighteenth century, in ...
[52]
War Inthe Modern World
... push of pike—now a bayonet charge at the decisive moment. At Borodino (1812—one of the bloodiest battles of the Napoleonic period) the average French ...
[53]
[PDF] Shields and Shield Tactics Primer | Unicorn Riot
As a group, we will be employing shield wall tactics that have been tested by riot control police, and SCA and HBA fighters alike. The objective of this.
[54]
[PDF] UC Riverside - eScholarship
men and women of course never saw the push of pike, but this did not stop them from working on behalf of their fellow Londoners, nor did it prevent them ...Missing: professionalizing | Show results with:professionalizing