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Pyramid of Teti

The Pyramid of Teti is an ancient Egyptian pyramid located in the Saqqara necropolis, constructed as the royal tomb for Pharaoh Teti, the founder and first ruler of the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2345–2333 BC). This smooth-sided pyramid originally measured approximately 78.5 meters along each base side, with a height of 52.5 meters and a slope angle of about 53° 7' 48", built using a core of limestone blocks accented by Tura limestone casing. It represents a continuation of Fifth Dynasty architectural traditions while introducing significant innovations in funerary practices, particularly as the second pyramid—after that of Unas—to incorporate the Pyramid Texts, a collection of over 300 spells inscribed on the walls of its substructure to ensure the pharaoh's resurrection and ascent to the afterlife among the gods. The pyramid's substructure includes a descending passage with a 25.65° slope leading to a horizontal corridor, an antechamber, and a burial chamber housing a granite sarcophagus, all protected by granite portcullises and featuring the Pyramid Texts on walls, beams, and the sarcophagus itself. These texts, first entered and partially documented by Gaston Maspero in 1881, encompass spells for offerings, transformation into divine forms like a falcon or phoenix, and rituals invoking deities such as Osiris and Nut, marking an evolution from Unas's more limited inscriptions and influencing subsequent royal tombs through the dynasty. The complex originally included a mortuary temple, causeway, and valley temple, though much was dismantled or buried over time due to seismic activity and quarrying, leaving the pyramid in ruins rising only about 20 meters today. Archaeological work began in the 19th century with explorations by John Shae Perring and Karl Richard Lepsius, followed by Maspero's entry revealing the texts' fragments amid debris, and continued through 20th-century excavations by James Quibell, Cecil Firth, Jean-Philippe Lauer, and others, who uncovered associated queens' pyramids and mastabas in the Teti cemetery. Recent efforts, including those by Zahi Hawass near the pyramid in 2021, have revealed New Kingdom burials and artifacts from the 18th–19th Dynasties, highlighting Saqqara's continuous use as a necropolis.^[1] Historically, the pyramid underscores the Sixth Dynasty's stability amid administrative shifts, with Teti's reign bridging the Old Kingdom's pyramid-building peak and reflecting beliefs in eternal kingship through its inscribed spells.

Historical Background

Reign of Teti

Teti, the founder of the Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, succeeded Unas, the final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, around 2345 BC, marking a relatively smooth transition facilitated by his marriage to Unas's daughter, Queen Iput.^[2] His reign lasted approximately 12 years, ending around 2323 BC, as indicated by the Turin King List, though the ancient historian Manetho attributed a longer duration of 30 to 33 years, a figure modern scholars consider inflated due to lack of supporting evidence like a Sed festival.^[3]^[4] Teti's Horus name, Seheteptawy ("He who pacifies the Two Lands"), reflected his efforts to stabilize the kingdom amid subtle shifts in power dynamics following the Fifth Dynasty's solar cult emphasis.^[5]^[6] Key events during Teti's rule included potential palace intrigues, with Manetho recording that he was assassinated by his own bodyguards in a conspiracy possibly involving harem elements, leading to a brief interregnum under Userkare before Teti's son Pepi I ascended. Userkare's exact relation to Teti remains debated, with some evidence suggesting he was a son, possibly by Khuit, while others view him as a usurper.^[4]^[7] Family relations played a central role in securing his legitimacy and succession; besides Iput, who bore Pepi I, Teti had another queen, Khuit, potentially the mother of Userkare, and several other children, including daughters who later held influential positions.^[8] These ties helped consolidate Teti's position during a period when royal authority began showing signs of erosion, though he maintained overall stability in the Old Kingdom.^[5] In the broader dynastic context, Teti's rule bridged the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties by continuing centralized administration while initiating subtle reforms that increased the autonomy of provincial governors (nomarchs) and non-royal elites, as seen in the expanded construction of grand tombs for viziers and officials.^[9] This gradual decentralization laid groundwork for later challenges to royal power, yet Teti's era preserved the Old Kingdom's cohesion. Post-mortem, Teti was deified, merging with Osiris in religious ideology and serving as a mediator between gods and humans, a status evidenced briefly in the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid, continuing the innovation first introduced in Unas's pyramid to aid the king's afterlife journey.^[10]^[5]

Construction Overview

The Pyramid of Teti, originally named Djed-isut-Teti, translates to "The Places of Teti Endure," reflecting its intended eternal significance in ancient Egyptian cosmology.^[11] The structure features a square base measuring 78.5 meters on each side, an original height of 52.5 meters, a slope angle of 53°07'48", and a total volume of 107,835 cubic meters.^[12] These dimensions positioned it as a modest yet symbolically potent monument within the Saqqara necropolis, built during Teti's reign, which provided the necessary political stability for such large-scale endeavors.^[13] Construction relied on locally quarried limestone for the core, supplemented by mudbrick and rubble fill, while the outer casing consisted of fine white Tura limestone transported from quarries across the Nile.^[11] Preparatory quarrying at Tura ensured a steady supply of high-quality casing stones, which were precisely cut and polished to create the smooth-sided facade.^[14] Builders employed ramps—likely straight or zigzag designs made of earth, brick, and debris—to haul blocks upward, aided by levers, rollers, and sledges lubricated with water for efficiency.^[15] The workforce comprised thousands of laborers drawn from local Saqqara villages and seasonal corvée from surrounding regions, organized into specialized teams under royal oversight.^[16] This labor force, estimated at 10,000 to 20,000 for mid-Old Kingdom pyramids like Teti's, aligned the project's completion with the end of Teti's reign around 2323 BC.^[17] The pyramid represented an evolution from earlier designs, adopting the established smooth-sided form post the transitional step pyramids, with direct influence from the nearby Pyramid of Unas in layout and scale.^[11]

Architectural Features

Exterior Design

The Pyramid of Teti exemplifies the smooth-sided true pyramid form characteristic of Old Kingdom architecture, with a square base measuring 78.5 meters per side and an original height of 52.5 meters, resulting in a slope of 53° 7' 48".^[11] Its entrance was positioned on the north face, aligned with the cardinal directions to facilitate the king's rebirth and solar associations in Egyptian cosmology.^[13] The exterior was originally sheathed in polished blocks of fine white limestone quarried from the Tura deposits across the Nile, creating a brilliant, reflective surface that enhanced its monumental presence amid the Saqqara landscape.^[18]^[19] Integrated into the complex was a subsidiary satellite pyramid, positioned to the southeast near the mortuary temple, serving as a symbolic abode for the king's ka spirit.^[20] This smaller structure featured a base of 15.7 meters and a height of 15.7 meters, constructed in similar fashion to the main pyramid but on a reduced scale to complement the overall design.^[13] Today, the pyramid appears as a low rubble mound rising about 20 meters high, its once-imposing silhouette eroded by the removal of the outer casing stones in antiquity for reuse in later constructions.^[18]^[21] The exposed core, composed of roughly hewn blocks of local limestone interspersed with mudbrick debris and fill, has slumped inward without the supportive casing, underscoring the vulnerability of these ancient monuments to post-pharaonic scavenging.^[18]^[19]

Core and Casing

The core of the Pyramid of Teti was constructed using small, irregular blocks of locally quarried Saqqara limestone combined with limestone debris and rubble fill, laid in accreted steps without mortar or precise horizontal courses, a technique typical of late Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty pyramids to accelerate building while maintaining structural integrity.^[18]^[11] This method relied on the natural interlocking of the rough blocks and infill materials like sand and calcareous clay (tafla) for binding in voids, minimizing empty spaces that could compromise stability.^[22] The outer casing comprised finely cut blocks of high-quality Tura limestone, sourced from quarries across the Nile, which were polished to form a smooth, reflective surface sloping at about 53 degrees from the base.^[23] Joints between these casing stones were secured with thin layers of gypsum mortar, ensuring a tight seal that protected the core from environmental exposure and contributed to the pyramid's original durable, gleaming appearance.^[24] Following the decline of the Old Kingdom, the casing stones were systematically removed by stone robbers, particularly during the medieval period when they were quarried for reuse in construction projects like those in Cairo, exposing the vulnerable core to wind and water erosion.^[11] This plunder, combined with natural weathering over millennia, caused the core to crumble and slump, transforming the once-sharp pyramid into its present mound-like form, though some casing remnants persist on the eastern side.^[18]

Funerary Complex

Mortuary Temple

The mortuary temple of the Pyramid of Teti, situated immediately east of the pyramid at Saqqara, served as the primary locus for the perpetual cult worship of the king following his death, facilitating rituals that ensured his eternal sustenance and renewal in the afterlife.^[25] The layout adhered to the standardized Sixth Dynasty plan, featuring an entrance hall leading to an open courtyard supported by eighteen pink granite pillars—square in form except for the rounded corners—followed by a transverse corridor into the inner temple.^[26] This inner area included a vestibule, antechamber, a five-niched naos chapel for royal statues depicting Teti in divine forms, and an offering hall centered on a granite false-door stela flanked by registers of offering bearers and deities.^[25] Enclosed by a limestone perimeter wall, the temple incorporated storerooms adjacent to the offering hall for granary provisions that sustained the priestly cult, alongside areas for ritual preparation including libation basins embedded in the courtyard pavement—primarily quartzite with some limestone examples—for pouring offerings to invoke divine favor.^[26]^[27] Ritual functions emphasized daily offerings of food, incense, and libations to nourish Teti's ka, with the offering hall's vaulted ceiling adorned in star patterns evoking the eternal sky, and a travertine altar positioned before the false door for presenting goods.^[25] Priests performed these acts in the naos chapel and sanctuary, where a black basalt false door in the northern chapel further mediated between the living and the deceased, supporting the temple's role as a "resurrection machine" for the king's transfiguration.^[25] The complex included ancillary spaces for storing cultic materials, ensuring the continuity of these ceremonies, which drew on broader Old Kingdom traditions to affirm Teti's ongoing rule in the afterlife.^[28] Architecturally, the temple exemplified Sixth Dynasty evolution, marked by axial symmetry along an east-west orientation that unified the outer pillared portico and courtyard with the inner ritual chambers, reflecting duality between Upper and Lower Egypt through granite elements like pillars, doorframes, and the false door.^[25] Reliefs on the walls, executed in sunk relief, depicted scenes of Teti's sed festival, including the king running in the heb-sed race while clad in the ritual garment and holding symbolic regalia, alongside processions of officials and deities granting life, underscoring themes of royal rejuvenation.^[25] These granite accents and decorative programs, influenced by Fifth Dynasty precedents, enhanced the temple's sanctity while adapting earlier models for functional efficiency in cult maintenance.^[25]

Causeway and Valley Temple

The causeway of the Pyramid of Teti provided a covered processional route from the mortuary temple down to the valley temple to accommodate the site's elevation drop.^[29] The structure featured a roofed passage decorated with reliefs illustrating Teti's military victories and scenes of offerings, emphasizing the pharaoh's divine power and eternal sustenance.^[26] This design facilitated ritual processions linking the upper complex to the Nile floodplain, integrating the pyramid into the broader landscape of sacred travel. The causeway and valley temple remain largely unexcavated, contributing to gaps in our knowledge of the lower complex.^[13] The valley temple, positioned at the causeway's lower end near a now-dry harbor branch of the Nile, served as the primary entry point for festival boats and offerings transported from the river. Although its location has not yet been confirmed through excavation, it is inferred to have featured typical Sixth Dynasty elements for accommodating arrivals during festivals such as the Beautiful Festival of the Valley.^[13] The temple's layout would have supported ritual purification and initial worship before processions ascended the causeway. Both the causeway and valley temple were primarily built of mudbrick cores faced with fine limestone veneer for durability and aesthetic appeal, reflecting resource-efficient construction amid the Sixth Dynasty's economic constraints.^[28] These elements underscored the transitional function of the lower complex, bridging the sacred pyramid with the profane Nile world for ongoing cult activities.

Pyramid Interior

Entrance and Passages

The entrance to the Pyramid of Teti is situated on the north face at ground level, centered along the pyramid's axis and housed within a small rectangular chapel featuring painted reliefs on its walls, a black basalt false door, and a limestone slab roof adorned with star patterns.^[11] Pivot sockets indicate that wooden doors once sealed the chapel.^[11] From this entrance, a descending passage lined with granite extends downward, connecting to a small corridor chamber before transitioning into a horizontal corridor.^[27] The design mirrors that of the nearby Pyramid of Unas but on a slightly larger scale, emphasizing functionality for ritual access while incorporating durable materials for longevity.^[11] The horizontal corridor, which leads toward the antechamber, was originally secured by three massive granite portcullis slabs positioned to block passage, serving as a primary defense against tomb robbers.^[27] These slabs, along with the narrow confines of the passages, reflect an evolving anti-robbery strategy typical of Sixth Dynasty pyramids, prioritizing heavy, immovable barriers over complex traps.^[11]

Chambers and Features

The subterranean chambers of the Pyramid of Teti are accessed via the descending passage and consist of an antechamber measuring 5.3 m by 3.08 m, a serdab to the east measuring approximately 2.6 m by 1.5 m with three niches intended to house ka statues or for storage, and the main burial chamber spanning 7.15 m by 3.08 m with a height of 4.71 m under a gabled roof constructed from limestone beams. These spaces are aligned along an east-west axis, reflecting the standard layout of Sixth Dynasty pyramids, with the serdab positioned to the east of the antechamber for symbolic protection of the king's spirit.^[29]^[26]^[27] The chambers were built primarily from large limestone blocks quarried locally, while granite was employed for critical structural elements such as the three portcullis slabs and their pits, which were designed to seal the horizontal passage leading to these areas after the burial rites. Evidence of unfinished surfaces on walls and floors, including irregular tooling marks, suggests that work on the interior was expedited following Teti's death, possibly due to political instability or the need for rapid interment. Parts of the chambers show signs of water damage from periodic flooding due to rising groundwater levels in the Saqqara plateau, which has affected preservation efforts.^[11]

Inscriptions and Artifacts

Pyramid Texts

The Pyramid Texts in the Pyramid of Teti represent the second known instance of these inscriptions in a royal pyramid, following their inaugural appearance in the pyramid of Unas at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Carved in hieroglyphs on the walls of the burial chamber, antechamber, and corridors, Teti's pyramid contains a substantial number of spells.^[30] These texts, executed in fine incised hieroglyphs filled with blue pigment, served as a comprehensive magical and ritual framework to facilitate the king's afterlife journey, marking a continuation and expansion of the corpus initiated under Unas.^[30] The spells encompass a range of themes centered on the deceased king's resurrection, transformation, and eternal sustenance. Key motifs include rituals for the king's rebirth as an akh-spirit, his ascension to the sky through the Akhet horizon, and identification with deities such as Osiris, Re, and Horus, often invoked through personalized phrases like "Ho, Osiris Teti!"^[30] Protective incantations guard against inimical forces, such as serpents or Sethian threats, while offering spells ensure nourishment from the gods and the sky goddess Nut. Other utterances describe the king's emergence from the Duat underworld, purification in sacred marshes, and integration among the imperishable stars, emphasizing his deified status and divine kingship.^[30] As the earliest substantial corpus of ancient Egyptian religious literature, the Pyramid Texts of Teti hold profound significance, providing primary insights into Old Kingdom eschatology and royal ideology. They form the foundational precursor to later funerary compositions, including the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts and the New Kingdom Book of the Dead, with many spells adapted and democratized for non-royal use in subsequent periods.^[30] Unique variations in Teti's texts, such as enhanced emphasis on Horus's protective role and specific invocations tailored to the king's deification as Osiris Teti, reflect evolving theological nuances during the early Sixth Dynasty.^[30]

Sarcophagus and Other Finds

In the burial chamber of the Pyramid of Teti, excavators discovered an unfinished sarcophagus carved from greywacke, accompanied by fragments of its lid and a nearby canopic chest. The sarcophagus, left empty due to ancient robbery, bears inscriptions of offering spells on its interior walls, representing the earliest known such etchings in a royal sarcophagus.^[31] A notable artifact associated with the funerary complex is a plaster death mask, created as a mold capturing the facial features of a man believed to be Teti himself, with closed eyes and a slightly open mouth. This rare true-to-life cast, rather than an idealized portrait, was found amid debris in the funeral viaticum area and is now displayed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.^[32]^[31] Additional discoveries in the burial chamber include a simple canopic jar containing the king's viscera, placed in a pit in the floor, and several inscribed club heads bearing Teti's name, likely part of the grave goods. These remnants, alongside evidence of disturbance such as scattered pottery shards, suggest the tomb was plundered shortly after burial, though some items escaped removal.^[31]

Surrounding Necropolis

Queens' Pyramids

The queens' pyramids adjacent to Teti's main structure served as subsidiary monuments for his royal consorts within the Saqqara necropolis, emphasizing the integration of family burials in the funerary complex. These small pyramids, built to similar scales with bases of approximately 25 meters and heights of 12.5 meters, featured simple substructures and cult facilities to support ongoing mortuary rituals.^[33]^[34] The Pyramid of Khuit, positioned to the northwest of Teti's pyramid, included a dedicated chapel for offerings and a serdab containing statues for the ka. Inscriptions in her pyramid confirm her status as a king's wife.^[35]^[34] To the southwest lies the Pyramid of Iput, constructed on a comparable scale and linked to Teti through marriage, as she was the daughter of Unas from the Fifth Dynasty, helping to legitimize Teti's accession. Inscriptions confirm her status as a king's wife and mother of Pepi I, Teti's successor. Her substructure preserved a variant of the Pyramid Texts on the walls, alongside burial remains including canopic jars for viscera preservation.^[36]^[33] Both queens' pyramids were equipped with small cult temples for ritual performance and surrounded by mastabas for royal attendants, facilitating shared access via the main causeway to ensure perpetual commemoration alongside Teti.^[33]

Elite and Later Tombs

The Teti Pyramid Cemetery at North Saqqara features a cluster of elite mastabas dating to the Sixth Dynasty, constructed for high-ranking officials who served under Teti and his successors. These tombs exemplify the architectural and artistic sophistication of the period, with elaborate subterranean chambers and wall reliefs depicting daily activities, religious rituals, and administrative duties. Among the most prominent is the mastaba of Mereruka, Teti's son-in-law and grand vizier, which stands as the largest non-royal tomb in Saqqara, comprising 32 rooms adorned with vibrant reliefs illustrating scenes of fishing, hunting, crafting, and family life.^[37]^[38] Nearby lies the mastaba of Ankhmahor, an overseer of royal works and possibly a physician, renowned for its unique reliefs showing medical procedures, including a rare foot-washing and massage scene that highlights ancient Egyptian practices in personal care and healing.^[39]^[40] These structures, built close to the pyramid to ensure proximity to the royal cult, underscore the integration of elite burials into the pharaoh's funerary landscape. During the Middle Kingdom, particularly the Twelfth Dynasty, the necropolis saw additions of rock-cut tombs for priests and officials associated with Memphis's cults, reflecting renewed interest in Old Kingdom sacred sites. These tombs, hewn into the cliffs north and east of Teti's pyramid, often featured inscribed biographical texts and scenes of cultic duties. A notable example is the tomb of Sa-Hathor-Ipy, a priestess or priest linked to Hathor worship, which includes innovative astronomical ceilings depicting celestial motifs to symbolize eternal protection in the afterlife.^[41] Such features connected the tomb owners to divine cycles, emphasizing their roles in maintaining religious continuity amid the necropolis's evolving use.^[12] Later periods witnessed further developments in the Teti necropolis, transforming it into a multi-era sacred zone. In the New Kingdom, under Ramses II, Prince Khaemwaset—known as the "first Egyptologist" for his antiquarian efforts—restored several Old Kingdom monuments at Saqqara, including Teti's pyramid, by repairing its casing stones and inscribing dedicatory texts to honor past kings and revive their cults.^[42]^[43] By the Late Period (circa 664–332 BCE), the area gained prominence as a center for animal worship, with the construction of a temple to Anubis atop or near Teti's funerary complex around 540 BCE, incorporating elements of earlier structures to link the jackal god's domain with royal afterlife beliefs.^[44] During the Ptolemaic era (305–30 BCE), the necropolis experienced reuse of older tombs for elite burials, as evidenced by over 600 interments west of the Step Pyramid, where Ptolemaic coffins and artifacts were placed in repurposed mastabas, blending Greek-Egyptian funerary traditions with the site's ancient prestige.^[45]^[46] This ongoing adaptation highlights Saqqara's enduring role as a bridge between epochs in Egyptian religious practice.

Excavations and Legacy

Early Explorations

The Pyramid of Teti experienced extensive plundering in antiquity, with archaeological evidence indicating intrusions during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Robbers breached the structure, leaving behind debris in the passages, and partial refilling with sand and rubble occurred, possibly as a protective measure by later guardians or authorities to deter further entry.^[21] In 1881, French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero spearheaded the first modern opening of the pyramid, accessing the interior via the north entrance after clearing centuries of accumulated sand from the descending passage. His team progressed through the horizontal corridor to the antechamber and burial chamber, where they discovered an unfinished greywacke sarcophagus lying empty, confirming prior ancient theft of the king's remains and associated goods. Maspero's efforts marked the initial systematic clearance of the subterranean chambers, though the poor preservation of the pyramid's exterior casing limited surface investigations at the time.^[47]^[48] Early 20th-century explorations expanded on Maspero's work, focusing on the surrounding complex. In 1907, British archaeologist James E. Quibell excavated areas east of the pyramid, meticulously mapping the mortuary temple's layout, including its open courtyard, offering hall, and subsidiary rooms, which revealed the temple's architectural evolution from earlier Fifth Dynasty designs. During the 1920s, Cecil M. Firth, working for the Egyptian Antiquities Service, targeted the pyramid's eastern approaches and uncovered fragmented reliefs along the causeway linking the mortuary temple to the valley temple, providing insights into the original decorative program despite heavy erosion and reuse.^[49]^[50]

Modern Work and Significance

In the 20th century, systematic archaeological investigations at the Pyramid of Teti advanced understanding of its architectural complexity and surrounding necropolis. French Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer directed excavations in the 1960s, focusing on the pyramid temple and revealing details of its Old Kingdom layout, including post-construction modifications; his findings were published in collaboration with Jean Leclant in 1972.^[51] The University of Pennsylvania Museum's Saqqara Expedition, active since 1995, has concentrated on the Teti Pyramid Cemetery, excavating Middle Kingdom tombs of officials linked to Teti's mortuary cult, such as those of Sekweskhet and Sahthoripy, and uncovering reliefs and architectural features east of the pyramid.^[41] These efforts built on earlier 20th-century mappings, employing advanced surveying to map subterranean passages and serdab chambers. Post-2000 conservation initiatives have addressed environmental threats to the pyramid, particularly rising groundwater levels in Saqqara due to modern Nile irrigation changes, which have necessitated drainage systems and structural reinforcements to prevent further deterioration of the limestone casing and substructure.^[52] Ongoing projects by Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with international teams, prioritize stabilizing the monument against erosion and flooding, ensuring accessibility for future study. In 2021, excavations led by Zahi Hawass near the pyramid revealed Late Period burials, including the tomb of Bukhaef, along with artifacts that highlight Saqqara's continued use as a necropolis into later periods.^[1] The Pyramid of Teti marks a transitional phase in the Old Kingdom, signaling the onset of decline through reduced pyramid scale and increased provincial autonomy, as royal resources shifted toward temple endowments and elite tomb construction during the Sixth Dynasty. As the second pyramid to contain the Pyramid Texts—ancient spells inscribed in the burial chamber to aid the pharaoh's afterlife—it profoundly influenced Egyptian funerary religion, establishing a template for ritual texts that evolved into the Coffin Texts and Book of the Dead, emphasizing solar theology and resurrection motifs.^[53] Its location within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Memphis and its Necropolis—the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur—highlights Saqqara's role in preserving early monumental architecture, fostering global awareness of ancient Egyptian engineering.^[54] The pyramid's design, with its descending corridor and portcullis system, influenced subsequent Sixth Dynasty complexes, such as those of Pepi I and Pepi II, by integrating security features and satellite structures for queens.^[55] Teti's deified cult persisted into the New Kingdom, attracting burials and rituals in the surrounding cemetery from the Eighteenth Dynasty onward, as evidenced by Ramesside-era chapels and offerings that revived Old Kingdom veneration practices.^[51] Today, the site contributes to modern tourism and education, drawing visitors to explore Pyramid Texts replicas and interactive exhibits at Saqqara, while supporting academic programs on ancient religion and archaeology.

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King Teti was the first king of Egypt's Old Kingdom. So when we look at this ... death mask itself is on display in the Egyptian Museum Cairo. Plaster ...
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[PDF] the old kingdom in egypt - Harvard University
The contem- porary visitor must have been pleasantly awe-struck by the shining white-cased surfaces of the Step Pyramid towering above the panelled limestone ...
[32]
Princess Inti of the Ancient Egyptian Sixth Dynasty - jstor
the mswt nswt bjtj (Mother of the King of Upper and. Lower Egypt) title ... wives, Queen Khuit II and Queen Iput I.25 They are located in Teti's Pyramid ...
[33]
[PDF] The Queens of the Old Kingdom and Their Tombs - Harvard University
18 See her funerary equipment from her pyramid in C. Firth and B. Gunn, Teti. Pyramid Cemeteries I (Cairo, 1926), p. 13, fig. 7. 19 Regarding the problems of ...
[34]
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3128942
[35]
The mastaba of Mereruka, vizier in the reign of pharaoh Teti ...
"Saqqara necropolis also contained the tombs of dignitaries who served under the pharaohs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties. Mereruka, chief justice and ...
[36]
(PDF) Principles of Decoration: Concept and Style in the Mastaba of ...
The Mastaba of Mereruka at the Teti-Cemetery of Saqqara is one of the most important tombs of the Old Kingdom. The mastaba is of vital importance due to the ...
[37]
Foot Care: Uncommon Scenes in Ancient Egypt By Engy El-Kilany ...
Ancient Egypt had 13 scenes related to foot care, primarily from the Fifth Dynasty in Saqqara. Foot care actions included foot washing, foot massage, ...
[38]
[PDF] Chapter 01 - History & Theory - the Ontario College of Reflexology
The tomb of Ankhmahor (a physician of high esteem) at Saqqara is where the scene ... Foot conditions: corns, calluses, spurs, etc. 7. Piriformis Muscle ...
[39]
Saqqara Expedition | Research - Penn Museum
At Saqqara, we work on a series of Middle Kingdom tombs and chapels. Most recently, our focus has been on the tombs of two Twelfth Dynasty (1938-1759 BCE) ...
[40]
The Legacy of Prince Khaemwaset at Saqqara - MDPI
Aug 12, 2022 · Very greatly did the Sem-priest, King's Son Khaemwaset, desire to restore the monuments of the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, because of what ...Missing: Teti | Show results with:Teti
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(PDF) Khaemwese and the Present Past - Academia.edu
The paper explores the significant contributions of Khaemwese, the fourth son of Ramesses II, to the monumental landscapes of early Ramesside Egypt.
[42]
[PDF] The Origins of Terraced Temples in Egypt
Nov 15, 2024 · at about 16.3 m. Mark Lehner has explored several water basins associated with these buildings. At the lower end of the causeway of Queen ...
[43]
[PDF] Some Remarks on the Historical Topography of Saqqara in the ...
An archaeological and historical synthesis of the Ptolemaic necropolis in Saqqara has yet to be written despite several of the monuments being discovered ...
[44]
Some remarks on historical topography of Saqqara in the Ptolemaic ...
Over 600 burials from the Ptolemaic Period have been excavated west of the Step Pyramid since 1987. Research reveals that Ptolemaic Saqqara was a major center ...
[45]
(PDF) The Pyramid of Teti A Layman's guide - ResearchGate
that Lauer mentions. The pyramid is given as having a base length of 30 cubits and its thought that its. height was designed to match its base length, which ...
[46]
(PDF) The Pyramid of Teti, A Layman's Guide - Academia.edu
This guide offers an informed overview of the Pyramid of Teti, exploring its architectural features, historical context, and archaeological efforts.Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[47]
(PDF) The Discovery of the Pyramid Texts - Academia.edu
The major excavations led by Maspero occurred from 1880 to 1881, uncovering the texts in Pyramid of Pepi I and Merenre. Heinrich Brugsch was instrumental in ...
[48]
Excavations at Saqqara, 1906-1907. With a section on the religious ...
Jul 22, 2015 · Excavations at Saqqara, 1906-1907. With a section on the religious texts. by: Quibell, James Edward, 1867-1935; Lacau, Pierre, 1873-1963; Egypt.Missing: Teti temple
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శతకంఠరామాయణము ప్రథమాశ్వాసము : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive
**Summary of Content:**
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Chapter 5 The Teti Pyramid Cemetery and the Cliff of Ankhtawy
Summary of each segment:
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[PDF] The Present Condition of Saqqara Monuments from the Beginning of ...
Although the restoration works have been done, there are still many pyramids in need for restoration in Egypt: pyramids of Userkaf, Unas, Pepi I, Teti, the Bent ...
[52]
Ancient Egyptian mortuary texts, an introduction - Smarthistory
The Pyramid Texts eventually developed into a collection of spells now referred to as the Coffin Texts, since they were often painted on coffins and other grave ...
[53]
Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur
It contains the first complex monumental stone buildings in Egyptian history, as well as evidence of the development of the royal tombs from the early shape ...Gallery · Maps · Documents · Videos
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Funerary Complex of Teti - Madain Project (en)
The complex of Teti consists of the main Pyramid of Teti, a smaller cult-pyramid, the mortuary temple, stores, an ascending passage and the valley temple.Missing: sed festival reliefs