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Passage

Passage is an English noun borrowed from passage in the early , ultimately deriving from Latin passus meaning "step," and denoting primarily a means of such as a , , , , or corridor by which something moves or passes. It also signifies the act or process of passing from one place, condition, or state to another, including journeys by land, sea, or air, as well as the permission or right to proceed. In literary and artistic contexts, passage refers to a segment or excerpt of text, music, or scripture that conveys particular meaning or detail, often analyzed for its content or style. Additional senses include the approval or enactment of and metaphorical transitions, such as the progression through life stages, though the term's core connotations remain rooted in movement and traversal.

Core Definitions

Physical Way or Route

A physical refers to a , , or corridor facilitating from one location to another, typically narrow and enclosed or bounded by natural or constructed features. This usage derives from passage (11th century), rooted in Latin passus meaning "step" or "stride," originally denoting a , crossing, or pathway traversed by foot or . In architectural contexts, it commonly describes a or corridor—a long, narrow space within a building lined with doors leading to rooms, such as those in residential homes, hotels, or public venues. Geographically, a physical passage extends to outdoor routes like mountain passes, which are low points in ridges allowing traversal of , or narrow waterways such as serving as maritime routes between larger bodies of water. For instance, the is a sea route through the connecting the Atlantic and Pacific, historically sought for trade but obstructed by ice until modern navigation. These routes prioritize functionality for passage over breadth, often presenting navigational challenges due to their confined nature, as evidenced by historical records of expeditions facing or weather barriers. Distinctions exist between indoor and outdoor passages: corridors are invariably enclosed and human-engineered for flow, whereas natural passages like gorges or coastal channels rely on for connectivity. Empirical observations from and confirm that such routes minimize distance or obstacles, enabling efficient transit, though they may require maintenance or aids like signage to mitigate risks.

Literary or Textual Excerpt

In literary contexts, a passage denotes a discrete section of text extracted or referenced from a larger work, such as a , poem, , or speech, often for purposes of , quotation, or . Unlike a full or complete unit, a passage typically comprises one or more consecutive paragraphs, sentences, or verses that cohere around a particular idea, , or stylistic element, allowing it to stand semi-independently while deriving meaning from its original . This usage distinguishes it from an "excerpt," which emphasizes a selected extract copied or performed separately, whereas a passage may simply refer to a portion under consideration without implying removal or republication. The term originates from Old French passage (circa 11th century), derived from Latin passus meaning "step" or "pace," initially connoting movement or progression, which extended metaphorically by the early to denote a textual "traversal" or in writing. In and verse, passages serve critical functions in scholarship and criticism: they enable to dissect , imagery, character development, or philosophical arguments, as seen in analyses of works like Austen's , where the opening passage—"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife"—establishes irony and social critique in a single, quotable unit. Similarly, Robert Frost's "" features the passage "Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— / I took the one less traveled by," emblematic of and , frequently isolated for its metaphorical density. Literary passages also appear in anthologies, educational materials, and rhetorical studies, where they exemplify techniques like (vivid description) or anaphora (repetition for emphasis); for instance, excerpts from Oscar Wilde's are commonly parsed for their epigrammatic style and moral ambiguity. In textual criticism, passages undergo scrutiny for authenticity, with variants compared across manuscripts or editions to reconstruct , underscoring their role as microcosms of broader narrative structures. This selective focus promotes deeper engagement but risks decontextualization, as isolated passages may amplify ambiguities inherent in the source material.

Temporal or Transitional Process

The term "passage" in a temporal context primarily refers to the progression or lapse of time, describing the sequential advancement of events from through present to . This usage captures the perceived flow inherent in human experience, where moments succeed one another in an ordered manner. For instance, expressions like "the passage of years" denote the cumulative effect of temporal , often measured in specific units such as days, months, or centuries, as evidenced in historical records tracking events like the 365.25-day solar year in the reform of 1582. In philosophical and scientific discourse, the reality of temporal passage remains contested. Proponents of dynamic theories, such as those aligned with presentism, maintain that time genuinely "passes" through a privileged present moment, with future possibilities actualizing into past facts—a view supported by analyses of change in physical processes, where states evolve irreversibly, as in increase per the second law of thermodynamics, quantified at approximately 10^23 k_B per second for macroscopic systems. Conversely, block universe models in relativity posit no objective flow, attributing the illusion of passage to subjective or neural indexing of memories, with empirical support from special relativity's frame-dependent , where no universal "now" exists across observers moving at differing velocities up to 0.99c. As a transitional process, "passage" extends to the phased movement between discrete states or conditions, independent of strict temporal metrics. This includes legislative mechanisms, where "passage of a bill" entails sequential stages: , scrutiny, amendments, and votes, as formalized in parliamentary procedures like those of the U.S. House requiring 218 of 435 votes for simple passage since 1911. In biological contexts, it describes developmental shifts, such as the passage through in , involving two divisions reducing number from diploid (46 in humans) to haploid (23), ensuring via crossing over rates averaging 1-3 per pair. These usages emphasize in sequential dependencies, without implying subjective illusions unless philosophically argued.

Physical and Geographical Features

Architectural and Structural Passages

Architectural passages are engineered pathways integrated into or structures to enable movement, often balancing functionality with aesthetic or environmental considerations. In , a passage denotes a designated or route facilitating the of , materials, or vehicles within or between structural elements, distinct from open outdoor paths by their enclosure or semi-enclosure. These features have evolved from simple utilitarian corridors in ancient to elaborate designs incorporating , , and ornamentation, influencing spatial flow and . Common types include corridors, which are linear indoor hallways connecting rooms or floors, typically enclosed by walls for and ; arcades, consisting of successive arches supported by columns forming covered walkways, as seen in and classical designs for public circulation; and breezeways, roofed but open-sided connectors between building sections that promote airflow in warmer climates. Screens passages, formed by partial barriers like walls or lattices, allow controlled visibility and movement while providing or decoration. Structural integrity in these passages relies on load-bearing elements such as beams, arches, or trusses to span openings without compromising the overall framework. Historically, prominent examples illustrate their development. The in , constructed in 1565 by architect , spans 760 meters as an elevated, enclosed walkway linking the Palazzo Vecchio to the Uffizi Gallery and , originally for private Medici family transit and art transport. In 19th-century , approximately 150 covered passages—glass-roofed arcades blending shops and walkways—emerged amid urban expansion, with survivors like (1823) exemplifying neoclassical iron-and-glass construction for weather-protected pedestrian flow. These passages addressed growing commercial needs while mitigating street congestion, though many were later demolished for Haussmann's boulevards. In , passages adapt to and standards, incorporating materials like steel and glass for wider spans and natural lighting. For instance, urban corridors in high-rises integrate HVAC systems and fire-rated partitions to meet codes, enhancing amid dense occupancy. While functional primacy drives , passages can evoke spatial or extension through proportional variations in and width, affecting perceived or openness. Empirical studies on circulation efficiency underscore their role in reducing travel distances by up to 20-30% in planned layouts compared to maze-like alternatives.

Topographical and Natural Formations

Mountain passes, also referred to as cols or saddles in topographic terms, represent gaps or breaks in elevated, rugged terrain such as mountain ridges, facilitating natural routes across otherwise impassable barriers. These features form primarily through erosional processes, where glaciers, , or wear down the land between higher peaks over extended periods, often resulting in saddle-shaped summits that provide relatively flat or gentle gradients for traversal. In geological contexts, passes exploit structural weaknesses in rock layers, such as fault lines or softer sedimentary deposits, accelerated by tectonic uplift that exposes them to surface . Prominent examples include the in the Hindu Kush range, spanning the border between and at an of about 1,070 meters (3,500 feet), which has functioned as a critical corridor for trade, migration, and military campaigns for over 2,000 years due to its position linking to the . Similarly, the in the , at 1,370 meters (4,495 feet) between and , exemplifies glacial erosion shaping a broad valley pass, historically vital for trans-European travel since Roman times and now traversed by major highways and rail lines. Subterranean natural passages, common in landscapes, arise from the of soluble like by slightly acidic enriched with , creating tubular or meandering tunnels that extend horizontally or vertically. These passages often develop (water-filled) or vadose (air-filled) morphologies, with cross-sections reflecting flow dynamics—such as elliptical shapes from full-pipe —over millennia, as seen in systems like Mammoth Cave in , where passages span over 650 kilometers of mapped conduits formed in Mississippian-age dating to 320 million years ago. Lava tubes represent another type, formed by the cooling and draining of molten lava flows, leaving hollow passages up to 20 meters wide, as in the on Hawaii's Kilauea volcano, extending 65.5 kilometers and preserving primary volcanic features like pahoehoe flows. Such formations underscore causal processes of chemical and thermal , distinct from surface passes yet integral to broader topographical connectivity in fractured terrains.

Navigable Waterways and Maritime Routes

The constitutes a critical navigable waterway separating South America's from the Peninsula's , linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans across approximately 850 km of open water. This passage, formed by tectonic separation between the continents, experiences extreme conditions due to converging ocean currents and unrelenting westerly winds, with wave heights often exceeding 10 meters and winds up to 100 km/h, rendering it one of the most hazardous maritime routes globally. Navigation here relies on reinforced vessels and precise forecasting, as it remains the sole southern interoceanic connection without artificial infrastructure, facilitating expeditions since the . The encompasses a network of channels, straits, and bays threading the Canadian Archipelago, extending roughly 1,450 km from to the and onward to the , historically pursued as a shortcut evading southern capes. Multi-year ice historically blocked year-round transit until warming extended open-water seasons to 2-3 months annually by the 2020s, with 18 vessels completing full transits in 2017 alone, though risks from uncharted shoals, variable ice floes, and remoteness demand ice-class ships and satellite monitoring. Norwegian explorer first navigated it fully from 1903 to 1906 aboard the , taking three years amid ice entrapment. Complementing Arctic connectivity, the —often synonymous with Russia's —traverses 5,600 km along the Eurasian coast from the through the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, and Chukchi Seas to the , shortening Europe-Asia voyages by up to 40% relative to routing. Ice coverage has declined, enabling 34 transits in 2020 and infrastructure enhancements like 15 deepwater ports by 2024, though seasonal limitations confine most traffic to July-October without escorts. Russian authorities mandate permits and pilots for foreign vessels, emphasizing its role in resource extraction logistics. The delineates a protected coastal corridor spanning about 1,500 km from Washington's northward through British Columbia's archipelago to Alaska's Glacier Bay, shielded by and mainland fjords from Pacific gales. This route, navigable for vessels drawing up to 10 meters, supports daily ferry services carrying over 2 million passengers annually via and , with tidal rapids like Dodd Narrows requiring precise timing. Commercial use surged post-1897 for steamer traffic, prioritizing it over exposed offshore paths for safety and fuel efficiency.

Historical and Cultural Concepts

Rite of Passage in Anthropology

The concept of the refers to rituals and ceremonies that mark significant transitions in an individual's or stage, observed across diverse societies. French ethnographer introduced the term in his 1909 book Les rites de passage, identifying patterns in rituals associated with events such as birth, , , and . Van Gennep argued that these rites exhibit a universal structure, reflecting the human 's progression through thresholds that alter one's position within the social order. Van Gennep delineated three sequential phases in rites of passage: separation, where the individual detaches from their prior social role or group; (or ), a period of ambiguity and ; and incorporation, during which the is reintegrated into with a new status. In the separation phase, symbolic acts like or symbolic death sever ties to the old identity, as seen in practices during initiations./12:_Supernatural_Belief_Systems/12.09:_Rite_of_Passage) The transitional phase involves trials, teachings, or ordeals that foster change, often evoking a state of or reversal of norms. Incorporation concludes with rituals of acceptance, such as feasts or markings, affirming the new role. British anthropologist built on van Gennep's framework in the mid-20th century, emphasizing as a generative space for ""—a sense of undifferentiated community and equality that challenges everyday hierarchies. Turner's analysis, drawn from fieldwork among the Ndembu of , highlighted how liminal phases enable social creativity and critique, though he noted they are temporary before reimposition of structure. This extension influenced studies of , theater, and modern transitions, portraying rites not merely as stabilizers but as sites of potential innovation. In anthropological application, rites of passage underscore how societies ritually manage change to maintain cohesion, with examples including Native American vision quests for adolescents, involving solitary fasting and spiritual encounters to achieve adult status, and Australian Aboriginal walkabouts, where initiates navigate wilderness to symbolize maturation. These practices vary by culture but align with van Gennep's triadic model, facilitating identity shifts through collective symbolism./01:_Chapters/1.04:_Ritual_and_Rites_of_Passage) Critiques of the theory include concerns over its universality; early reviewer Marcel Mauss in 1910 faulted van Gennep for overly broad generalizations without sufficient empirical substantiation across cases. Feminist scholars have pointed to the model's underemphasis on gender-specific dynamics, noting that rites often reinforce patriarchal structures or overlook women's transitions. Despite such limitations, the framework remains foundational, informing ethnographic analyses of ritual's role in social reproduction and adaptation.

Middle Passage in Atlantic Slave Trade

The Middle Passage constituted the transatlantic leg of the Atlantic slave trade, involving the forced maritime transport of enslaved Africans primarily from coastal regions of West and Central Africa to destinations in the Caribbean, North America, and South America. This voyage, integral to the triangular trade system, typically followed the delivery of European manufactured goods to African ports and preceded the return shipment of plantation commodities like sugar and tobacco to Europe. Between approximately 1500 and 1866, an estimated 12.5 million Africans were embarked on these ships, with around 10.7 million surviving to disembark in the Americas, implying roughly 1.8 million deaths attributable to the passage itself, though broader estimates including pre-embarkation losses exceed 2 million. Voyages generally lasted 60 to 90 days, though durations varied by route, season, and weather; for instance, ships departing might take longer than those from the due to prevailing winds and currents. Crews optimized for profit by maximizing human cargo density, often exceeding legal limits under regulations like Britain's Dolben Act of , which aimed to allocate minimal deck space per slave but was frequently evaded. Primary accounts, such as those from Falconbridge, describe males shackled in leg irons below decks with as little as 5-6 feet of headroom, confined to spaces where they could scarcely lie flat, leading to rampant , flux, and from poor , contaminated water, and inadequate . Females and children received marginally less restraint but endured similar squalor, with all captives kept naked to prevent concealment of weapons and subjected to periodic "dancing" exercises under threat of the cat-o'-nine-tails to maintain physical condition for sale. Mortality rates during the averaged 10-15%, though they reached 18% or higher on some voyages, driven by disease transmission in overcrowded holds, , , and suicides via jumping overboard or refusal to eat. Crews discarded deceased bodies at sea to curb contagion, a practice insured against as slaves were classified as , with losses offset by premiums calculated on expected death rates. manifested in shipboard revolts, estimated on about 10% of voyages, often suppressed violently; for example, captives organized attacks using smuggled tools or coordinated . Peak activity occurred between 1700 and 1850, with transporting 3.1 million but losing around 400,000 en route, underscoring the passage's role in supplying labor for plantations amid high turnover from tropical diseases and harsh conditions ashore.

Northwest Passage in Exploration History

The refers to a series of connected waterways traversing the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, linking the Atlantic Ocean via to the via the , sought historically as a shorter to amid ice-blocked northern seas. European interest originated in the late , driven by England's desire to bypass and Spanish dominance over southern routes following Vasco da Gama's 1498 circumnavigation of Africa and Christopher Columbus's western voyages. Initial expeditions faced perennial challenges from pack ice, fog, and incomplete geographical knowledge, with no successful full traversal until the despite mapping substantial portions of the route. The first recorded attempt began in 1497 when Venetian explorer John Cabot, commissioned by King Henry VII of England, departed Bristol aboard the Matthew with a crew of about 18, aiming northwest from Newfoundland's coast in search of Asian riches. Cabot sighted land near Cape Bonavista on June 24, 1497, but encountered shallow bays and hostile indigenous encounters, returning without penetrating Arctic waters or confirming a passage. Subsequent 16th-century efforts included Martin Frobisher's three voyages from 1576 to 1578, sponsored by English investors seeking both passage and profit; Frobisher entered what is now Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island, extracting 200 tons of ore mistakenly believed to be gold, though assays later revealed pyrite. His expeditions charted southeastern Baffin Island but dead-ended in ice, advancing knowledge of local geography without progress toward the Pacific. Henry Hudson's 1610–1611 voyage marked a deeper incursion, funded by the and ; departing on April 17, 1610, aboard the with 22 men, Hudson navigated —named after him—reaching by November, where winter ice trapped the ship until June 1611. Crew mutiny ensued amid failed passage hopes, leading Hudson, his son, and seven loyalists to be set adrift on June 22, 1611; only eight survivors returned to in September, having disproved a bay-to-Pacific outlet but confirming extensive northern waterways. These early probes yielded rudimentary charts and trade prospects in furs but underscored the passage's inaccessibility due to seasonal ice and southerly dead ends. Renewed British searches post-Napoleonic Wars in 1818 reflected imperial competition and scientific curiosity, with John Ross commanding HMS Isabella and from May 1818, exploring and claiming to sight the non-existent Croker Mountains—a mirage later debunked—before retreating from ice in Prince Regent Inlet. Ross's conservative reporting drew criticism, yet his voyage reopened Arctic navigation, followed by William Parry's 1819–1820 expedition, which traversed Parry Channel to within 170 nautical miles of the before ice halted progress. The era's apex came with Sir John Franklin's 1845 expedition, departing Greenhithe on May 19 with and carrying 129 men, equipped with steam engines and canned provisions to complete the passage. Last sighted by whalers in July 1845 near , the ships wintered in the area; all perished by 1848 from , from tins, , and , as evidenced by skeletal remains and testimonies. Franklin's loss spurred over 40 British and American search missions through the 1850s, inadvertently mapping the passage's full extent; Robert McClure's 1850–1854 expedition combined ship and sledge travel to link Atlantic and Pacific via Prince of Wales Strait, earning the 1845 £10,000 parliamentary reward despite not fully sailing it. explorer achieved the first complete maritime traversal from 1903 to 1906 aboard the 47-ton with six crew, departing on June 16, 1903, wintering three times—including at for magnetic observations—and emerging into the Pacific near on August 26, 1905, before reaching . Amundsen's success, aided by lighter ice and techniques, validated the route's existence but highlighted its impracticability for commercial shipping until 20th-century climate shifts. These efforts, blending commerce, science, and national prestige, cost hundreds of lives yet established Arctic hydrography foundational to modern navigation.

Arts and Entertainment

Films and Television Productions

The 1940 American adventure film Northwest Passage, directed by King Vidor and starring Spencer Tracy as Major Robert Rogers, depicts the exploits of Rogers' Rangers during the French and Indian War, focusing on their raid against an Abenaki village in 1759 as the first leg of a fictionalized journey toward the Northwest Passage trade route. The production, based partly on Kenneth Roberts' novel, was intended as the first of a two-part epic but the sequel was never made due to World War II production constraints; it received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography in 1941. In 1979, the British-French miniseries The Passage, directed by and starring and , portrays a Basque shepherd guiding a Jewish scientist and his family across the to escape Nazi-occupied , emphasizing themes of perilous border crossing and resistance efforts. The film, released theatrically in some markets, highlights the physical and moral challenges of clandestine passage amid wartime espionage. The 2019 Fox television series The Passage, developed by and based on Justin Cronin's novel trilogy, follows a experiment using a derived from a death-row inmate to create super-soldiers, which spirals into a vampire-like ; the narrative centers on a young girl immune to the who becomes key to humanity's survival. Airing 10 episodes from to March 2019, it averaged 3.6 million viewers per episode but was canceled after one season due to mixed reviews and low ratings. Documentaries on the Middle Passage, the transatlantic leg of the slave trade, include the 1997 television film Ships of Slaves: The Middle Passage, narrated by Debbie Allen, which details the brutal conditions endured by enslaved Africans during voyages from West Africa to the Americas, estimating mortality rates of 10-20% per trip based on historical records. Similarly, the 2000 docudrama The Middle Passage, directed by Guy Deslauriers, reconstructs the sea journey's horrors, including overcrowding, disease, and resistance, drawing from survivor accounts and shipping logs to illustrate the trade's scale of over 12 million Africans transported between the 16th and 19th centuries. The 2005 television documentary The Search for the Northwest Passage chronicles historical expeditions seeking the sea route, covering John Franklin's ill-fated 1845 voyage, which resulted in the loss of two ships and 129 men due to ice entrapment and , and Roald Amundsen's successful 1903-1906 traversal using innovative techniques like ship's shallow draft. These productions underscore the navigational perils and geopolitical motivations behind efforts spanning centuries.

Literary Works

A Passage to India (1924) is a novel by set in , depicting interpersonal and cultural misunderstandings between British officials and local Indians, centered on the trial of physician Dr. Aziz after English visitor Adela Quested accuses him of assault during an excursion to the . The work critiques and racial barriers, drawing from Forster's experiences in and earning acclaim as a landmark of modernist literature for its exploration of connection amid division. Passage (2001) by is a in which Joanna Lander participates in experiments using a to simulate near-death experiences, intertwining personal , historical allusions to the disaster, and questions of consciousness and mortality. It received the for Best and a nomination, praised for its intellectual depth and emotional intensity despite its unconventional structure. The Passage (2010) by launches a post-apocalyptic , portraying a outbreak engineered by U.S. military experiments that transforms humans into predatory, vampire-like beings, decimating civilization and following survivors including a girl named in their fight for . The 766-page debut, followed by The Twelve (2012) and (2016), blends thriller elements with epic scope, achieving commercial success and adaptation attempts. Rites of Passage (1980) by , the first in his To the Ends of the Earth trilogy, follows young aristocrat Edmund Talbot's sea voyage to in the early , revealing social hierarchies, psychological tensions, and the brutality of maritime life through Talbot's journal entries. Winner of the , it satirizes class pretensions and imperial decline, reflecting Golding's recurring themes of human savagery observed in confined settings. Other works include (1968) by Alexei Panshin, a Hugo Award-nominated set on a generation ship where teenager Mia Havero undergoes a trial on a primitive planet to earn adulthood among spacefaring elites, probing themes of cultural clash and maturity. and (1990) by Charles Johnson, a National Book Award-winning historical novel recounting enslaved African Rutherford Calhoun's harrowing journey on a , blending adventure with philosophical inquiry into freedom and identity.

Musical Compositions and Recordings

In classical and , several compositions bear the title "Passage," often evoking themes of or through musical structure. Pierre Jalbert's orchestral work Passage (2015), commissioned by the Cabrillo Festival of , reinterprets passages from Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 4, emphasizing textural evolution and harmonic shifts derived from the original motifs. The piece premiered in 2016 under conductor and has been performed by ensembles like the Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra, highlighting Jalbert's focus on motivic development as a rite of musical progression. Italian composer composed Passage for solo , released on his 2004 album , characterized by minimalist arpeggios and contemplative phrasing that build from sparse motifs to fuller resonance, reflecting Einaudi's neoclassical style influenced by and film scoring. Similarly, Dutch composer Joep Beving's Passage, from his 2023 album Neo Classical, employs and subtle electronics to create a meditative , drawing on impressionistic harmonies to suggest emotional traversal. In jazz, drummer Johnathan Blake's album Passage (2023, ) features the title track composed by his father, saxophonist John Blake Jr., blending rhythms with lyrical improvisation across ten tracks involving his band Pentad, including pianist and saxophonist Steve Wilson; the recording earned critical acclaim for its emotional depth and technical precision. Dave Meder's self-titled Passage (2019, Greenleaf Music) incorporates elements, with tracks like "For Wayne" paying homage to through intricate saxophone-piano dialogues and references to gospel standards such as "." Popular music includes the Carpenters' eighth studio album Passage (1977, ), which marked a shift toward experimental arrangements, featuring the single "All You Get from Love Is a " (peaking at No. 7 on the ) and the progressive rock cover "Calling Occupants of Interplanetary Emergency," produced by Richard Carpenter with orchestral contributions from the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The English band Passage released their debut album Passage in 1981 on , comprising eight tracks of synth-driven songs like "Working Night" and "Love Is as," noted for Dick Witts' angular vocals and Dick Dawson's electronic textures, influencing Manchester's scene.

Specialized and Technical Uses

Legislative and Political Processes

In legislative contexts, "passage" refers to the formal approval of a , , or other measure by a required affirmative in a , marking the successful completion of floor consideration in that body. This step typically follows , review, amendments, and , where a of voting members—often a unless specified otherwise—must support the measure for it to advance. For instance, in the , passage requires a and a of those present and voting to approve the on final reading. The mechanics of passage vary by legislative system but generally involve structured voting procedures to ensure deliberation and representation. In unicameral legislatures, such as Nebraska's, a bill achieves passage upon majority approval in a single chamber before proceeding to the executive. Bicameral systems, like the U.S. Congress, require separate passage in both the and , with identical text or reconciliation via conference committee if versions differ; the House often uses voice votes or recorded electronic votes for efficiency, while the Senate may invoke to end debate before a passage vote, needing 60 votes in a 100-member body. In parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom's, passage in the typically demands a , but government bills backed by the majority party face lower failure risk, with procedural motions like accelerating votes. Political dynamics influence passage rates and strategies, with empirical data showing low success for introduced bills—only about 4-5% becoming in the U.S. annually, due to , amendments diluting support, or veto threats. Sponsors may negotiate amendments or attach riders to secure passage, while opposition can employ dilatory tactics; for example, in the 118th U.S. (2023-2025), fewer than 1% of over 10,000 introduced bills passed both chambers by mid-2024, reflecting control. In state legislatures, urgency clauses or requirements (e.g., two-thirds for budget bills in ) elevate the threshold for passage on specific measures. Post-passage, the measure advances to the other chamber if bicameral, or to the executive for signature; failure at any vote halts progress unless reconsidered within a session. This process underscores causal factors like committee gatekeeping—where 90% of bills die without floor consideration—and electoral incentives driving legislative behavior, prioritizing verifiable procedural fidelity over expediency.

Biological and Scientific Applications

In , passage denotes the process of subculturing adherent or suspension by detaching them from a culture vessel, dissociating aggregates, and transferring a portion to fresh medium and vessels to propagate the population while preventing overcrowding and nutrient depletion. This technique, essential for maintaining immortalized or primary lines, involves monitoring cells during before , typically using or other enzymes for detachment, followed by dilution to achieve optimal density. Passage number tracks the cumulative subcultures from the original , serving as a proxy for age; low-passage cells closely resemble primary isolates, whereas high-passage cells (often exceeding 20-50 depending on the line) exhibit , chromosomal abnormalities, altered morphology, reduced proliferation rates, and diminished responsiveness to stimuli or . Such changes arise from selective pressures and replication errors, necessitating validation of and functionality at regular intervals to ensure experimental reproducibility. In , refers to iterative of viruses through susceptible host cells, embryonated eggs, or animal models to amplify titers, adapt strains to new substrates, or induce via accumulated mutations. This method exploits host-specific selection, where viruses evolve reduced virulence—such as lower replication in neural tissues or enhanced growth in —while retaining , a of live-attenuated development for pathogens like , , and . For instance, prolonged passaging can eliminate neurovirulence in certain coronaviruses or porcine deltacoronaviruses, yielding candidates with fixed attenuating mutations that confer protection without reversion risk . Applications extend to antiviral resistance studies, where passaging under drug pressure reveals evolutionary trajectories, and stock preparation, though it risks unintended adaptations like increased transmissibility if not monitored via whole-genome sequencing. Beyond culturing, the concept of first-passage time in stochastic modeling quantifies the expected duration for a biological process—such as a diffusing molecule reaching a target site or a gene regulatory network crossing a threshold—to achieve a specified state for the first time, informing kinetics in diffusion-limited reactions, cellular signaling, and population dynamics. These models, rooted in Markov processes, apply to phenomena like protein search on DNA or escape from metastable states in enzyme kinetics, where mean first-passage times predict efficiency under noise or spatial constraints, aiding design of synthetic biology circuits or analysis of rare events in single-cell data. Empirical validation often integrates fluorescence microscopy or simulations, highlighting deviations from exponential assumptions in crowded cellular environments.

Other Miscellaneous References

In philosophy of time, "passage" refers to the intuitive sense of time's flow, whereby future events become present and then past, a concept debated in metaphysics as potentially illusory within eternalist or block universe theories that treat all temporal moments as equally real. Proponents of the passage view, often aligned with presentism, argue it captures the dynamic becoming inherent in temporal experience, supported by phenomenological evidence of change and novelty. Critics, however, maintain that passage implies an unexplained "moving now" or becoming that lacks empirical grounding beyond subjective , potentially reducible to causal relations among static events. Donald C. Williams, in his analysis, labeled the metaphysics of passage a "," asserting that ascribing motion or change to time itself requires measuring its rate against a supertemporal standard, resulting in conceptual regress without observational warrant. This critique influenced subsequent relational theories of time, emphasizing geometry over substantive flow, as in where is frame-dependent, undermining absolute passage. Empirical supports passage intuitions via studies on temporal , yet these are interpreted by some as cognitive artifacts rather than ontological indicators. In international , "" denotes the right of foreign vessels to traverse territorial seas without prejudicing the coastal state's peace, good order, or security, codified in the 1982 Convention on the (UNCLOS) under Article 17. This regime permits continuous, expeditious transit for commercial or military ships, excluding activities like weapon use or intelligence gathering that render passage non-innocent, with disputes resolved via international tribunals. Historical precedents trace to , evolving from 19th-century treaties to balance navigation freedoms against sovereignty, as evidenced in cases like the 1990 before the . In , "passage" describes serial transfers of a or through organisms or media to adapt strains, propagate, or study , a technique pivotal in development such as the Sabin poliovirus strains passaged in monkey kidney cells to reduce . Each passage can induce genetic via selection pressures, quantified by plaque-forming units or TCID50 assays, with risks of reversion highlighted in historical outbreaks like the 1955 Cutter Incident involving inadequately passaged lots. Modern protocols minimize passages to preserve fidelity, favoring recombinant methods for precision.