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Red Horn

Red Horn, also known as Hešúčka or "He Who Wears Human Heads as Earrings," is a central culture hero and spirit in Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) and other Siouan Native American mythologies, depicted as a warrior with a red body, long red braid of hair, and living human faces attached to his earlobes.^[1]^[2] Originally named "Struck with Deer Lungs" due to a village insult, he transforms into a powerful figure who aids humanity against supernatural enemies like giants (Wąge-rucge) and underworld monsters.^[1]^[3] In the mythological Red Horn Cycle, Red Horn emerges as one of five soteriological spirits created by Earthmaker to protect the human race, serving as chief of the Heroka warrior spirits and associated with hunting, arrows, and the star Alnilam in the Orion constellation.^[1]^[3] His adventures begin with winning a race against rivals by transforming into an arrow, securing marriage to a chief's red-haired daughter and earning his iconic attributes; he later joins his brother Kunu, Turtle, and Storms as He Walks on war parties, defeating foes through cunning and supernatural prowess, only to be killed in a wrestling match with giants before being resurrected by his twin sons.^[3]^[2] These sons, born with red hair and miniature human heads on their bodies, continue heroic exploits, including capturing iron-armored chiefs with the Thunderbird Warbundle, emphasizing themes of resurrection, familial triumph, and cosmic order.^[3] Red Horn's significance extends to Mississippian culture (ca. 1050–1400 CE), where he is linked to ritual objects like flint clay sculptural pipes from sites such as Spiro, Oklahoma, portraying him with a braided "horn," face-bearing earplugs, feathered capes, and shell necklaces used in adoption ceremonies at Cahokia to forge kinship ties across regions from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.^[4]^[2] Artifacts including shell gorgets, copper plates, and long-nosed god masks depicting his form were distributed widely, suggesting Red Horn rituals reinforced social and political structures in ancient Native American societies.^[2] His lore, recorded by ethnographers like Paul Radin in the early 20th century, continues to influence Ho-Chunk oral traditions and cultural identity.^[2]

Origins in Ho-Chunk Mythology

Parentage as Son of Earthmaker

In Ho-Chunk mythology, Earthmaker, known as Mą’ųna, is the supreme creator deity who formed the world from primordial elements and subsequently addressed the threats posed by malevolent forces, such as giants and underworld spirits, that endangered emerging humanity. To combat these evils and ensure human salvation, Earthmaker fashioned a series of spirit-beings in human form, dispatching them as soteriological agents to the earthly realm. These sons were created directly by Earthmaker without maternal involvement, embodying his divine will to restore balance and protect creation.^[5]^[6] Red Horn, also called Hešúčka or "He Who Wears Human Heads as Earrings," is depicted as one of these sons, specifically the fourth or fifth in the canonical sequence following Trickster (Wakjąkaga), Turtle (K'ec'ą́ñgega), and Bladder (Wadexuga), with Hare (Wašjingéga) as the fifth. In this arrangement, Earthmaker molds Red Horn from earth elements, imbuing him with a distinctive red-hued body to symbolize vitality and connection to the terrestrial realm. Narrative variants reveal inconsistencies in his position—sometimes placing him as the fourth or fifth son—which scholars attribute to Red Horn's possible status as a relatively recent addition to the Ho-Chunk pantheon, potentially integrated to align the sons with cosmological motifs like the five cardinal directions.^[1]^[7]^[6] During his mission, Red Horn engages in contests including a wrestling match against giants, leading to his death and dismemberment. He is later revived by his twin sons, restoring his form and powers, though Red Horn is eventually recalled to the divine realm due to perceived shortcomings in his gravitas compared to his brothers. This episode underscores Red Horn's role as a heroic yet imperfect savior within the pantheon.^[1]^[7]

Names and Attributes

In Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) oral traditions, Red Horn is primarily known by the name Hešúčka, which translates to "Red Horn," referring to his distinctive long red braid of hair styled as a horn-like lock.^[1] This name is bestowed upon him after a transformative race against spirits, during which he reveals his enhanced attributes, including the red coloration symbolizing vitality and power. Among the Iowa, a related Siouan people, he is equivalently called Įco-horúšika, or "He Who Wears (Man) Faces on His Ears," emphasizing his supernatural ear adornments rather than the horn.^[8] Another epithet, Wąkšucka ("Red Man"), highlights his entire body painted or naturally red from head to toe, a feature representing life force and warrior prowess in Siouan cosmology.^[1] Red Horn's most iconic attribute is his prosopic earlobes, depicted as tiny, living human faces or heads that serve as earrings and can animate independently, winking, extending tongues, and exhibiting lifelike behaviors to aid or taunt in mythological contexts.^[9] These ear faces, known as įco in Ho-Chunk, mark his supernatural status as chief of the Herok'a (warrior spirits), signifying omniscience and otherworldly perception in oral narratives recorded by ethnographers.^[1] The horn itself, as a red scalp lock (he), functions not only as a status symbol but also symbolically aligns with weapons like arrows or bows, embodying his swift, arrow-like speed and martial identity.^[8] Variations of his name appear across Siouan traditions, such as Hežąkiga ("One Horn") in early Ho-Chunk tellings, denoting his singular horn as a unique emblem of heroism, or associations with "Morning Star" in some tribal variants, linking his attributes to celestial vitality.^[10] These names and features underscore Red Horn's role as a culture hero, with the ear faces particularly emblematic of divine favor and the ability to transcend human limitations in Ho-Chunk lore.^[1]

Heroic Adventures

The Red Horn Cycle

The Red Horn Cycle forms a cohesive heroic epic in the oral traditions of the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) and Iowa peoples, comprising a series of interconnected narratives centered on the culture hero Red Horn and his exploits against supernatural adversaries.^[11] First systematically documented by ethnographer Paul Radin in the early 20th century through consultations with Ho-Chunk informants, the cycle integrates motifs of divine intervention, communal quests, and familial legacy into a broader framework that underscores the hero's role in maintaining cosmic and social order.^[11] Unlike more tightly unified myth cycles such as those of the Trickster or Hare in Ho-Chunk lore, the Red Horn Cycle assembles diverse episodes into an epic structure, reflecting shared Siouan storytelling patterns across tribes.^[3] At its core, the cycle features Red Horn accompanied by a cadre of loyal companions, including his brother Kunu, the trickster Turtle, who provides cunning strategies, Storms-as-He-Walks, a thunderbird spirit embodying tempestuous power, as well as Wolf and Otter, along with other allies who join in perilous undertakings.^[11] These figures aid Red Horn in a sequence of quests that form the epic's backbone, such as initial races and games to secure alliances and later defenses against existential threats.^[3] Key episodes highlight challenges to giants through competitive games—testing prowess in footraces, archery, and lacrosse-like contests—and confrontations with water monsters that endanger human settlements, all woven into a narrative arc of triumph, captivity, and restoration.^[11] Thematic elements permeate the cycle, emphasizing transformation as a tool of heroism; for instance, Red Horn shapeshifts into an arrow during a critical race, symbolizing adaptability and divine favor in overcoming impossible odds.^[3] This motif intertwines with broader themes of combating chaos, where giants and monsters represent disruptive forces threatening communal harmony, countered by Red Horn's unyielding bravery.^[11] Through these stories, the cycle preserves core Ho-Chunk and Iowa cultural values, portraying heroism not as solitary valor but as collective protection and resilience, thereby reinforcing ideals of bravery, reciprocity, and the safeguarding of tribal welfare against primordial disorder.^[12]

Key Quests and Battles

One of Red Horn's most renowned exploits involves his battle against man-eating giants known as Wąge-rucge, formidable foes who terrorized human villages by devouring their inhabitants. In these encounters, Red Horn demonstrates superior strength and cunning, often outwitting the giants through strategic games and physical prowess rather than direct confrontation alone. For instance, during a lacrosse contest with the giants, where human lives served as the stakes, Red Horn's distinctive ear faces distract a giant woman, causing her laughter and leading to his team's victory; this cunning ploy highlights his reliance on supernatural attributes to turn the tide.^[9]^[3] Red Horn also engages in high-stakes contests with water spirits, adversarial beings associated with the Wakcéxi race who challenge him and his companions in games that jeopardize body parts and souls. In one such episode, Red Horn participates in a dice game and an underwater endurance contest against these spirits and their giant allies, where defeat means eternal captivity or death, symbolizing the soul's peril in the watery underworld. His companions, including Turtle and Thunderbird, aid him, but Red Horn's resolve ensures they prevail, escaping with their lives intact and thwarting the spirits' devious traps.^[13]^[14] A pivotal quest features Red Horn in a race against his brothers and rival spirits for the hand of a chief's daughter, showcasing his transformative abilities and alliance with other spirits. As the competitors near the finish, Red Horn shape-shifts into an arrow, which Turtle shoots to cross the line first, securing victory through this clever metamorphosis and outpacing the rivals' speed. This exploit not only wins the prize but establishes Red Horn's reputation as a swift and ingenious hero among the herok'a.^[3]^[15] Red Horn's adventures extend to harrowing encounters with underworld beings, including wrestling matches and perilous chases that test his endurance. Tricked by a water spirit into descending to their subterranean realm, Red Horn wrestles and slays his captors in brutal hand-to-hand combat, then flees through a chaotic pursuit involving shape-shifting and narrow escapes back to the surface world. These clashes underscore his role in liberating humans from the grasp of malevolent underground forces.^[16]^[17] In a climactic battle with the giants, Red Horn and his companions face them in wrestling matches as part of broader contests. Despite successes in prior games, they ultimately lose two of three wrestling bouts, resulting in Red Horn and several allies being thrown and slain by the giants, illustrating the high stakes and mortal risks of their heroic endeavors.^[9] The outcomes of these quests often culminate in symbolic victories, such as capturing enemies' scalps as trophies that represent triumph over evil and the restoration of cosmic balance. These trophies embody the hero's success in protecting humanity from spiritual and physical dangers.^[9]^[18]

Identities and Associations

Celestial Role as a Star

In Ho-Chunk mythology, Red Horn, also known as Įcorúšika or "He Who Has Human Heads for Earbobs," plays a prominent celestial role through his identification with the star Alnilam, the central star in Orion's Belt (ε Orionis). This association stems from the myth "Įcorúšika and His Brothers," in which Red Horn, the youngest of ten brothers, and his siblings are captured by malevolent water spirits while hunting in the underworld.^[19] The brothers, including the four-armed eldest Kųnų, face execution, but Red Horn escapes by igniting firewood as flaming brands, setting ablaze the water spirits' lodge and surrounding waters, ultimately destroying their town and sparing only a young boy and girl.^[19] Following his victory, Red Horn returns to his family and, after earthly exploits, ascends to the sky, transforming into a star alongside two of his brothers to form the constellation of Orion's Belt.^[10] Specifically, Red Horn becomes Alnilam, positioned between Kųnų as Mintaka (δ Orionis) and his penultimate brother as Alnitak (ζ Orionis), symbolizing their eternal brotherhood and triumph over chaos.^[20] This narrative underscores Red Horn's role as a cosmic warrior, with the belt stars representing a fiery axis—evoking the flaming brands used in battle—that links the earthly and heavenly realms.^[19] In Ho-Chunk cultural astronomy, Orion's Belt, with Red Horn at its core, functions as a stellar pathway guiding souls to the heavens and serving as guardians against nocturnal evils, such as malevolent spirits that threaten the night.^[10] The constellation's prominent winter visibility reinforces its protective significance, aligning with seasonal hunting rites and the Heroka society's emphasis on vigilance.^[10] Scholarly interpretations debate the precise stellar match for Red Horn, with some early accounts suggesting a link to the Morning Star (Venus) due to overlapping motifs of celestial heroism in Siouan traditions.^[10] However, this identification is inconsistent, as Morning Star is more commonly associated with other figures like the trickster Hare (Wakdjunkaga), and Red Horn's fixed position in Orion's Belt better fits the myth's depiction of a stable, brotherly stellar cluster rather than Venus's erratic planetary motion.^[10] Analyses of rock art, such as the Red Horn panel at Picture Cave, further support the Alnilam association by mapping mythological elements to the constellation's configuration.^[10]

Leadership as Chief of the Herok'a

In Ho-Chunk (Hocąk) mythology, the herok'a represent a class of lilliputian spirits who embody game animals and ensure hunting success, functioning as supernatural guardians of the hunt with powers to transform and control prey.^[21] These spirits, often called "Men who Change Form" (Wągową́ke), reside in a parallel realm and intervene in human affairs to promote abundance through ritual and magic.^[21] Red Horn serves as their chief, known as "Red Man" (Wąkšucka), embodying the ultimate authority over these hunting entities and symbolizing the vital force of the arrow in Siouan lore.^[8] Red Horn's leadership is highlighted in herok'a council stories, where he bears alternate names such as "One Horn" (Hejąkiga) or "Without Horns" (Herok'aga), shifting emphasis from physical antlers to the bow-and-arrow as the true emblem of hunting prowess and spiritual efficacy.^[21] In these narratives, he organizes collective hunts among the herok'a, directing them to drive game into human traps or clearings for efficient harvest, thereby bridging the spirit world and mortal needs.^[22] Following successful pursuits, Red Horn oversees the equitable distribution of game to human communities, ensuring sustenance and reciprocity between realms, as depicted in tales where he sacrifices personal attributes—like his horn—to restore balance and aid humanity.^[8] Ceremonially, Red Horn's red-painted body marks him as a potent spirit leader, a trait shared in herok'a rituals where participants adorn themselves similarly to invoke hunting fortune.^[21] His distinctive ear faces—living human visages attached to his earlobes that animate—reinforcing his role in guiding the herok'a's magical interventions.^[8] Within the broader Ho-Chunk pantheon, the herok'a under Red Horn's command support Earthmaker's warriors by providing enchanted arrows and blessings, integrating hunting success with cosmic warfare against chaos.^[21]

Family and Legacy

Marriages and Wives

In Ho-Chunk mythology, Red Horn's primary marital union is with an orphaned girl known as the "woman who wears a white beaverskin wrap," who initially resists courtship but eventually marries him after her grandmother's persistent encouragement. This wife provides essential support, such as offering moccasins during courtship, symbolizing the integration of vulnerability and resilience into heroic endeavors.^[1]/6.%20Jung%20%20Traces%20of%20the%20Feminine/6.%20Jung%20%20Traces%20of%20the%20Feminine%20-%20Matrix%203(1)%202023.pdf)^[23] Red Horn's second wife is a red-haired giantess, the daughter of a man-eating giant chief, whom he encounters during a high-stakes lacrosse contest against the giants; she defects to his side after being charmed by his ear faces, leading to her marriage as a prize of victory. This union results in offspring inheriting distinctive traits like red hair, reflecting hybrid vigor between human and monstrous lineages, and she contributes strategically by distracting opponents, thereby aiding Red Horn in battles against supernatural foes.^[9]^[24] These marriages carry profound symbolic weight, representing alliances that bridge the human, spirit, and monstrous realms, thereby reinforcing Red Horn's role as a mediator and protector of cosmic balance in Ho-Chunk cosmology. Variants of the myths emphasize the wives' progeny inheriting red hair as a mark of divine favor and continuity, highlighting themes of fertility and legacy without delving into the children's later exploits.^[1]/6.%20Jung%20%20Traces%20of%20the%20Feminine/6.%20Jung%20%20Traces%20of%20the%20Feminine%20-%20Matrix%203(1)%202023.pdf)

Sons and Their Heroic Deeds

In Ho-Chunk mythology, Red Horn fathered two sons with his wives after his death, both distinguished by their red hair and prosopic features akin to their father's—a human face on the ear of one son and on the nipples of the other—marking them as inheritors of his divine essence.^[25] These sons grew under careful protection and later embarked on a quest to avenge him and restore balance.^[26] The sons revived their father and his companions Turtle and Storms-as-he-Walks using special arrows painted red and black, obtained through ritual means, which they employed to kill giants and retrieve the severed heads and scalps from the giants' village. By grinding the bones of the defeated giants into powder and spreading it across the village, then placing the heads on a bed, the sons resurrected Red Horn and the others, effectively reversing the giants' victory and reclaiming the scalps as trophies of retribution.^[26] In their confrontations with the remaining giants, the sons demonstrated exceptional combat prowess, slaying most with arrows and clubs while sparing a young giant pair by hurling them across the sea, thus eliminating the primary threats without total extermination.^[27] Inheriting their father's transformative powers and warrior abilities, the sons received sacred war bundles from allies such as Turtle and Storms-as-he-Walks, enabling them to shift forms and wield unmatched strength in battle. These gifts ensured their success in subsequent expeditions, where they led war parties to victory and safeguarded the people. Through these acts, the sons paralleled Red Horn's original mission by eradicating the giant menace, burning the enemies' remains, and reviving the community, thereby securing humanity's safety and perpetuating their lineage's heroic legacy.^[27]

Archaeological Connections

SECC Artifacts and Earpieces

Prosopic earpieces, or face-like ornaments depicting human heads, are central to interpretations of Red Horn's iconography within the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), symbolizing the living earlobes that emerge on his ears in Siouan mythological narratives. These artifacts, primarily long-nosed god maskettes made from materials such as marine shell, copper, or stone, have been recovered from Mississippian period sites across at least eight U.S. states—including Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Iowa, and Texas—with the earliest documented discoveries occurring around 1870 during excavations of major mounds like the St. Louis Big Mound. Typically positioned as ear adornments in elite burials, such as those at Spiro's Craig Mound and Gahagan Mound, these maskettes underscore ritual practices involving status, warfare, and supernatural alliances.^[28] Long-nosed god maskettes and associated copper ear spools provide direct symbolic connections to Red Horn's attributes, often featuring exaggerated nasal elements and humanoid features that align with descriptions of his transformative powers and heroic adornments. Anthropologist Robert Hall has linked these items to adoption rituals in Mississippian society, where they facilitated fictive kinship ties among leaders, extending beyond biological relations to forge political and spiritual bonds. Copper ear spools, frequently embossed with SECC motifs like crossed arrows or bilobed arrows, were similarly used as ear ornaments and distributed widely, reinforcing Red Horn's role as a celestial mediator and warrior chief.^[29] A quintessential depiction of Red Horn appears in the "Big Boy" effigy pipe, unearthed from the Craig Mound at Spiro, Oklahoma, and carved from red flint clay in a seated male figure with prominent prosopic earpieces and a trailing braid of hair. This artifact, dating to the 13th–14th century AD, exemplifies the Braden style's detailed realism and has been identified by scholars as embodying Red Horn's hybrid human-bird form due to its ritualistic pose and accessories. Bird Man motifs prevalent in SECC art—raptorial birds with anthropomorphic traits, such as falcon heads on human torsos and ear ornaments—further evoke Red Horn's avian associations, appearing on shell gorgets, copper plates, and pipes across the Midwest and Southeast to signify his triumphs over chaos and renewal cycles.^[2] The broad distribution of these SECC artifacts, spanning the Mississippian period (ca. 800–1600 AD), highlights Red Horn's pervasive influence in indigenous cosmologies, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast, where they mediated themes of heroism, astronomy, and social hierarchy.^[28]

Mound and Rock Art Evidence

The Gottschall Rockshelter in southwestern Wisconsin contains pictographs dated to approximately the 10th century AD, with Panel 5 featuring a central figure interpreted as Red Horn engaged in a confrontation with giants, possibly depicting a wrestling scene from the hero's mythic cycle. This imagery includes the protagonist with distinctive tattoos and companions, aligning with Ho-Chunk oral traditions of Red Horn's battles against supernatural foes.^[30] The site's rock art, preserved in a ritual context, suggests use as a ceremonial space for recounting ancestral narratives. In eastern Missouri's Picture Cave, wall art dated between ca. A.D. 940 and 1090 includes figures adorned with prosopic earpieces—human-faced ornaments characteristic of Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC) iconography—and motifs evoking red horns, linking them to Red Horn representations.^[31] Radiocarbon dating of associated charcoal places the pictographs between A.D. 940 and 1090, marking the site as a major Mississippian rock art concentration with over 290 glyphs in its dark zone.^[32] Scholars identify a primary figure in one panel as Red Horn based on these earpieces and heroic posture, portraying themes of combat and cosmic renewal, though interpretations as Red Horn remain debated, with some proposing alternative figures like Morning Star.^[33]^[34] At Spiro Mounds in Oklahoma, shell engravings from the Craig Mound (ca. A.D. 1000–1400) depict heroic figures beyond the well-known "Big Boy" effigy, including warriors with human-head earrings and horn-like headdresses that parallel Red Horn attributes.^[35] These artifacts, part of a larger Mississippian ceremonial deposit, illustrate narratives of trophy-taking and spiritual warfare akin to Siouan hero tales. Archaeologists interpret these mound and rock art sites as ritual locales that encoded Ho-Chunk-like myths within broader Mississippian cosmology, facilitating communal storytelling and elite validation through visual preservation of heroic quests. The Gottschall and Picture Cave examples, in particular, reflect pre-Mississippian continuity into Siouan-influenced traditions.^[36] Current research highlights gaps, including the absence of post-2007 DNA analyses to verify Siouan population links at these sites and limited updated dating to refine chronologies.^[37] Emerging 2020s LiDAR surveys of Midwestern landscapes have potential to uncover additional rock shelters and mounds with similar iconography, though none specifically tied to Red Horn have been reported as of 2025.^[38]

References

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