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Retroperitoneal space

The retroperitoneal space, also known as the retroperitoneum, is the anatomical region situated posterior to the peritoneal cavity within the abdomen, encompassing the area between the posterior parietal peritoneum anteriorly and the transversalis fascia overlying the posterior abdominal wall muscles posteriorly.^[1] This space extends superiorly to the diaphragm, inferiorly to the pelvic brim or levator ani muscles, medially to the paraspinous muscles, and laterally to the abdominal wall musculature.^[1]^[2] Divided into three main compartments—anterior pararenal, perirenal, and posterior pararenal—the retroperitoneum houses a variety of essential structures not suspended by mesenteries, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, and proximal ureters in the perirenal space, the pancreas (except the tail), duodenum (second to fourth parts), and ascending and descending colon in the anterior pararenal space, as well as abundant fat, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves in the posterior pararenal space.^[1] Additionally, the great vessels space within it contains the abdominal aorta, inferior vena cava, and their branches.^[1]^[3] Clinically, the retroperitoneal space is significant for its role in housing pathologies that can compress adjacent organs, such as retroperitoneal fibrosis—an inflammatory condition that is idiopathic in over 70% of cases and often leads to ureteral obstruction and hydronephrosis—or retroperitoneal hematomas, which may arise from trauma, surgery, or anticoagulation therapy and require prompt resuscitation and imaging for diagnosis.^[1] Tumors, infections, and inflammatory processes originating here can also propagate across fascial planes, complicating surgical access during procedures like nephrectomies or aortic repairs, underscoring the need for precise anatomical knowledge in abdominal and pelvic surgery.^[1]^[3]

Anatomy

Definition and boundaries

The retroperitoneal space is the anatomical compartment in the abdomen and upper pelvis located posterior to the posterior parietal peritoneum and anterior to the posterior abdominal wall.^[1]^[3] It serves as a distinct region separate from the peritoneal cavity, housing structures that are not suspended by mesentery and lie between the abdominal wall and the parietal peritoneum.^[1] This space extends as a potential compartment that can accommodate various anatomical and pathological processes without direct communication across the peritoneum.^[4] The superior boundary of the retroperitoneal space is formed by the diaphragmatic crura and the aortic hiatus at the T12 vertebral level, through which structures such as the aorta pass into the thoracic cavity.^[1] Inferiorly, it extends to the pelvic brim and is bounded by the iliopsoas muscle, beyond which it transitions into the extraperitoneal space of the pelvis.^[5]^[3] Anteriorly, the space is bounded by the posterior layer of the parietal peritoneum, which separates it from the intraperitoneal contents.^[5]^[6] Posteriorly, it is limited by the transversalis fascia, which covers the musculature of the posterior abdominal wall, including the psoas, iliacus, and quadratus lumborum muscles.^[1]^[3] Laterally, the boundaries consist of the layers of the abdominal wall extending to the flanks, while medially, the space converges toward the midline along the great vessels such as the aorta and inferior vena cava.^[1]^[5]

Fascial organization

The retroperitoneal space is organized by a complex framework of connective tissue layers, primarily fasciae and adipose tissues, which divide it into distinct compartments and provide structural support while allowing for potential pathways of fluid, infection, or hemorrhage dissemination along loose interfascial planes.^[7] These fascial elements, including renal fasciae and their continuations, create potential spaces by enclosing adipose tissue and limiting direct communication between compartments, thereby influencing the spread of pathological processes.^[1] The anterior renal fascia, also known as Gerota's fascia, is a thin, collagenous layer that forms the anterior boundary of the perirenal space, lying anterior to the perirenal fat and continuous with the parietal peritoneum superiorly and medially.^[8] Laterally, it fuses with the posterior renal fascia to form the lateroconal fascia, and inferiorly, it extends toward the pelvic brim, contributing to the compartmentalization that separates the perirenal space from adjacent regions.^[7] The posterior renal fascia, a denser and more robust layer compared to its anterior counterpart, invests the posterior aspect of the perirenal fat, fusing medially with the psoas and quadratus lumborum fasciae and laterally forming the anterior continuation of the lateroconal fascia.^[8] This fascia divides into anterior and posterior laminae that enclose the perirenal space, while inferiorly and posteriorly, it blends with the transversalis fascia, reinforcing the posterior investment of the retroperitoneum and facilitating continuity with the iliac and pelvic fasciae.^[1] Within the perirenal space, subdivisions such as the prerenal fat layer (anterior to the kidney) and retrorenal fat layer (posterior to the kidney) further organize the connective tissue, providing cushioning and defining interfascial planes that can permit selective spread of fluids or inflammatory processes.^[7] The parietal peritoneum contributes to the anterior limit of the retroperitoneal space through its posterior reflection, forming a serous barrier that interfaces with the anterior renal fascia and helps delineate the space from the peritoneal cavity.^[8] Posteriorly, the transversalis fascia serves as the primary investing layer, a thin aponeurotic sheet derived from the abdominal wall that lines the inner surface of the transversus abdominis muscle and extends inferiorly to merge with pelvic fasciae, thereby completing the fascial envelope and supporting the overall stability of the retroperitoneum.^[1] Embryologically, these fascial structures originate from mesodermal layers during abdominal wall and organ development in the fetus, with the renal fasciae forming as migration fasciae associated with the ascent of urogenital structures, while the transversalis fascia arises from the outer stratum of retroperitoneal connective tissue condensations.^[7] This developmental process establishes the multilaminated framework that underlies the space's compartmentalization and functional integrity.^[8]

Primary organs

The retroperitoneal space houses several primary solid organs that are fixed in position behind the peritoneum, contributing to the structural and functional integrity of the abdomen. These organs are classified as primarily retroperitoneal if they develop and remain outside the peritoneal cavity from the outset, or secondarily retroperitoneal if they initially possess a mesentery that fuses to the posterior abdominal wall during development, resulting in their fixed retroperitoneal location.^[9]^[1] The kidneys are paired, primarily retroperitoneal organs located at the vertebral levels T12 to L3, embedded within perirenal fat that provides cushioning and support in the perirenal space.^[10]^[1] The adrenal (suprarenal) glands, also primarily retroperitoneal, are situated superior to the kidneys, likewise enveloped in the perirenal fat and functioning as endocrine organs.^[1]^[11] The ureters, paired muscular tubes, are primarily retroperitoneal structures that descend from the renal pelvis within the perirenal space to the urinary bladder in the pelvis.^[1] The pancreas exemplifies a secondarily retroperitoneal organ, with its head, neck, and body fixed behind the peritoneum at approximately the L1 to L2 vertebral levels, while the tail remains intraperitoneal within the splenorenal ligament.^[1] Similarly, the duodenum's second, third, and fourth parts are secondarily retroperitoneal, adherent to the posterior abdominal wall following developmental fusion of their mesentery.^[1]^[9] The ascending colon is fully retroperitoneal, extending from the hepatic flexure to the ileocecal valve after secondary fixation, and the descending colon is likewise entirely retroperitoneal from the splenic flexure to the sigmoid colon.^[1]^[9] These organs derive their vascular supply primarily from branches of the abdominal aorta and drain into tributaries of the inferior vena cava, reflecting their intimate relation to the retroperitoneal great vessels.^[1]

Vascular and neural structures

The abdominal aorta originates at the level of the T12 vertebra, descending from the diaphragmatic crura in a retroperitoneal position anterior to the vertebral column and psoas muscles, before bifurcating into the common iliac arteries at the L4 vertebral level.^[12] The inferior vena cava forms at the L5 vertebral level by the confluence of the right and left common iliac veins, ascending to the right of the abdominal aorta in the retroperitoneal space before piercing the diaphragm at the T8 vertebral level to enter the right atrium.^[13] The common iliac arteries and veins arise from the aortic bifurcation at L4 and the corresponding venous confluence at L5, respectively, coursing briefly in the abdominal retroperitoneum before transitioning into the pelvic retroperitoneum at the sacral promontory.^[14] Major arterial branches of the abdominal aorta within the retroperitoneal space include the renal arteries, which originate at the L1-L2 vertebral levels to supply the kidneys; the gonadal arteries, arising around L2 to vascularize the gonads; and the paired lumbar arteries, which emerge sequentially from L1 to L5 to perfuse the posterior abdominal wall and paraspinal muscles.^[12] These vessels, along with their venous counterparts draining into the inferior vena cava, provide essential blood supply and drainage to retroperitoneal structures such as the kidneys and adrenal glands.^[1] The sympathetic trunks form bilateral paravertebral chains in the retroperitoneal space, positioned along the medial aspect of the psoas muscles anterior to the lumbar vertebrae, with typically four lumbar ganglia per side that connect superiorly to the thoracic chain and inferiorly to the sacral chain.^[15] Associated preaortic ganglia include the celiac ganglion, receiving input from the first lumbar splanchnic nerves for innervation of foregut derivatives; the superior mesenteric ganglion, linked via intermesenteric plexuses for midgut supply; and the aorticorenal ganglia, contributing to renal and suprarenal plexuses.^[15] Autonomic nerves in the retroperitoneum feature preaortic plexuses surrounding the origins of the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries, composed of sympathetic fibers from lumbar splanchnic nerves, parasympathetic contributions from vagal and pelvic splanchnic nerves, and visceral sensory fibers that regulate vascular tone and visceral motility.^[1] Lymphatic vessels in the retroperitoneal space form a network paralleling the major arteries and veins, collecting lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, and abdominal viscera before draining into the cisterna chyli, a dilated saccular structure located at the L1-L2 vertebral levels posterior to the aorta.^[16] The cisterna chyli serves as the primary confluence for intestinal, lumbar, and lower limb lymphatic trunks, channeling lymph upward into the thoracic duct for systemic return.^[16]

Compartments

Anterior pararenal space

The anterior pararenal space is located within the retroperitoneum, positioned anterior to the anterior renal fascia and extending from the diaphragmatic bare area superiorly to the iliac vessels inferiorly.^[17] It is bounded anteriorly by the posterior parietal peritoneum, posteriorly by the anterior renal fascia (also known as Gerota's fascia), and laterally by the lateroconal fascia, which forms a cone-shaped extension around the kidneys.^[18] Medially, it interfaces with connective tissue near the great vessels, while inferiorly it opens into the pelvic retroperitoneum along the ureters.^[19] This space is part of the broader fascial organization delimited by the renal fascia, separating it from adjacent retroperitoneal compartments.^[20] The primary contents of the anterior pararenal space include the pancreas (head, neck, and body, excluding the tail which lies within the peritoneal splenorenal ligament), the second through fourth portions of the duodenum, and the mesenteries of the ascending and descending colon.^[1] These structures are secondary retroperitoneal organs that become fixed in position during development, embedded within the space alongside loose connective tissue.^[20] The space allows for bilateral communication across the midline through the root of the small bowel mesentery, enabling continuity between the right and left sides behind the duodenum and pancreas.^[18] Composed predominantly of loose areolar connective tissue with variable amounts of adipose tissue, the anterior pararenal space functions as a potential compartment that can accommodate fluid or inflammatory processes due to its low-resistance composition.^[19] Embryologically, it forms through the fusion of peritoneal mesenteries during the rotation and fixation of the midgut and hindgut derivatives, including the pancreaticoduodenal and colonic segments, which obliterate the intervening peritoneal cavity and create this unified space.^[17] This developmental process results in the space's characteristic integration of visceral mesenteries with the primary dorsal peritoneum.^[20]

Perirenal space

The perirenal space, also known as the perinephric space, is the central compartment of the retroperitoneum, centrally positioned to encase and protect the kidneys and adrenal glands. It extends vertically from the diaphragm superiorly, where it fuses with the inferior diaphragmatic fascia near the bare area of the liver on the right and the subphrenic space on the left, to the level of the iliac crest inferiorly, beyond which it opens into the pelvic extraperitoneal spaces. Laterally, it is bounded by the lateroconal fascia, while medially it interfaces with the psoas and quadratus lumborum muscles, forming a robust enclosure that limits the spread of pathological processes. This conical configuration ensures the kidneys remain anchored within a relatively isolated environment, facilitating their mobility during respiration while providing structural support.^[19]^[18] The space is enclosed by the anterior renal fascia (Gerota's fascia) anteriorly and the posterior renal fascia (Zuckerkandl's fascia) posteriorly, which fuse laterally to form the lateroconal fascia and medially to create a barrier that isolates the right and left perirenal spaces, preventing midline communication and thus limiting bilateral cross-spread of contents or pathology. Superiorly, these fascial layers fuse with the diaphragmatic fascia, sealing the compartment at the apex, whereas inferiorly they remain unfused, allowing potential continuity with pelvic spaces but containing the bulk of renal structures above the iliac vessels. Internally, the perirenal space is subdivided by fibrous septa, including Kunin's bridging septa, into anterior (prerenal) and posterior (retrorenal) fat compartments, with a central hilar region surrounding the renal pelvis and hilum where renal vessels enter and exit. These subdivisions compartmentalize the abundant perirenal fat, which cushions the organs and aids in maintaining their position.^[1]^[18]^[19] Key contents of the perirenal space include the kidneys, adrenal (suprarenal) glands, and proximal portions of the ureters extending to the level of the iliac vessels, along with the renal arteries, veins, and associated lymphatics. The renal vessels penetrate the posterior fascia to access the hilar fat, integrating vascular supply directly within this protected zone. This arrangement underscores the perirenal space's role in renal safeguarding, as the dense fascial boundaries and fatty padding act as barriers to infection, hemorrhage, or tumor extension from adjacent retroperitoneal regions.^[1]^[18]^[19]

Posterior pararenal space

The posterior pararenal space is located posterior to the posterior renal fascia and anterior to the transversalis fascia, forming a thin compartment within the retroperitoneum adjacent to the posterior abdominal wall.^[1] It interfaces directly with the psoas major and quadratus lumborum muscles, positioning it as a buffer zone between these musculoskeletal elements and the renal fascia. This space is bilaterally isolated, with no communication across the midline or between sides, maintaining distinct left and right compartments.^[1] The contents of the posterior pararenal space consist primarily of loose adipose tissue, along with small blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves, but it lacks any major organs.^[1] Superiorly, the space is open toward the diaphragm and the bare area of the liver on the right, while inferiorly it communicates with the pelvic extraperitoneal space, allowing potential continuity with preperitoneal fat in the flanks. Laterally, it blends with the properitoneal fat stripe, but it remains enclosed medially by the renal fascia without crossing into adjacent retroperitoneal divisions.^[1] Functionally, the posterior pararenal space serves as a fat-filled cushion against the posterior abdominal wall, providing mechanical support and facilitating the sliding mobility of overlying structures during respiration and movement.^[20] Its volume of adipose tissue exhibits variability, increasing with age, overall body habitus, and individual fat distribution, which can influence its visibility on imaging.

Clinical significance

Pathologies

The retroperitoneal space is susceptible to a variety of pathologies due to its anatomical constraints and proximity to major vascular and visceral structures, often leading to insidious presentations with delayed diagnosis. Common conditions include hemorrhage, fibrosis, tumors, infections, and inflammatory extensions, each exploiting the fascial barriers that can either contain or facilitate spread within compartments like the anterior pararenal space.^[21] Retroperitoneal hemorrhage typically arises from trauma, anticoagulation therapy, or rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), resulting in accumulation of blood within the space and potential hypovolemic shock. In cases of blunt or penetrating trauma, direct injury to retroperitoneal vessels or organs like the kidney or aorta can initiate bleeding, while spontaneous hemorrhage in anticoagulated patients often stems from over-anticoagulation leading to vessel rupture without evident trauma. Ruptured AAA causes rapid extravasation into the retroperitoneum, manifesting as severe back or abdominal pain and hemodynamic instability. A classic sign is Grey Turner's sign, characterized by flank ecchymosis from blood tracking along fascial planes.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Retroperitoneal fibrosis, also known as Ormond's disease, is an idiopathic fibro-inflammatory condition involving progressive scarring that encases the abdominal aorta, inferior vena cava (IVC), and adjacent structures, often leading to ureteral obstruction and hydronephrosis. The fibrotic mass typically forms a plaque-like sheet anterior to the vertebrae, compressing the ureters bilaterally and causing hydronephrosis in up to 90% of cases, with associated renal impairment reported in 40-70% depending on the study. Its estimated incidence is 1 per 200,000 population, predominantly affecting individuals aged 40-60 years with a male predominance.^[26]^[27]^[28] Tumors of the retroperitoneal space are often malignant and include primary lesions such as liposarcomas and lymphomas, as well as secondary involvement from metastases, presenting with nonspecific symptoms like abdominal distension due to mass effect on surrounding organs. Primary retroperitoneal sarcomas, which account for approximately 15% of all soft tissue sarcomas, frequently originate from mesenchymal tissues and grow to large sizes (>10 cm) before causing compressive symptoms or vascular invasion. Liposarcomas are the most common subtype, exhibiting variable differentiation and a propensity for local recurrence, while lymphomas may mimic fibrosis with infiltrative masses. Secondary tumors, such as metastases from gastrointestinal or genitourinary primaries, spread hematogenously or lymphatically, exacerbating mass effect and leading to bowel or ureteral obstruction.^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32] Infections and abscesses in the retroperitoneal space usually result from contiguous spread of infection from adjacent viscera, such as perforated diverticulitis, and are often contained by the investing fascia, forming localized collections that can track along muscle planes like the psoas. Perforated sigmoid diverticulitis, for instance, may lead to a retroperitoneal phlegmon or abscess through breach of the colonic wall, with inflammation propagating posteriorly and potentially causing systemic sepsis if untreated. The fascial organization limits free intraperitoneal spread but allows extension into compartments, such as the anterior pararenal space, complicating drainage.^[33]^[34] Inflammatory processes, particularly from acute pancreatitis, can extend into the retroperitoneal space, especially the anterior pararenal compartment, leading to the formation of pseudocysts filled with pancreatic fluid. These pseudocysts develop approximately four weeks after the initial episode, often tracking along fascial planes to involve the lesser sac or pararenal spaces, and may cause persistent pain, infection, or rupture if they enlarge. Such extensions highlight the anterior pararenal space's role as a conduit for pancreatic inflammation due to its direct communication with the pancreatic bed.^[35]

Diagnostic approaches

Diagnostic approaches to retroperitoneal pathology primarily rely on imaging modalities that leverage the anatomical compartmentalization of the space to identify abnormalities such as masses, fluid collections, or inflammatory processes. These methods allow for correlation between clinical symptoms and specific retroperitoneal involvement, facilitating targeted management. Historical advancements, particularly the adoption of computed tomography (CT) in the 1970s, revolutionized diagnosis by providing cross-sectional visualization that surpassed prior plain radiography and exploratory surgery, enabling precise localization of lesions previously obscured by overlying structures.^[36]^[37] Ultrasound serves as an initial screening tool for detecting fluid collections or masses in the retroperitoneum, offering real-time imaging without radiation exposure and aiding in the assessment of organ perfusion or echogenic changes suggestive of hemorrhage. However, its utility is limited by bowel gas and patient body habitus, which often obscure deeper retroperitoneal structures, making it less reliable for comprehensive evaluation compared to cross-sectional imaging.^[38]^[39] CT scanning remains the gold standard for delineating retroperitoneal compartments, with multi-detector technology allowing high-resolution assessment of anatomical boundaries and the extent of pathology across anterior pararenal, perirenal, and posterior pararenal spaces. Contrast enhancement protocols are essential for evaluating vascular involvement, such as encasement or thrombosis, and for distinguishing enhancing tumors from non-enhancing fibrosis or necrotic debris.^[21]^[30]^[40] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) excels in soft tissue characterization within the retroperitoneum, providing superior contrast resolution to differentiate entities like fibrotic plaques from neoplastic masses through T1-weighted, T2-weighted, and diffusion-weighted sequences. For instance, MRI can highlight hypointense fibrosis on T2 images versus hyperintense myxoid tumors, aiding in preoperative planning without ionizing radiation.^[41]^[30]^[42] Biopsy techniques, particularly percutaneous CT-guided core needle biopsy, are employed for definitive tissue sampling of retroperitoneal masses, offering high diagnostic accuracy (over 90% in many series) while minimizing invasiveness. Procedures are planned to avoid major vascular structures, such as the aorta or inferior vena cava, using pre-biopsy CT angiography for trajectory selection and real-time fluoroscopy for needle guidance.^[43]^[44]^[45] Laboratory correlations complement imaging by providing supportive evidence of retroperitoneal involvement; for example, elevated serum amylase levels indicate pancreatic inflammation extending into the anterior pararenal space, while anemia and coagulopathy suggest retroperitoneal hemorrhage. These markers, including complete blood count and pancreatic enzymes, guide urgency of intervention but require integration with radiographic findings for accurate localization.^[23]^[46]

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