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Percutaneous

Percutaneous is a medical adjective derived from the Latin phrase per cutem, meaning "through the skin," and refers to any procedure, administration, or absorption that involves penetration of the skin, such as injections, needle biopsies, or the insertion of catheters and devices, without requiring a full surgical incision.^[1]^[2]^[3] This term, first appearing in English in the mid-19th century,^[4] emphasizes minimally invasive access to internal body structures, distinguishing it from open surgical methods.^[5] In modern medicine, percutaneous techniques form the cornerstone of interventional procedures across specialties, including cardiology, urology, radiology, and oncology, where they enable targeted interventions with reduced tissue trauma.^[6] For instance, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), also known as angioplasty, uses a catheter inserted through the skin—typically via the groin or wrist—to open blocked coronary arteries and restore blood flow, often with stent placement.^[7]^[8] Similarly, percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) involves creating a tract from the skin to the kidney to remove large stones (>2 cm) that cannot pass naturally or respond to other treatments.^[9] Other notable applications include percutaneous liver biopsies for diagnosing hepatic conditions and percutaneous abscess drainage to evacuate infected fluid collections.^[10]^[11] These procedures offer significant advantages over traditional open surgery, including shorter recovery times, lower risks of infection and complications, and often the ability to perform under local anesthesia on an outpatient basis.^[8]^[9] Advances in imaging guidance, such as fluoroscopy and ultrasound, have further enhanced their precision and safety, making percutaneous methods a preferred approach for managing conditions like arterial stenoses, urinary obstructions, and soft tissue infections since their widespread adoption in the mid-20th century.^[7]^[12]

Definition and Terminology

Definition

Percutaneous refers to any medical procedure in which access to inner organs, tissues, or body cavities is achieved by puncturing the skin with a needle or making a minor incision, thereby avoiding the need for extensive surgical exposure.^[13] This approach emphasizes minimal disruption to the skin and underlying tissues, typically involving the insertion of needles, catheters, or guidewires to reach the target site.^[6] In contrast to open surgery, which requires large incisions to directly visualize and access the operative area using a scalpel or similar tools, percutaneous methods limit entry to a small puncture site, reducing trauma, blood loss, and recovery time.^[14] It also differs from other forms of minimally invasive surgery, such as laparoscopy, which involve small but deliberate incisions (often 5-10 mm) for trocars and endoscopic instruments to create a working space within the body.^[15] Common examples of percutaneous access include needle insertion for biopsies, where a fine needle extracts tissue samples from organs like the liver or lung for diagnostic analysis, and fluid drainage procedures, in which imaging-guided needles or catheters remove accumulated fluids or abscesses from cavities such as the abdomen or thorax.^[16]^[11] A widely used method for establishing vascular access in such procedures is the Seldinger technique, which involves advancing a guidewire through a needle puncture followed by catheter placement over the wire.^[17]

Etymology

The term "percutaneous" originates from Latin roots, combining "per," meaning "through," with "cutis," meaning "skin," to denote something effected or occurring through the skin.^[1] This etymological construction, literally "per cutem" or "through the skin," was first recorded in English in 1862 within medical literature, specifically in the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review.^[18]^[4] Although coined in the 19th century, the term gained widespread adoption in medical nomenclature during the mid-20th century, coinciding with the rise of minimally invasive techniques that emphasized skin puncture for internal access, such as the Seldinger technique introduced in 1953.^[19] This evolution reflected a shift toward procedures avoiding large incisions, distinguishing "percutaneous" from earlier, more general usages related to skin absorption.^[20] In contrast to related terms like "transcutaneous," which implies transmission across the intact skin surface—often for drug delivery via patches or electrical stimulation without penetration—"percutaneous" specifically connotes a puncture or needle-based breach of the skin barrier. This nuance became particularly relevant in contexts like needle biopsies, where direct skin piercing enables tissue sampling.

Historical Development

Origins

The origins of percutaneous methods trace back to early 20th-century developments in diagnostic needle aspirations, which served as foundational precursors to more advanced interventional techniques. In the 1920s, physicians in the United States began employing rudimentary needle aspiration biopsies for tissue sampling, influenced by earlier work such as Paul Ehrlich's 1883 liver aspiration, to diagnose conditions like tumors and infections without open surgery.^[21]^[10] A key example was the first reported percutaneous liver biopsy for diagnostic purposes in 1923 by Arno Bingel, who used a needle to extract liver tissue under palpation guidance, marking an initial shift toward minimally invasive diagnostics.^[22] These procedures relied on basic anatomical landmarks and were limited to superficial or accessible organs, reflecting the era's emphasis on reducing surgical trauma while obtaining cytological or histological samples.^[23] By the 1940s, percutaneous approaches emerged more prominently in vascular diagnostics through experiments involving direct vessel punctures for angiography. Pioneering work by André Cournand and Dickinson Richards introduced right heart catheterization in humans around 1941, using venous punctures to inject contrast and visualize cardiac structures, which built on Werner Forssmann's 1929 self-experimentation.^[24] Concurrently, cerebral angiography advanced with direct carotid artery punctures, as demonstrated by Erik Lindgren in 1947, who performed percutaneous injections to map intracranial vessels for neurosurgical planning.^[25] These innovations expanded percutaneous methods beyond simple aspirations to dynamic imaging of blood flow, enabling earlier detection of vascular abnormalities like aneurysms and occlusions.^[24] However, these early percutaneous endeavors faced substantial initial challenges, primarily due to the absence of real-time imaging guidance, which resulted in high complication rates in pre-1950s attempts. Without fluoroscopy or ultrasound, procedures depended on blind or palpation-based punctures, leading to frequent issues such as hemorrhage, vessel dissection, and embolism; for instance, early direct arterial punctures for angiography carried risks of stroke or infection in up to several percent of cases.^[26]^[27] Such limitations restricted adoption to select high-risk patients and underscored the need for safer access methods, paving the way for pivotal advancements like Sven-Ivar Seldinger's 1953 technique that exchanged needles for guidewires to mitigate these risks.^[28]

Key Milestones

In 1953, Swedish radiologist Sven Ivar Seldinger introduced the Seldinger technique, a pivotal advancement that enabled safer percutaneous access to blood vessels and hollow organs by using a flexible guidewire for catheter exchange through a small skin puncture, minimizing trauma compared to direct needle insertion. This method laid the foundation for modern interventional procedures by facilitating precise and less invasive vascular navigation.^[29] During the 1960s and 1970s, percutaneous approaches expanded into coronary interventions, driven by improvements in catheter technology and imaging. A landmark event occurred in 1977 when Andreas Grüntzig performed the first percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) on a human patient in Zurich, Switzerland, using a balloon catheter to dilate a stenotic coronary artery without open surgery.^[30] This procedure marked the birth of interventional cardiology as a distinct field, demonstrating the feasibility of treating coronary artery disease percutaneously.^[31] From the 1980s onward, percutaneous coronary interventions evolved rapidly with the integration of bare-metal stents, first implanted in humans in 1986 by Ulrich Sigwart, which provided mechanical support to prevent vessel recoil and acute closure.^[32] Concurrent advancements in fluoroscopic imaging enhanced real-time guidance, improving procedural accuracy and outcomes; these developments contributed to reduced in-hospital mortality rates for acute myocardial infarction patients treated with percutaneous methods, dropping from approximately 15-20% in the early 1980s to under 5% by the 1990s in high-volume centers.^[33] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's 1976 Medical Device Amendments established a regulatory framework that facilitated clearances for PTCA balloons and related devices in the late 1970s and 1980s, accelerating clinical adoption.^[34] In the 2000s, the introduction of drug-eluting stents, such as the sirolimus-eluting Cypher stent approved by the FDA in 2003, further transformed percutaneous interventions by releasing antiproliferative drugs to inhibit neointimal hyperplasia and reduce restenosis rates from over 30% with bare-metal stents to under 10%.^[35] In urology, the first percutaneous nephrolithotomy was performed in 1976 by Fernström and Johansson, enabling removal of kidney stones via skin access.^[36] These milestones collectively reduced the need for subsequent surgical interventions, offering patients shorter recovery times and lower overall procedural risks.^[37]

Techniques

Seldinger Technique

The Seldinger technique is a minimally invasive method for establishing percutaneous access to blood vessels or hollow organs, enabling the safe exchange of a needle for a larger catheter or sheath using a guidewire. Introduced by Swedish radiologist Sven-Ivar Seldinger in 1953, it revolutionized vascular interventions by reducing the risk of vessel trauma associated with direct large-bore needle punctures.^[17]^[38]^[39] The procedure begins with the percutaneous puncture of the target vessel using a thin-walled hollow needle, typically 18- to 20-gauge, after local anesthesia and skin preparation. Once blood flashback confirms intraluminal position, a syringe is detached, and a flexible guidewire—often with a J-shaped tip for atraumatic advancement—is inserted through the needle into the vessel lumen, advancing it several centimeters to ensure stable positioning. The needle is then carefully withdrawn over the guidewire while the wire is held in place to maintain access, followed by gentle compression of the puncture site to minimize bleeding.^[17]^[38]^[39] Next, serial dilation of the tract is performed by advancing tapered dilators of increasing size (e.g., 4- to 6-French initially, up to 1 French larger than the final sheath) over the guidewire to accommodate the desired catheter diameter, preventing vessel tears. The introducer sheath or catheter is then threaded over the guidewire into the vessel, with the guidewire subsequently removed once proper positioning is confirmed by aspiration of blood or gentle flushing. The sheath provides a stable conduit for subsequent interventions, such as catheter exchanges.^[40]^[41] Key tools include the initial puncture needle (18-20 gauge for standard access, allowing passage of a 0.035-inch guidewire), the J-tipped guidewire (typically 0.018- to 0.035-inch diameter for maneuverability), serial dilators to expand the tract, and the final introducer sheath (e.g., 4- to 8-French, depending on application).^[42]^[43] A common variation, the modified Seldinger technique, involves advancing a coaxial dilator-sheath assembly directly over the guidewire after needle removal, without separate serial dilators. This approach minimizes the number of tissue manipulations, reducing the risk of bleeding, vessel damage, and air embolism, and is particularly favored in central venous catheterization and procedures requiring rapid access. It uses a thin-walled needle (often 21-gauge for micropuncture) and a peel-away sheath, allowing seamless catheter insertion.^[44]^[38]^[45] Variations exist between arterial and venous access due to differences in vessel wall resilience and flow dynamics. For arterial access, common at sites like the femoral artery, a sharper puncture angle and confirmation via pulsatile flashback are emphasized to avoid dissection, often using an 18-gauge needle for robust wire passage. Venous access, such as at the femoral vein, permits a shallower angle and relies on non-pulsatile dark blood return, with 19- to 21-gauge needles sometimes preferred for lower pressure vessels to reduce hematoma risk. In both cases, the core steps remain consistent, but arterial procedures demand heightened vigilance for vasospasm or embolism.^[38]^[46]

Imaging Guidance Methods

Imaging guidance is crucial in percutaneous procedures to ensure precise needle or catheter placement while minimizing risks to surrounding tissues. These methods provide real-time or near-real-time visualization, allowing interventionalists to navigate complex anatomies safely. Common modalities include fluoroscopy, ultrasound, and advanced techniques such as computed tomography (CT) fluoroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), often integrated in specialized environments like hybrid operating rooms.^[47] Fluoroscopy serves as the primary real-time X-ray imaging technique for vascular navigation in percutaneous interventions, offering continuous visualization of catheter movement and contrast-enhanced vessel outlines. It is widely adopted due to its compatibility with the Seldinger technique as an adjunct tool for guidewire advancement. Advantages include minimal setup time and broad applicability in endovascular procedures, though it involves ionizing radiation exposure.^[47]^[48] Ultrasound provides non-ionizing, real-time guidance for soft-tissue punctures, particularly in non-vascular applications such as biopsies and drainages. It excels in delineating superficial structures like the liver or kidney, enabling dynamic adjustment during needle insertion. For example, in percutaneous biopsies, ultrasound facilitates targeted sampling with high sensitivity for lesions, reducing the need for radiation-based alternatives.^[47]^[49] Advanced modalities address limitations in complex cases where higher resolution or multiplanar views are required. CT fluoroscopy combines the cross-sectional detail of CT with real-time capabilities, improving accuracy for deep or obscured targets like thoracic lesions. MRI guidance offers superior soft-tissue contrast without radiation, suitable for procedures in sensitive areas such as the musculoskeletal system, though its use remains limited by equipment availability and longer scan times. Hybrid operating rooms integrate these technologies—such as fixed fluoroscopy with CT or MRI overlays—facilitating seamless transitions between imaging and intervention in multidisciplinary settings.^[50]^[51]^[52] The evolution of imaging guidance in percutaneous procedures shifted from primarily 2D projections to integrated 3D systems during the 2000s, driven by advancements in rotational angiography and cone-beam CT (CBCT). This transition enhanced spatial accuracy for intricate navigations, such as in structural heart interventions, through techniques like 3D/2D image fusion that overlay preoperative models onto live fluoroscopy. By the mid-2000s, these innovations reduced procedural times and complications in endovascular applications.^[53]^[47] Subsequent developments from the 2010s to 2025 have incorporated artificial intelligence (AI) for automated image reconstruction and lesion detection, robotic systems for remote needle guidance in solid organ interventions, and expanded use of optical coherence tomography (OCT) and intracardiac echocardiography for precise coronary and structural heart procedures. As of 2025, AI-enhanced MRI guidance has improved real-time tracking in needle interventions, further minimizing radiation and enhancing outcomes in oncology and cardiology.^[54]^[55]^[56]

Applications

Cardiovascular Interventions

Percutaneous cardiovascular interventions represent a cornerstone of modern cardiology, enabling minimally invasive treatments for coronary artery disease, valvular heart conditions, and arrhythmias through catheter-based access, typically via the femoral or radial artery using the Seldinger technique. These procedures have revolutionized patient care by reducing the need for open-heart surgery, improving recovery times, and expanding treatment options for high-risk individuals.^[7]^[57] Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is the most common application, primarily used to treat coronary artery disease by restoring blood flow in narrowed or blocked arteries. The procedure involves advancing a catheter to the lesion site under fluoroscopic guidance, followed by balloon angioplasty to compress plaque and deployment of a stent to maintain vessel patency. Introduced in the late 1970s and refined with drug-eluting stents, PCI is indicated for acute myocardial infarction, stable angina, and preventive revascularization. In the United States, nearly 900,000 PCI procedures are performed annually, underscoring its widespread adoption and impact on reducing morbidity from ischemic heart disease.^[7]^[57]^[57] Percutaneous valve repair and replacement procedures address structural heart diseases, particularly aortic stenosis, where traditional surgery poses high risks. Transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR), first successfully performed in 2002 by Alain Cribier, involves delivering a collapsible prosthetic valve via catheter to the aortic position, expanding it to replace the diseased native valve. This technique has evolved to include various access routes and valve designs, demonstrating superior outcomes in inoperable patients and comparable efficacy to surgery in intermediate-risk cases.^[58]^[59] In electrophysiology, percutaneous catheter ablation treats cardiac arrhythmias by targeting and destroying aberrant electrical pathways in the heart. Using radiofrequency energy or cryotherapy delivered through intracardiac catheters, the procedure isolates foci responsible for conditions like atrial fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, achieving long-term rhythm control in many patients. This approach has become a first-line therapy for drug-refractory arrhythmias, offering curative potential with minimal invasiveness.^[60]^[61]

Interventional Radiology Procedures

Interventional radiology procedures encompass a range of minimally invasive techniques that utilize percutaneous access to diagnose and treat non-cardiac organ pathologies, often guided by imaging modalities such as ultrasound or fluoroscopy. These approaches allow for targeted interventions in organs like the liver, kidney, and spine, minimizing the need for open surgery and reducing recovery times. Common applications include diagnostic sampling, therapeutic occlusion of abnormal vessels, tumor destruction, and structural reinforcement of fractured bones. Percutaneous needle biopsies are essential for obtaining tissue samples from tumors in abdominal and pelvic organs, facilitating accurate diagnosis and staging of malignancies. Performed under imaging guidance, these procedures involve inserting a fine needle through the skin to aspirate cells or core tissue, with techniques such as the coaxial method enhancing precision for deep lesions like those in the retroperitoneum or mesentery. Diagnostic accuracy exceeds 90% in many cases, particularly for abdominal tumors, though complication rates remain low at around 1-5%, including minor bleeding or infection. Similarly, percutaneous drainages target fluid collections such as abscesses in the abdomen, pelvis, or chest, using catheter placement via the Seldinger technique to evacuate pus and manage sepsis. Technical success rates surpass 90%, with clinical resolution achieved in over 80% of cases for conditions like diverticulitis or pancreatitis, though risks include transient bacteremia (approximately 5%) or bowel injury requiring conservative management. Embolization procedures involve percutaneously accessing arteries to deploy embolic agents, effectively controlling hemorrhage or devascularizing tumors by occluding blood supply. For bleeding control, transcatheter arterial embolization achieves hemostasis in 85-97% of lower gastrointestinal bleeds and over 90% of trauma-related cases in organs like the spleen or liver, using agents such as gelatin sponges or coils. In tumor treatment, embolization reduces vascularity prior to resection or as palliation, with applications in hepatic or renal malignancies showing sustained efficacy. A representative example is uterine fibroid embolization, where microspheres are injected into uterine arteries to shrink symptomatic fibroids, alleviating menorrhagia and bulk symptoms in 85-90% of patients, with major complications occurring in fewer than 5% of cases. Ablation therapies, such as percutaneous radiofrequency ablation (RFA), destroy solid tumors by delivering thermal energy through a needle electrode inserted under imaging guidance. Primarily used for liver cancers like hepatocellular carcinoma (tumors ≤5 cm), RFA creates a coagulative necrosis zone with a 1 cm margin, achieving complete response in over 80% of small lesions and serving as a bridge to transplantation. The procedure, lasting 8-25 minutes, carries a 30% risk of post-ablation syndrome (fever and pain) but low rates of severe complications like hemorrhage or infection. Percutaneous vertebroplasty addresses painful vertebral compression fractures, typically from osteoporosis, by injecting polymethyl methacrylate cement into the fractured vertebral body via a transpedicular approach under fluoroscopy. This stabilizes the bone and provides rapid pain relief, with studies showing significant improvement in quality of life and reduced analgesic needs in over 70% of patients within weeks. While effective for acute and chronic fractures, the procedure has a 50% complication rate, mostly asymptomatic cement leakage, with rare risks of infection or embolism.

Other Medical Uses

Percutaneous methods extend beyond vascular and radiological interventions to include non-invasive drug delivery systems that leverage skin absorption. Transdermal drug delivery involves the application of formulations, such as patches, directly to the intact skin, allowing therapeutic agents to permeate through the stratum corneum, epidermis, and dermis for systemic absorption via the microcirculation without the need for needles or punctures.^[62] This approach offers advantages like sustained release, improved patient compliance, and avoidance of first-pass metabolism, making it suitable for chronic conditions.^[63] Common examples include nicotine patches, approved in 1991, which deliver 7–21 mg per day to aid smoking cessation by facilitating controlled percutaneous absorption of the alkaloid.^[62] Hormone replacement therapies also utilize this method, with estradiol patches (approved 1986) providing 0.025–0.1 mg daily for menopausal symptoms and testosterone patches (approved 1995) delivering 0.3–5 mg for hypogonadism, both relying on passive diffusion across the skin barrier.^[62]^[64] In device implantation, percutaneous techniques enable the minimally invasive placement of mechanical support systems and neuromodulation devices. The Impella heart pump, an axial-flow catheter-based left ventricular assist device, is inserted retrogradely via the femoral artery using a 13–14 Fr sheath under fluoroscopic or echocardiographic guidance, crossing the aortic valve to unload the ventricle and provide up to 3.7 L/min of flow.^[65] This supports patients in cardiogenic shock or high-risk procedures by improving cardiac output and perfusion, with FDA approval for such uses based on trials like PROTECT II demonstrating hemodynamic benefits.^[65] Similarly, percutaneous neurostimulator implantation for spinal cord stimulation involves epidural needle placement of leads under fluoroscopy, typically at T8–T10 levels, connected to an external or implantable pulse generator for trial and permanent phases.^[66] Indicated for refractory neuropathic pain in conditions like failed back surgery syndrome or complex regional pain syndrome, it achieves ≥50% pain relief in about 47% of cases long-term, reducing opioid needs and improving quality of life, with low complication rates (3–5% infections).^[66] Percutaneous nephrostomy tubes provide essential drainage for renal obstructions, inserted via ultrasound- or fluoroscopy-guided needle puncture into a minor calyx, followed by guidewire and catheter placement to divert urine externally.^[12] Primarily used for urinary tract blockages with infection (e.g., pyonephrosis), this procedure relieves obstruction in 85–90% of cases, preventing sepsis and enabling stone management or diversion.^[12] Complications are infrequent, with major bleeding in 1–4% and minor issues like hematuria in up to 95%, often resolving without intervention; tubes require replacement every 2–3 months due to encrustation.^[12] For pain management, percutaneous nerve blocks deliver local anesthetics via needle to interrupt nerve signals, targeting sites like the brachial plexus or transversus abdominis plane.^[67] Effective in postoperative settings, such as femoral blocks reducing pain after hip arthroplasty or anterior serratus plane blocks for thoracic procedures, they lower opioid consumption by 30–50% and pain scores, though rebound pain occurs in 35–50% of patients upon resolution.^[67] Emerging percutaneous applications include endoscopy for intra-abdominal diagnostics and gene therapy delivery for targeted molecular interventions. Percutaneous endoscopy employs a gastroscope inserted through a trocar under local anesthesia to visualize and biopsy complex disorders like peritoneal tuberculosis or adhesions, achieving 91.9% diagnostic accuracy and enabling therapeutic adhesiolysis with no reported perforations or major complications in initial series.^[68] This minimally invasive method, with procedure times around 50 minutes and costs under 1,600 USD, shows promise for primary care settings as an alternative to laparoscopy.^[68] As of 2025, advancements include expanded percutaneous left atrial appendage closure for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation, with devices like Watchman achieving over 95% success rates in reducing embolism risk.^[69] In gene therapy, percutaneous coronary or endocardial catheter delivery infuses vectors like AAV1.SERCA2a into the myocardium to enhance cardiac function in heart failure, with techniques such as retrograde venous infusion achieving up to 43% transfection efficiency in preclinical models and demonstrating safety in phase I/II trials like CUPID.^[70] These approaches focus on angiogenesis or calcium handling restoration, offering focal expression with reduced systemic exposure compared to intravenous methods.^[70]

Advantages and Risks

Benefits

Percutaneous procedures are inherently minimally invasive, typically involving small punctures of 1-2 mm in diameter rather than the large incisions (often 10-20 cm) required in open surgery, which preserves surrounding tissues and reduces trauma to the body.^[71]^[72] This approach leads to faster recovery times, with patients often resuming normal activities in days to a week compared to weeks or months for open procedures, minimizing postoperative pain and enabling quicker return to daily life.^[73]^[74] The reduced risks associated with percutaneous methods include lower infection rates, varying by procedure from 0.1-3% versus 2-10% in open surgery, along with significantly less blood loss (e.g., 80-200 mL compared to 600-700 mL in cited cases) and often shorter hospital stays (e.g., 1-4 days versus 5-10 days, though varying by complexity).^[75]^[76]^[77] These benefits stem from limited exposure of internal structures to external contaminants and the avoidance of extensive tissue disruption, contributing to overall lower perioperative morbidity. Benefits and risks vary by procedure type and patient factors, with vascular interventions like PCI often showing minimal blood loss (<100 mL) and outpatient feasibility, compared to more invasive ones like PCNL (200-500 mL, 2-4 days stay).^[7]^[9] Percutaneous interventions are often cost-effective, with many performed on an outpatient basis, resulting in 30-50% lower overall costs compared to open surgery due to reduced hospital resource utilization, fewer complications requiring readmission, and shorter recovery periods that decrease indirect expenses like lost productivity.^[78]^[79]^[80] Additionally, these procedures enhance accessibility for high-risk patients, as they can frequently be conducted under local anesthesia or conscious sedation without the need for general anesthesia, making them viable options for individuals with comorbidities who may not tolerate the physiological stress of open surgery.^[81]^[82]^[83] As of 2025, advances such as radial artery access and robotic-assisted systems have further reduced vascular complications to <1% and radiation exposure in many centers, per updated guidelines.^[84]^[85]

Complications and Risks

Percutaneous procedures, while minimally invasive, carry specific vascular risks primarily due to arterial access and manipulation. Common complications include bleeding, hematoma formation, pseudoaneurysm (with an incidence of 0.2-5% in peripheral interventions, higher for femoral access at 1-5% and lower for radial at <0.2%), and vessel perforation, which can lead to significant morbidity if not promptly addressed.^[86]^[87]^[88] These risks are heightened in patients with preexisting vascular disease or those requiring larger sheath sizes.^[89] Infection risks, though low (typically <1% with proper protocols), arise from skin puncture and instrumentation, while allergic reactions are often linked to contrast agents used in imaging-guided procedures. Hypersensitivity to iodinated contrast can manifest as urticaria, bronchospasm, or anaphylaxis, with an overall incidence of 0.6-3% for mild reactions and <0.04% for severe cases.^[90]^[91] Strict adherence to sterile techniques, including single-use barriers and antiseptic preparation, is essential to mitigate infection transmission.^[92] Systemic complications encompass contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN), defined as a creatinine rise >0.5 mg/dL within 48-72 hours post-exposure, affecting >2% of general populations but up to 20-30% in high-risk groups like those with diabetes or chronic kidney disease, and radiation exposure from fluoroscopy, which poses risks of skin injury or long-term carcinogenesis with prolonged use (>60 minutes).^[93]^[94]^[95] Prevention strategies focus on tailored anticoagulation management, such as protamine reversal for heparin to reduce bleeding, rigorous sterile techniques to avert infections, and vigilant post-procedure monitoring for early detection of complications.^[96]^[92] In cardiac cases, rare events like stroke occur in 0.5-2% of procedures, often managed through embolic protection devices and hemodynamic optimization.^[97]^[98] These approaches help balance the reduced overall surgical risks of percutaneous methods compared to open surgery.^[96]

References

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Originating from Latin per cutem "through the skin," percutaneous means passed or done through the skin, combining per "through" + cutis "skin."
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Listen to pronunciation. (per-kyoo-TAY-nee-us) Passing through the skin, as an injection or a topical medicine.
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Jul 12, 2016 · This was a critical moment in the history of cardiovascular medicine. ... Stent visualization methods to guide percutaneous coronary interventions ...
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Central Venous Catheter Insertion - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 4, 2025 · To do this, an angiocatheter is threaded over the wire, the wire is removed, and the included extension set for the central venous catheter is ...
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PROCEDURE · Planning Path · Puncture · Wire Purchase · Serial Dilation · Catheter Insertion.
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Dec 1, 2021 · It is a method developed by Swedish radiologist, Sven Ivar Seldinger, in 1953 to sequentially exchange a needle for catheter within a vessel or hollow organ.
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18G Seldinger Needle: Why Medical Professionals Trust It - KDL
May 22, 2025 · The 18G Seldinger needle offers safe, accurate vascular access with minimal invasiveness. See why medical professionals trust it worldwide.
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Tools of the Trade | Radiology Key
Mar 29, 2020 · The sequence of needle, guidewire, dilator, and sheath is the basis for vascular access using the Seldinger technique. For initial access, the ...
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[PDF] Ultrasound First, Second, and Last for Vascular Access
Although the femoral vein is consistently located medial to the femoral artery when accessed high enough, ultrasound imaging helps avoid arterial puncture and ...
[43]
State of the Art of Image Guidance in Interventional Radiology
Nov 17, 2018 · Three types of image guidance techniques are distinguished: 1) X-ray-related image guidance based on computed tomography (CT), fluoroscopy, 2D ...
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Imaging-guided Injection Techniques with Fluoroscopy and CT for ...
Jul 1, 2001 · Imaging-guided techniques with fluoroscopy or computed tomography increase the precision of these procedures and help confirm needle placement.
[45]
Use of Ultrasound as an Alternative to Fluoroscopy
In these procedures, fluoroscopy simply serves as an image-guidance tool, and as such, alternative imaging modalities that do not rely on ionizing radiation ...
[46]
Comparison of Sonographic and CT Guidance Techniques
CT fluoroscopy has been hailed as a major breakthrough in interventional procedure guidance because of its ability to combine the localizing strengths of CT ...
[47]
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Guidance for Percutaneous Needle ...
MRI guidance has several advantages, including multiplanar imaging capability, superior soft tissue contrast resolution, and the absence of ionizing radiation.
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Image-guided procedures in the hybrid operating room: A systematic ...
Apr 1, 2022 · The hybrid operating room (OR) combines the functionality of a standard OR with fixed advanced imaging systems to facilitate minimally invasive ...
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Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI) - Yale Medicine
PCI is a non-surgical procedure used to treat the blockages in a coronary artery; it opens up narrowed or blocked sections of the artery, restoring blood flow ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
In 2002, Dr. Alain Cribier performed the first successful percutaneous aortic valve replacement on an inoperable patient. The first approval of TAVR for the ...
[52]
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Jan 14, 2024 · Since the first TAVR in 2002, the procedure has evolved significantly in its technique, the access points, and the choice of anaesthesia.
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Oct 24, 2024 · Catheter ablation is a procedure that uses radiofrequency energy (similar to microwave heat) to destroy a small area of heart tissue that is causing rapid and ...
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Catheter Ablation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Catheter ablation is now the mainstay treatment of most arrhythmia, it can offer a better choice for those suffering recurrent arrhythmias, and is a permanent ...
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Transdermal Drug Delivery - PubMed Central
This review details the progress and current status of the transdermal drug delivery field and describes numerous pharmaceutical developments
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Transdermal drug delivery - PMC - NIH
Transdermal drug delivery has made an important contribution to medical practice, but has yet to fully achieve its potential as an alternative to oral delivery ...
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A Review of the Impella Devices - PMC - PubMed Central
Apr 8, 2022 · Impella heart pumps (Abiomed) are intravascular microaxial blood pumps that provide temporary MCS during HRPCI or in the treatment of cardiogenic shock.
[58]
Spinal Cord Stimulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
More intrusive than percutaneous injection therapy, yet less invasive than back surgery, this technique uses pulsed electrical energy near the spinal cord to ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Anatomy and Physiology · Preparation
[59]
Nerve Blocks for Post-Surgical Pain Management - PubMed Central
Oct 2, 2024 · This narrative review investigates the effectiveness of nerve blocks in management of both acute and chronic postoperative pain.
[60]
Percutaneous endoscopy in the management of intra-abdominal ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Percutaneous endoscopy is a safe and effective diagnostic tool for intra-abdominal complex disorders, offering high diagnostic accuracy and ...Missing: emerging | Show results with:emerging
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Current strategies for myocardial gene delivery - PMC - NIH
The feasibility and efficacy of percutaneous retrograde gene delivery by selective pressure-regulated retroinfusion of the coronary veins has been demonstrated ...
[62]
Minimally Invasive Surgery | Foosteps LLC
Jun 12, 2022 · During MIS, a surgeon will make one or more small portals, commonly 1-2 mm, in the patient's skin. Radiologic guidance is necessary for the ...
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Percutaneous Disc Recovery Time - Florida Surgery Consultants
The recovery time after you have been released from our outpatient surgery center will be around 1 week. This is shorter than the normal spine surgeries.
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Percutaneous minimally invasive versus open spine surgery in ... - NIH
Percutaneous MIS resulted in less blood loss and shorter length of hospital stay than open surgery. • No complications were reported using percutaneous MIS.
[66]
Percutaneous versus open tracheostomy: comparison of procedures ...
Feb 21, 2013 · Patients who underwent percutaneous tracheostomy had a statistically significantly lower rate of SSI (3.4%) than the open surgery group (7%).
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Outcomes of Percutaneous Versus Open Lumbopelvic Fixation ... - NIH
In this current study, the open group had significantly more blood loss (p < 0.001) and more surgical site infections (p=0.03).
[68]
Outcomes of Minimally Invasive Surgery Compared to Open ... - NIH
The estimated blood loss is lower in MIS (211.3 mL) and open (683.8 mL). Length of hospitalization is shorter in MIS (3.8 days) versus open (7.4 days). However, ...
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Percutaneous and Minimally Invasive Valve Procedures | Circulation
Less invasive and even percutaneous valve therapies will likely have a major impact on the management of patients with valvular heart disease over the next ...
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[PDF] Hand and Upper Extremity Procedures Are Significantly More Cost ...
This resulted in an approximately 45% savings for total costs,. Medicare payments, and patient payments, as well as approximately 53% cost savings for facility ...
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Outpatient Percutaneous Coronary Interventions: Hospital ... - JACC
Oct 20, 2010 · The mean difference of $1,141 (95% confidence interval: $962 to $1,320), representing a 50% relative reduction in medical costs after PCI, was ...
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Is Less Really More? Economic Evaluation of Minimally Invasive ...
In general, MIS techniques appeared to decrease blood loss, shorten hospital lengths of stay, mitigate complications, decrease perioperative pain, and enable ...
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Percutaneous mitral valve repair with the MitraClip® system under ...
In patients at high risk for complications related to general anaesthesia, percutaneous mitral valve repair under local anaesthesia may be a viable alternative.
[74]
ID:16574 Innovative Awake Percutaneous Lateral-Oblique ...
•No patient converted to general anesthesia. •Patients reported immediate improvement. •No complication. •No device failure. •Average blood loss less than 25 cc.Missing: suitable | Show results with:suitable
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Aug 21, 2020 · In clinical practice, local anesthesia with conscious sedation (CS) is performed in roughly 50% of patients undergoing transcatheter aortic ...
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Access Site Complications Following Peripheral Vascular ... - NIH
Dec 1, 2015 · Access site hematomas and pseudoaneurysms are the most frequent complications of peripheral vascular intervention (PVI); however, their incidence and risk ...
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Transradial Artery Access Complications | Circulation
Nov 1, 2019 · Major intra- and postprocedural complications such as radial artery perforation and compartment syndrome are rare following TRA. Their ...
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Iatrogenic Vascular Injuries: Presentation, Imaging & Management
The incidence of vascular access site–related complications ranges from 0.8 to 1.8% for diagnostic arteriography, but has been reported to be as high as 9% when ...
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Infectious complications of percutaneous cardiac procedures
Patient infection is a potential complication of percutaneous cardiac procedures, but the incidence is very low due to the use of sterile techniques and ...
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Side Effects of Radiographic Contrast Media: Pathogenesis, Risk ...
The most important adverse effects of contrast media include hypersensitivity reactions, thyroid dysfunction, and contrast-induced nephropathy.
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Jun 17, 2016 · Sterile technique in the context of medical and surgical procedures refers to the process used to prevent contamination of wounds and other ...
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A risk score of less than 6 carries a risk of 7.5% and more than 16 carries up to 57% risk. Go to: Epidemiology. The prevalence of diabetes and chronic kidney ...
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Impact of Contrast-Induced Acute Kidney Injury After Percutaneous ...
Jul 21, 2015 · Although CI-AKI occurs in <3.5% of low-risk patients undergoing elective procedure, the incidence dramatically increases to 15% to 19% in ACS.
[84]
Risks Related To Fluoroscopy Radiation Associated With ... - NIH
Patient skin injuries may occur when fluoroscopic procedures exceed 20 min, using high-contrast fluoroscopy mode, or 60 min in low-level fluoroscopy. Tissue ...
[85]
Complications and Anticoagulation Strategies for Percutaneous ...
Oct 31, 2018 · Bleeding is the major risk related to pericardial access and seems to be more related to unintentional cardiac puncture than to the anticoagulation strategy.
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Stroke Complicating Percutaneous Coronary Interventions
One of the most serious adverse complications is stroke, reported to occur in 0.07% to 0.3% of all PCI procedures. The low incidence makes it difficult to ...
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Incidence, Predictors, and Outcomes of Acute Ischemic Stroke ...
Aug 12, 2019 · In recent randomized controlled trials, the incidence of post-PCI stroke was 0.8% to 1.4% with PCI for acute myocardial infarction and 0.4% to ...