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Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is a projective psychological test that assesses overall personality adjustment and screens for potential maladjustment by having respondents complete 40 unfinished sentences with their immediate thoughts.^[1]^[2] Developed by psychologist Julian B. Rotter in collaboration with Janet E. Rafferty, the test was first published in 1950 as a standardized tool to elicit unconscious attitudes, conflicts, and emotional states through quick, uncensored responses.^[3] It exists in three forms adapted for specific age groups—elementary school children, college students, and adults—to evaluate adjustment in educational, clinical, and counseling contexts.^[3] Administration typically takes 20–40 minutes via paper-and-pencil format, with respondents instructed to finish each stem in one or two words as rapidly as possible to minimize deliberation.^[1]^[3] Responses are objectively scored using a manual system that categorizes completions into adjusted or maladjusted based on predefined criteria, yielding a total adjustment score where lower values indicate greater psychological distress.^[2] A revised second edition (RISB-2), incorporating Michael I. Lah as a co-author and updated normative data, was released in 1992 to enhance applicability for high school students through adults while preserving the original's core methodology.^[1] The RISB demonstrates strong interrater reliability (intraclass correlations exceeding 0.80) and construct validity, correlating with measures of negative affect, anxiety, depression, interpersonal problems, and personality disorder symptoms.^[2] Widely employed for over seven decades, it serves primarily as an efficient screening instrument rather than a comprehensive diagnostic tool, aiding in the identification of individuals needing further psychological evaluation.^[1]^[3]

Overview

Description

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is a semi-structured projective test designed to assess overall adjustment and personality traits through the completion of incomplete sentences.^[4]^[5] Developed as a standardized adaptation of sentence completion techniques, it serves as a tool for evaluating psychological adjustment on a continuum from well-adjusted to maladjusted.^[4] In its core method, respondents receive 40 incomplete sentence stems—such as "I regret _____"—and are instructed to finish each with the first word or phrase that comes to mind, usually within approximately 20 minutes.^[4]^[5] This approach encourages spontaneous responses that can reveal attitudes, conflicts, and relational dynamics without the constraints of structured questioning.^[5] The primary purpose of the RISB is to screen for maladjustment, identify emotional conflicts, and offer insights into socioemotional functioning, facilitating decisions about further counseling or intervention.^[4]^[5] As a projective technique, it enables the indirect expression of unconscious thoughts and feelings, contrasting with direct self-report measures by minimizing defensiveness and tapping into latent cognitions about self and others.^[5]

Historical Development

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) was developed by psychologist Julian B. Rotter and research assistant Janet E. Rafferty in the late 1940s at Ohio State University, with its initial manual published in 1950 by The Psychological Corporation as a standardized screening tool primarily for assessing adjustment among college students.^[4] The test emerged from earlier sentence completion methods employed in military settings during World War II, where Rotter, in collaboration with Benjamin Willerman, adapted forms originally used at Army Air Forces convalescent hospitals, such as those revised from blanks by Shor, Hutt, and Holzberg at Mason General Hospital, to screen soldiers for emotional adjustment and potential psychiatric issues.^[4]^[6] The theoretical foundation of the RISB is rooted in Rotter's social learning theory, which posits that personality and behavior arise from interactions between individuals' expectancies about outcomes and the value they place on reinforcements from their social environment, allowing the test to probe underlying attitudes, conflicts, and levels of psychological adjustment through semi-structured responses.^[7]^[4] This approach positioned the RISB as a bridge between fully subjective projective techniques, such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and more objective measures, evolving toward semi-objective scoring criteria to enhance reliability while retaining insights into unconscious processes. Subsequent revisions refined the instrument's applicability and standardization. The 1950 manual established core scoring norms based on validation studies with college populations, but later updates addressed broader demographics; a notable revision occurred in 1992 with the second edition (RISB-2), co-authored by Rotter, Michael I. Lah, and Rafferty, which incorporated updated norms, expanded forms for adolescents and adults, and improved scoring guidelines to better reflect contemporary adjustment criteria.^[1]^[8] These changes emphasized the test's evolution from a wartime-derived qualitative tool to a more reliable, empirically grounded assessment in clinical and educational contexts.

Administration and Forms

Test Procedure

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is administered in approximately 20 minutes, making it suitable for both individual and group settings, such as classrooms or clinical environments.^[4] The test requires administration by qualified professionals familiar with psychological assessment protocols. The test requires Level C qualification, meaning it should be administered by professionals with advanced training in psychological assessment.^[9] Materials consist of a test booklet containing 40 incomplete sentence stems, covering themes such as family relations, attitudes toward others, self-concept, school/work, general attitudes, and interpersonal relations.^[4] Respondents are provided with these stems and instructed to complete each one with the first word or phrase that comes to mind, aiming to form a complete sentence that expresses their real feelings; examiners emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers to reduce defensiveness and promote honest projection.^[4] Standard directions are read aloud, such as: "Complete these sentences to express your real feelings. Try to do every one. Make a complete sentence," with gentle urging if a respondent hesitates, but without probing or influencing content.^[4] The examiner's role involves distributing materials, providing and repeating instructions as needed, monitoring for compliance (e.g., ensuring all stems are attempted), and collecting responses at the end, while maintaining a neutral, non-judgmental atmosphere to preserve the projective nature of the task.^[9] Prerequisites include basic literacy and writing ability, rendering the test appropriate for high school students and adults (approximately age 14 and older), with forms tailored to developmental levels.^[9]

Available Versions

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is available in three primary forms tailored to different age groups and life stages, each consisting of 40 incomplete sentence stems designed to assess overall psychological adjustment.^[10] These forms maintain a consistent structure but feature slight variations in stem wording to ensure relevance and developmental appropriateness for the target population.^[5] The original College Form targets young adults, typically ages 18 to 24, such as college students, with stems emphasizing academic pressures, social relationships, and personal aspirations relevant to this transitional phase.^[5] Developed first in 1950, it serves as the foundational version upon which the others were adapted, focusing on screening for adjustment issues in educational settings. The Adult Form is adapted for working adults aged 25 and older, adjusting stem content to address career challenges, interpersonal dynamics in professional contexts, and life stressors outside academia.^[10] Specific modifications include rephrasing items to reflect mature experiences, such as changing references from school-related scenarios to occupational ones, while preserving the overall screening purpose. The School Form, also referred to as the High School Form, is intended for adolescents aged 14 to 18, with stems modified for developmental suitability, incorporating more prompts related to family dynamics, peer interactions, and emerging independence to align with this age group's concerns.^[5] Like the other forms, it uses 40 items but employs simpler or age-appropriate language to facilitate completion without altering the core adjustment assessment.^[10] All forms share the 40-item format and are published by Pearson Assessments, the successor to the original Psychological Corporation, with the Second Edition (RISB-2) released in 1992 providing updated norms primarily based on the College Form, applied cautiously to the others.^[10] While traditionally administered via paper-and-pencil with manual scoring, computer-administered versions have been explored in research settings, though manual evaluation remains the standard practice.^[11]

Scoring and Interpretation

Scoring Process

The scoring process for the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) involves a semi-objective, manual evaluation of the 40 completed sentence stems by trained professionals, using gender-specific scoring manuals that provide criteria for assigning weights based on the presence of conflict indicators such as hostility, pessimism, or poor adjustment.^[4] Each response is weighted on a scale from 0 (indicating strong positive adjustment, such as optimism or acceptance) to 6 (indicating severe conflict or maladjustment), with intermediate scores for neutral (3) or mildly positive/negative content; for example, a completion to the stem "I like _____." such as "meeting new people" might score 0 or 1 for positive sentiment, while "being alone and miserable" would score 5 or 6 for evident pessimism.^[4] Omissions or irrelevant responses are handled by prorating if fewer than 20 occur, but protocols with more than 20 omissions are considered unscorable.^[4] The 40 stems are conceptually grouped into thematic areas, including self-concept, family relations, interpersonal attitudes, and emotional experiences, allowing scorers to evaluate patterns of conflict across these domains while computing an overall raw score by summing the individual item weights, yielding a total range of 0 to 240 (higher scores reflecting greater maladjustment).^[5] Manual guidelines emphasize comparing responses to provided examples for each stem, considering both content and length—longer, elaborated responses may add a point toward conflict if they reveal underlying tension—ensuring consistency through detailed exemplars like "My mother..." completions scoring higher for expressions of resentment (e.g., 4-6) versus neutral descriptions (3).^[4] Scoring typically requires 30-60 minutes per protocol, depending on the scorer's experience, and emphasizes training to achieve high inter-rater reliability, reported at approximately 0.91 for males and 0.96 for females in the original system.^[5]^[4] In the 1992 second edition (RISB-2), the core scoring mechanics remain unchanged, but updates incorporate revised normative data from diverse samples to address potential cultural biases, reducing score inflation for non-traditional respondents by adjusting cutoff thresholds based on adjusted and maladjusted groups. This revision maintains the manual's example-based approach while enhancing applicability across varied cultural contexts through empirically derived standards.^[5]

Adjustment Assessment

The adjustment assessment of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) evaluates psychological adjustment through a combination of quantitative total scores and qualitative examination of responses, providing a screening measure of emotional and social functioning.^[12] The total adjustment score, derived from weighting individual stem completions on a scale where positive responses score 0 and conflicted responses score up to 6 (with a maximum total of 240), indicates the extent of maladjustment, with higher scores reflecting greater impairment.^[13] Cutoff scores, typically around 135, are used to differentiate adjusted (lower scores) from maladjusted (higher scores) individuals, based on normative samples; exact thresholds may vary by context, age group, and edition, with interpretation emphasizing a binary classification for screening purposes.^[14]^[13] Qualitative analysis complements these totals by reviewing conflicted stems (scored 4-6) for recurring themes, such as anxiety in responses to stems like "I worry..." or depression in completions to "What annoys me..." that reveal pessimism or self-criticism.^[13] The 1992 manual supplies updated normative data stratified by age and gender from more diverse samples, enabling comparison to relevant populations.^[12] Interpretation caveats emphasize that RISB scores offer only a screening-level indicator of adjustment, not a clinical diagnosis, and should be integrated with other standardized tests for comprehensive evaluation.^[14] An example of practical application is elevated conflict scores on family-related stems, such as "My mother..." completed with expressions of resentment or dependency, which may point to underlying relational issues warranting further exploration.^[13]

Psychometric Properties

Reliability

The reliability of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) encompasses internal consistency, test-retest stability, and inter-rater agreement, establishing its consistency as a screening tool for psychological adjustment. Internal consistency for the RISB is moderate to good for a projective measure, with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.69 to 0.86 across adult and adolescent forms.^[6] Split-half reliability coefficients similarly fall between 0.76 and 0.85 in college samples, reflecting adequate item homogeneity.^[15] Test-retest reliability over 1- to 2-week intervals yields coefficients of 0.60 to 0.82, indicating stable scores for adjustment assessment.^[16] For instance, a study of 120 college freshmen women reported a coefficient of 0.82. Inter-rater reliability surpasses 0.80 with trained scorers following the 1992 manual, often reaching 0.88 to 0.90 or higher in clinical and student samples.^[6] Seminal validation efforts, such as Churchill and Crandall's 1955 study on college students, confirmed high inter-scorer agreement and test-retest stability. In adolescents, Weis et al.'s 2008 research demonstrated adequate inter-rater reliability and split-half estimates around 0.68, supporting its use in younger diverse groups. Cultural adaptations, like the Polish version, maintain strong internal consistency with Cronbach's alpha of 0.80.

Validity

The validity of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) has been supported through multiple lines of evidence, including construct, criterion, and content validity, establishing its utility as a screening tool for psychological adjustment. Construct validity is demonstrated by moderate correlations between RISB adjustment scores and relevant personality measures, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scales assessing maladjustment, with coefficients typically ranging from 0.40 to 0.60 in college and adult samples.^[16] A 2008 study with adolescents further linked RISB scores to internalizing and externalizing behaviors, showing convergent validity with the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2), where higher maladjustment scores correlated with elevated reports of anxiety, depression, and aggression from self, parent, and teacher perspectives (r ≈ 0.30-0.50).^[17]^[18] Criterion validity is evident in the RISB's ability to predict counseling needs and related outcomes, particularly in educational settings. Early validation studies from the 1950s, including Churchill and Crandall's 1955 study, found that high maladjustment scores effectively screened college students seeking psychological counseling, with adjusted individuals scoring significantly lower (means around 120-130) compared to those requesting help (means above 150).^[19] Concurrent validity is supported by associations with anxiety and depression inventories, such as the Beck Depression Inventory, where RISB scores predicted symptom severity (r = 0.45-0.55) in clinical samples.^[2] Content validity stems from the test's 40 sentence prompts, which systematically cover Rotter's key adjustment domains, including attitudes toward self, family, and others, ensuring comprehensive sampling of socioemotional functioning. Factor analyses of responses have confirmed a primary socioemotional factor underlying the adjustment scores, accounting for 40-50% of variance and aligning with thematic content related to interpersonal relations and self-perception.^[6] A 2023 extension developed object relations scales for the RISB, validating thematic depth in responses through interrater reliability (ICC > 0.80) and correlations with MMPI-2 scales (r up to 0.47), enhancing its interpretive utility in clinical contexts.^[20] Despite these strengths, evidence for predictive validity is weaker in non-clinical populations, where overlap in scores between adjusted and mildly distressed individuals reduces screening accuracy to around 70-75%.^[21] Furthermore, while the 1992 revision provided updated norms, subsequent research highlights the need for more diverse standardization samples to address cultural and demographic biases in post-1992 applications.

Applications

Clinical Use

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is commonly employed in clinical settings as a screening tool during intake assessments to identify individuals exhibiting signs of maladjustment, such as emotional distress or psychological impairment, thereby flagging those who may require more intensive therapeutic intervention.^[22] High adjustment scores, indicating poorer emotional functioning, help clinicians prioritize cases for deeper evaluation, with research demonstrating its ability to differentiate treatment-seeking clients from non-clinical populations.^[23] In personality profiling, thematic analysis of RISB responses allows clinicians to uncover underlying conflicts, such as interpersonal hostility or relational anxieties, which can inform targeted interventions like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).^[24] For instance, recurrent themes of distrust in responses to stems like "I regret..." may highlight areas for CBT-focused work on maladaptive thought patterns, with validation studies showing correlations between RISB-derived traits (e.g., Neuroticism) and established psychopathology measures.^[23] The RISB also facilitates progress monitoring in therapy by comparing pre- and post-treatment scores to track improvements in overall adjustment, providing objective evidence of therapeutic gains or persistent issues.^[23] Scores interpreted via adjustment scales from the manual reveal changes in socioemotional functioning, with correlations as high as r = .82 to distress metrics supporting its utility in longitudinal clinical care.^[22] Clinicians often integrate the RISB with projective tools like the Rorschach Inkblot Test or structured interviews to enhance diagnostic accuracy and case formulation in therapeutic contexts.^[25] It proves particularly valuable in forensic psychology for evaluating psychological states in legal proceedings and in substance abuse treatment for assessing emotional conflicts contributing to addictive behaviors.^[5]^[26]

Educational and Screening Use

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) was originally developed in the late 1940s as a screening tool to identify maladjusted incoming college freshmen at risk for academic or personal difficulties, facilitating early referrals to counseling services. This application, validated through comparisons with criterion groups of adjusted and non-adjusted students, aimed to detect subtle indicators of poor adjustment such as anxiety or interpersonal conflicts before they escalated.^[27] In educational settings, the College Form remains useful for large-scale freshman orientations, where elevated adjustment scores above established cutoffs prompt interventions to support student retention.^[28] In school counseling, the High School Form of the RISB is employed to screen adolescents for adjustment issues, including responses to bullying, academic stress, or family dynamics that may impair learning and social functioning.^[29] Counselors administer it to identify at-risk students in group or individual formats, using quantitative scoring to flag maladjustment levels that warrant follow-up discussions or support plans.^[30] This preventive approach helps address emotional barriers to educational success without delving into deep clinical diagnostics. For occupational screening, the Adult Form supports employee assistance programs by detecting signs of workplace stress, such as conflict with colleagues or job dissatisfaction, in corporate or organizational onboarding.^[13] It is particularly valued in high-stakes environments like military training, where group administration allows efficient assessment of large cohorts to monitor adjustment during entry phases.^[31] High scores on these screenings typically lead to referrals for resources like stress management workshops, with evidence from validation studies indicating that such early interventions correlate with improved organizational outcomes, including lower voluntary turnover.

Advantages and Limitations

Strengths

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is noted for its ease of administration, requiring only about 20 minutes for completion and allowing group testing without specialized equipment or advanced training beyond basic instructions.^[13] This efficiency makes it suitable for busy clinical or educational environments, where it serves as a quick screening tool for adjustment issues.^[1] A primary strength lies in its semi-standardized scoring approach, which incorporates objective criteria to assign weights from 0 to 6 per response, thereby minimizing scorer subjectivity relative to unstructured projective techniques while retaining qualitative depth.^[13] This balance enhances reliability in interpretation, with reported inter-scorer agreement exceeding 0.90.^[13] The test's versatility stems from its adaptable format, available in versions for adolescents, college students, and adults, enabling use across diverse settings such as counseling and vocational guidance; the open-ended stems permit respondents to reveal nuanced attitudes and conflicts indirectly.^[1] Additionally, its low material costs and straightforward manual scoring render it cost-effective for initial assessments, requiring no extensive clinician preparation.^[13] The 1992 revision bolsters cultural adaptability through updated norms derived from broader samples, facilitating application in multicultural contexts and promoting less guarded self-disclosure of emotional concerns.^[1]

Criticisms and Limitations

One major criticism of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is the subjectivity inherent in its scoring process. Although the test provides detailed manuals with examples for assigning weights from 0 to 6 to each completion, raters must still apply judgment based on personality theory, which can introduce bias and variability, particularly when qualitative nuances are underutilized in favor of quantitative totals. This semi-objective approach requires examiners to have substantial knowledge of personality assessment, limiting its accessibility for less experienced practitioners and potentially reducing inter-rater reliability in complex cases. The test's normative data, primarily derived from samples in the 1940s and updated only through the 1992 manual, are widely regarded as outdated, failing to reflect contemporary demographics, cultural shifts, or technological influences as of 2025. For instance, sentence stems include references like "chalk screeching on a blackboard," which lack relevance for modern respondents, and the norms do not adequately account for multicultural or diverse populations, with limited evidence of validity in non-Western contexts. Studies have noted potential racial differences in responses, though mean scores did not differ significantly between African American and White participants, highlighting the need for updated, inclusive norms to avoid overpathologizing diverse groups. As a screening tool, the RISB provides only a broad indicator of overall adjustment and lacks the depth required for diagnosing complex psychological conditions, often missing nuanced psychopathology. It is particularly unsuitable for individuals who are illiterate, as the task demands written responses, or those with cognitive impairments, who may produce insufficient or uncooperative completions, yielding unreliable results. Gender-specific scoring criteria in the manuals further exacerbate inclusivity issues and may distort interpretations across genders. Validity concerns are prominent, especially for adolescent populations, where studies from 2008 onward have reported moderate correlations with self-reported measures of anxiety, depression, and interpersonal problems but low test-retest reliability, questioning its stability over time.^[32] Predictive power for maladjustment remains limited, with over 55% of high school students and 40% of college students exceeding maladjustment cutoffs when using 1940s norms, suggesting inflated pathology rates rather than true prevalence. Incremental validity is modest at best, adding little unique variance beyond general distress measures. The RISB's reliance on projective assumptions—that incomplete sentences elicit unconscious attitudes—has drawn modern scrutiny, as empirical support for such mechanisms is weak, prompting calls for quantitative revisions in the 2010s to enhance objectivity. Proposals include converting stems to Likert-scale formats and de-gendering items.^[33] Recent research as of 2025, including new object relations subscales, continues to explore enhancements to its psychometric properties.^[34]

References

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The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is the most widely used sentence completion method and is often included in personality assessment.
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### Summary of RISB-2 Versions/Forms
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