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SpaDeX

SpaDeX, or the Space Docking Experiment, is a technology demonstrator mission developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to validate key in-orbit capabilities, including autonomous rendezvous, docking, and undocking of two small satellites, as well as power transfer and controllability in a docked configuration.^[1] Launched on December 30, 2024, aboard the PSLV-C60 rocket from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, the mission deployed two identical 220 kg satellites—SDX-01 (the chaser) and SDX-02 (the target)—into low Earth orbit at an altitude of approximately 475 km.^[1]^[2] These satellites feature an androgynous docking mechanism, indigenous rendezvous sensors, inter-satellite communication systems, solar panels, lithium-ion batteries, and advanced actuators for precise maneuvering.^[1] After initial deployment and proximity operations, including trial approaches to distances of 15 meters and 3 meters, the satellites successfully docked on January 16, 2025, following postponements from the planned January 9 date due to technical adjustments.^[2]^[1] This achievement positioned India as the fourth nation to master space docking technology, after the United States, Russia, and China, and demonstrated cost-effective methods using small spacecraft for such experiments.^[1]^[2] The mission's successes, including docking, undocking on March 13, 2025, a second docking with power transfer on April 20, 2025, and entry into an extended phase as of May 2025, are pivotal for future endeavors like the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample return, and manned lunar exploration, by enabling satellite servicing, debris mitigation, and multi-module assembly in orbit.^[1]^[3]^[4] The PSLV-C60 mission, which included SpaDeX, incorporated experiments on microgravity crop growth, such as the successful germination of cowpea sprouts via the CROPS payload on the POEM-4 platform.^[2]^[5]

Development and Planning

History

The research and development for the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission was initiated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 2016 as part of its broader efforts to advance in-orbit technologies under the Space Docking Experiment program.^[6] This early phase focused on preliminary studies to assess feasibility and identify key technical requirements for docking small satellites in low Earth orbit. In 2017, the Government of India formally approved the project, allocating an initial budget of ₹10 crore specifically for feasibility studies and conceptual design work.^[7] This funding enabled ISRO to conduct ground-based simulations and prototype development, laying the groundwork for more advanced experimentation. The mission received full sanction in July 2022, with an escalated budget of ₹124.47 crore to support detailed engineering, satellite fabrication, and integration activities.^[8] SpaDeX was positioned as a critical enabler for ISRO's ambitious future programs, including the sample return capabilities of Chandrayaan-4, the human spaceflight objectives of Gaganyaan, and the assembly of the Bharatiya Antariksha Station targeted for completion by 2035.^[9]^[10] Pre-launch preparations advanced steadily, with satellite assembly and rigorous testing phases, including environmental simulations and subsystem verifications, completed by late 2024.^[11]

Objectives

The SpaDeX mission, approved in 2022 as part of India's broader space ambitions including the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, primarily aims to develop and demonstrate autonomous orbital rendezvous and docking technologies using two small spacecraft in low Earth orbit.^[12]^[13] The core demonstration involves a V-bar approach, where the chaser spacecraft aligns along the target's velocity vector for docking at a low relative velocity of approximately 10 mm/s to minimize impact.^[9]^[14] Success criteria include achieving docking with high positional precision on the order of millimeters and maintaining structural integrity during capture and rigidization.^[9]^[13] Additional primary goals encompass verifying electrical power transfer between the docked satellites and demonstrating controllability of the pair as a single composite spacecraft, which could extend the operational life of a target satellite by leveraging the chaser's resources.^[12]^[13] These objectives are designed to validate the docking mechanism's ability to sustain power sharing for extended periods post-rigidization.^[9] Secondary objectives focus on post-undocking operations, where the separated spacecraft will function independently for up to two years, conducting payload activities such as high-resolution Earth imaging and resource monitoring.^[12]^[13] This phase includes demonstrations of formation flying to test relative positioning and orbit maintenance capabilities.^[15] Overall, SpaDeX seeks to enable long-term advancements in India's space program, including on-orbit assembly for modular structures like space stations, satellite servicing for life extension and repairs, and active debris mitigation through controlled deorbiting or capture techniques.^[13]^[9]

Spacecraft and Technologies

Design Overview

The SpaDeX mission features two identical satellites, designated SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target), each with a mass of approximately 220 kg, built on an extended Microsat bus platform. These spacecraft were launched into a circular low-Earth orbit at an altitude of about 476 km with a 55° inclination, providing a stable environment for demonstrating docking maneuvers. The design emphasizes modularity and cost-efficiency, with solar arrays generating 528 W of power and lithium-ion batteries ensuring reliable operation during rendezvous and docking phases.^[12] Central to the spacecraft architecture is the indigenously developed Bhartiya Docking System (BDS), an androgynous low-impact mechanism featuring a 450 mm diameter docking port that enables approach velocities on the order of 10 mm/s to minimize structural stress. The BDS incorporates motor-driven capture, extension/retraction, and rigidization components, along with sensors such as a laser range finder, rendezvous sensor, and proximity/docking sensor for precise alignment. This system supports the mission's core objectives of docking and subsequent power transfer between the satellites, driving the overall hardware configuration.^[12]^[16] For propulsion, the Chaser satellite (SDX01) is equipped with cold gas thrusters integrated into the attitude and orbit control system (AOCS), enabling autonomous rendezvous maneuvers, while the Target satellite (SDX02) operates in a passive mode initially to simulate cooperative docking scenarios. The AOCS further includes star sensors, sun sensors, magnetometers, reaction wheels, and magnetic torquers for fine attitude control during proximity operations. An inter-satellite link (ISL) facilitates real-time communication and data exchange between the two spacecraft post-docking.^[12] The payloads are tailored for navigation, environmental monitoring, and technology validation: SDX01 carries a high-resolution camera for vision-based navigation and relative positioning, while SDX02 hosts a miniature multispectral payload for imaging applications and a radiation monitor to assess the orbital radiation environment. These instruments, combined with an onboard video camera tilt mechanism in the docking system, support safe separation and undocking post-experiments.^[12]

Key Innovations

The SpaDeX mission introduced several novel technologies tailored for in-space docking and post-docking operations, marking significant advancements in autonomous space operations for ISRO. Central to these was the autonomous docking system, which relied on AI-driven vision systems incorporating cameras and LiDAR, combined with GPS for relative navigation, enabling the chaser satellite to approach and dock with the target without real-time ground intervention. This V-bar approach ensured precise alignment at distances up to 20 km, with the system processing sensor data through advanced rendezvous and docking algorithms tested in ISRO's simulation facilities.^[14]^[17] A key hardware innovation was the low-impact docking mechanism, an indigenous androgynous peripheral system with a 450 mm diameter port designed to absorb kinetic energy during contact. Operating at an approach velocity of approximately 10 mm/s, this one-degree-of-freedom mechanism used motor-driven capture, extension, retraction, and rigidization to minimize structural stress on the 220 kg satellites, preventing damage in zero-gravity conditions. This design, distinct from international standards like NASA's IDSS, prioritized simplicity and cost-effectiveness for future Indian missions.^[18]^[19] Following docking, the mission demonstrated a power transfer system that allowed electrical energy sharing between the chaser and target satellites, verifying bidirectional resource exchange critical for extended operations. This capability, achieved through integrated electrical interfaces post-rigidization, supports applications like in-orbit refueling and satellite servicing without external support. The system was successfully tested multiple times, including during a second docking event.^[4]^[2] Post-undocking, formation flying algorithms enabled coordinated maneuvers, including a rolling experiment where the satellites rotated relative to each other to simulate attitude control in docked configurations. These algorithms facilitated safe separation and re-approach, demonstrating the satellites' ability to operate as a unified system before independent flight, with implications for multi-spacecraft missions.^[20]^[21] To support precise deployment, ISRO utilized upgrades to the PSLV Integration Facility (PIF) at Sriharikota, allowing full vehicle assembly in a single cleanroom environment for the first time, which enhanced accuracy in satellite separation and initial orbit insertion. This facility shift from traditional buildings improved integration efficiency for small satellite missions like SpaDeX.^[22]^[23]

Mission Timeline

Launch and Initial Operations

The SpaDeX mission launched on 30 December 2024 from the First Launch Pad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, India, aboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) at 16:30 UTC (9:30 PM IST).^[24]^[12] The PSLV-C60, configured as a core-alone variant without strap-on boosters, successfully injected the mission's two satellites—SDX-01 (chaser) and SDX-02 (target), each weighing approximately 220 kg—into an initial low Earth orbit with a semi-major axis of 6852 km, an inclination of 55 degrees, and an altitude of about 476 km.^[12]^[25] Separation occurred shortly after injection, with SDX-02 detaching first at approximately 909 seconds post-liftoff, followed by SDX-01 a few seconds later at 912 seconds, achieving a small relative velocity differential to initiate orbital phasing.^[12]^[26] Both satellites deployed nominally, confirming the structural integrity of their solar arrays and antennas through initial telemetry data.^[25] Immediately post-deployment, onboard systems were activated, including attitude control, power subsystems, and propulsion modules, with successful health checks verifying functionality for autonomous operations aligned with the mission's rendezvous objectives.^[25] Communication links were rapidly established using Leaf Space's ground station network as the Italian partner for telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) services, enabling real-time monitoring and initial command uplinks from ISRO's control centers.^[27] Propulsion systems underwent verification firings to confirm thruster performance, followed by initial orbit-raising maneuvers using the satellites' bipropellant propulsion setups.^[25] These activities supported the target satellite's gradual separation increase to 10-20 km, marking the start of the far rendezvous phase.^[28] Over the subsequent two weeks, pre-rendezvous phasing maneuvers were executed, with the satellites using precise propulsion burns to adjust their relative positions and orbits, building separation distances while maintaining stable communication and system health for the upcoming proximity operations.^[28]^[25] By early January 2025, these efforts had positioned the pair approximately 20 km apart in a controlled configuration, setting the stage for closer approaches.^[25]

Docking Sequence

The docking sequence of the SpaDeX mission commenced with the autonomous rendezvous phase, where the Chaser satellite (SDX-01) approached the Target satellite (SDX-02) along the V-bar axis, aligned with the orbital velocity vector. This approach was executed without human intervention, relying on onboard sensors and navigation systems to achieve precise positioning. The first docking was successfully completed on 16 January 2025 at 06:20 AM IST, marking India's entry into space docking capabilities as the fourth nation to achieve this milestone.^[29]^[9]^[30] During the final approach, the Proximity and Docking Sensor (PDS) provided real-time relative position and velocity data, enabling the satellites to close the distance from an initial separation of approximately 30 meters down to contact. The sequence involved reducing relative velocity to near zero while maintaining alignment, culminating in mechanical capture and latching mechanisms securing the two spacecraft. Real-time monitoring was conducted through Inter-Satellite Links (ISL) for data exchange between the satellites and ground stations at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) for oversight, ensuring the process remained fully autonomous. The docked configuration was maintained for approximately two months, from 16 January to 13 March 2025, allowing for initial power sharing validation.^[9]^[29]^[31] Following undocking on 13 March 2025, the satellites underwent reconfiguration for the second docking demonstration to verify repeatability. On 20 April 2025 at 08:20 PM IST, the Chaser again performed an autonomous rendezvous and docking with the Target using the same V-bar approach, achieving full autonomy from an inter-satellite distance of 15 meters. This event not only confirmed the docking system's reliability but also initiated electrical power transfer between the spacecraft, a critical step for future applications. Monitoring protocols mirrored the first docking, with ISL and ground station support ensuring seamless execution without manual overrides.^[32]^[31]

Undocking and Experiments

Following the successful docking of the SDX-01 (Chaser) and SDX-02 (Target) satellites, which served as a foundational prerequisite for subsequent maneuvers, the SpaDeX mission proceeded to undocking and a series of advanced in-orbit experiments to validate separation technologies and autonomous operations.^[9] The first undocking occurred on 13 March 2025 at approximately 09:20 IST, marking a successful separation in the mission's initial attempt. During this procedure, the satellites disengaged from their docked configuration in a 460 km circular orbit, with both resuming independent maneuvering capabilities without any anomalies. ISRO confirmed that post-undocking health checks verified normal operations for both spacecraft, enabling the continuation of planned activities.^[3]^[33] Fuel management played a critical role during undocking, with precise thruster firings ensuring controlled separation while conserving propellant reserves to support all remaining experiments. The satellites retained sufficient fuel margins post-undocking, allowing for extended autonomous operations without compromising mission objectives.^[34] On 28 March 2025, ISRO conducted the rolling experiment, in which one satellite executed a controlled circumnavigation around the other while maintaining precise formation flying. This demonstration tested relative motion control and proximity operations, confirming the satellites' ability to perform complex orbital maneuvers post-separation.^[35]^[36] A high-speed rendezvous was successfully demonstrated on 3 May 2025, involving increased relative velocities between the satellites to simulate advanced docking scenarios under dynamic conditions. This experiment highlighted ISRO's proficiency in orbital control and autonomous navigation at speeds relevant to future missions, such as debris mitigation or satellite servicing.^[37] Payload-specific tests focused on the independent functionality of onboard cameras and detectors, which were operated autonomously by each satellite for an extended period following the primary mission phases. These instruments, including high-resolution imaging systems, continued to capture data on orbital environments and relative positioning for up to two years post-mission, providing valuable insights into long-term payload reliability in space.^[38]

Challenges and Results

Technical Hurdles

The SpaDeX mission encountered several technical challenges during its in-orbit operations, beginning with the postponement of the initial docking maneuver originally scheduled for 9 January 2025. This delay stemmed from unexpected drift in the satellites' relative positions during proximity operations, necessitating additional ground simulations for validation and adjustments to ensure precise orbital alignment.^[39]^[9] Furthermore, fuel optimization played a role, as mission controllers recalibrated maneuvers to conserve propellant while achieving the required relative velocity for safe rendezvous, avoiding potential inefficiencies in the low-Earth orbit environment.^[40] A key risk factor was the absence of a prior trial mission, undertaken to manage costs within the mission's constrained budget of approximately ₹375 crore for the satellites and associated systems. This decision heightened the stakes for the first-attempt docking, as ISRO proceeded without incremental testing phases typically used to de-risk complex rendezvous operations, relying instead on extensive pre-launch simulations.^[41] After the first docking on 16 January 2025, attempts at power transfer failed due to misalignment between the satellites, detected around late March 2025. Undocking operations also faced significant delays, originally planned for late January or early February 2025 but not executed until 13 March 2025, primarily due to insufficient power generation by the docked configuration, alongside challenges with satellite separation mechanisms and attitude control. These were addressed through precise engineering adjustments using the remaining onboard propellant, ensuring controlled separation without compromising the spacecraft's integrity.^[42]^[3]^[34] Communication constraints inherent to low-Earth orbit further complicated real-time monitoring and command transmission, as the satellites' 10-15 minute pass-over windows with ISRO's domestic ground stations limited continuous oversight. To mitigate this, ISRO leveraged international ground support networks, including collaborations with entities like Italy's Leaf Space for enhanced telemetry reception and South Africa's SANSA for additional tracking passes, extending effective coverage and enabling timely interventions.^[43]^[27]^[44] Throughout these hurdles, budget pressures at ₹375 crore total—covering development, launch via PSLV-C60, and operations—demanded a balance between innovative docking technologies and fiscal prudence, influencing decisions like forgoing a trial mission and prioritizing efficient propellant use. Innovations such as the low-impact docking interface helped mitigate risks of structural damage during these maneuvers.^[45]

Mission Achievements

The SpaDeX mission marked a pivotal success for the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) by achieving the first orbital docking on January 16, 2025, positioning India as the fourth nation—following the United States, Russia, and China—to demonstrate this capability using indigenous technology.^[46]^[29] The docking involved the SDX-01 (Chaser) and SDX-02 (Target) satellites, launched on December 30, 2024, via PSLV-C60, successfully joining in a 475 km circular orbit after a series of precise rendezvous maneuvers.^[19] A subsequent milestone was the second docking on April 20, 2025, conducted fully autonomously from a 15-meter separation distance. Power transfer between the satellites was confirmed the following day, on April 21, 2025, for a duration of four minutes, allowing the formation of a composite spacecraft capable of unified control and operations. This validation of electrical interfaces and autonomy highlighted the mission's advancements in in-orbit resource sharing, overcoming the initial failure after the first docking.^[4]^[32]^[47] All secondary experiments on the POEM-4 module were completed successfully prior to its atmospheric re-entry on April 4, 2025, achieving 100% functionality across its 24 payloads. These included robotic arm operations for in-orbit servicing, such as the Relocatable Robotic Manipulator-Technology Demonstrator (RRM-TD). Additionally, the main satellites demonstrated controlled rolling maneuvers for attitude adjustment on March 28, 2025, and a high-speed rendezvous at 28,800 km/h on May 3, 2025.^[48]^[49]^[21] The mission is planned to facilitate data collection over two years of independent satellite operations following undocking, providing critical insights into debris tracking and on-orbit servicing technologies through sustained payload performance. As of November 2025, the satellites continue operations without mission-critical failures, affirming ISRO's readiness for advanced space endeavors.^[50]^[51]

Significance and Future

Broader Applications

The technologies demonstrated in the SpaDeX mission enable on-orbit satellite servicing, refueling, and assembly, allowing for the extension of satellite lifespans without the need for frequent full replacements. This capability supports operations such as upgrading components or transferring fuel in space, which reduces operational costs and minimizes the generation of additional space debris from defunct satellites.^[52]^[53]^[14] SpaDeX's docking advancements are critical for India's human spaceflight programs, including the Gaganyaan crewed mission and the Bharatiya Antariksha Station targeted for completion by 2035. The mission's successful rendezvous and docking mechanisms provide the foundational expertise needed for crew module integration and space station assembly, ensuring safe astronaut transfers and habitat construction in orbit.^[10]^[54] For lunar and interplanetary exploration, SpaDeX technologies facilitate complex maneuvers like those required in the Chandrayaan-4 sample return mission, where docking enables the transfer of lunar samples from a lander to an orbiter for Earth return. These capabilities extend to future probes targeting Mars or Venus, enhancing spacecraft assembly and propulsion module integration for deeper space voyages.^[55] In space debris mitigation, SpaDeX's formation flying and precise docking techniques support active removal strategies, such as grappling and deorbiting defunct objects to prevent collisions and maintain orbital sustainability. By enabling such interventions, the mission contributes to global efforts for a debris-free space environment.^[52]^[56] Economically, SpaDeX's cost-effective approach to docking reduces the dependency on multiple launches for satellite maintenance or mission assembly, lowering overall program expenses and positioning India as a competitive player in global space activities. This efficiency aligns with ISRO's strategy of achieving high-impact results with modest budgets, fostering sustainable growth in the sector.^[29]^[9]

Planned Extensions

Following the success of the initial SpaDeX mission, ISRO is preparing SpaDeX-2, a follow-on experiment planned for the 2025–2028 timeframe to demonstrate docking of satellites in an elliptical orbit, which presents greater challenges due to varying velocities and trajectories compared to circular orbits.^[57] This mission will involve similar 220 kg satellites to the first SpaDeX, aiming to enhance precision in rendezvous and docking operations, pending government approval.^[57] The technologies validated in SpaDeX, including the docking mechanisms, are set to integrate into the Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS), with ISRO standardizing docking ports for future missions based on the demonstrated systems to support modular assembly in orbit.^[29] Initial planning for BAS-related docking validations is underway post-2025, with a potential launch window around 2028 aligned with broader human spaceflight timelines.^[25] Future extensions will include enhanced experiments building on SpaDeX's power transfer demonstrations, focusing on long-duration power sharing between docked satellites and operations in multi-satellite formations treated as a unified system.^[57] These advancements will enable more complex configurations for applications in satellite servicing and space station assembly.^[29] While specific international collaborations for joint docking demonstrations remain under exploration, the mission's outcomes position ISRO for potential partnerships in global space endeavors.^[18] These planned extensions underscore SpaDeX's role in advancing human spaceflight capabilities, such as crewed missions and orbital habitats.^[29]

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Dec 30, 2024 · SpaDeX is a mission by ISRO aimed at demonstrating on-orbit docking technology using two small spacecraft. This capability is crucial for ...Missing: Facility upgrades
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India demonstrates space docking - The Space Review
Jan 20, 2025 · The primary objective of this launch was to test docking technology with two satellites, as part of the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission.
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Isro Spadex mission: The science behind docking two satellites in ...
Dec 24, 2024 · Docking involves the autonomous connection of two free-flying spacecraft. This typically requires precise manoeuvring and alignment, often ...Missing: vision GPS
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ISRO successfully completes SpaDEx undocking marking significant ...
... Bharatiya Antriksh Station, Chandrayaan-4, and Gaganyaan. ISRO accomplished the docking experiment on January 16, when the Chaser SDX-01 and Target SDX-02 ...Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
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https://www.newsonair.gov.in/isro-successfully-completes-spadex-undocking-marking-significant-milestone-in-indias-space-exploration/
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https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isro-gears-up-for-spadex-mission-aims-to-transport-both-lunar-samples-and-astronauts/articleshow/105810688.cms
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ISRO readies SpaDeX-2 mission to dock satellites in elliptical orbit
this time to dock two satellites in an elliptical orbit ...