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SS Archimedes

SS Archimedes was a British steamship launched in October 1838 at Millwall, London, and completed in 1839, recognized as the world's first ocean-going vessel successfully propelled by a screw propeller.^[1]^[2] Designed by Edward Pascoe and constructed by Henry Wimshurst for the Ship Propeller Company, she measured 237 tons burden and was powered by an 80 horsepower engine built by G. and J. Rennie.^[1] The ship's innovative propulsion system, a double-threaded screw propeller with half a turn and a diameter of 5 feet 9 inches, was developed by English inventor Francis Pettit Smith following his 1836 patent and successful 1837 model tests on the Paddington Canal.^[3]^[4] The Archimedes began sea trials in March 1839 on the River Thames, where she achieved speeds of nearly 10 miles per hour—nearly double the targeted 5 miles per hour—demonstrating superior performance against wind and tide compared to contemporary paddle-wheel steamers.^[3]^[2] In May 1839, she visited Sheerness and Portsmouth, impressing naval observers with her maneuverability and efficiency, before undertaking further demonstrations against Dover packet ships in 1840.^[1] That same year, the vessel crossed the Bay of Biscay to Oporto, Portugal, and toured major British and European ports, including Holland, proving the screw propeller's viability for long-distance voyages.^[1]^[2] The Archimedes' success profoundly influenced maritime engineering, prompting Isambard Kingdom Brunel to borrow the ship in 1840 for tests that led him to adopt screw propulsion for the SS Great Britain.^[1] Her demonstrations accelerated the Royal Navy's shift from paddle wheels, culminating in the 1845 trials where the screw-propelled HMS Rattler outperformed the paddle-driven HMS Alecto, paving the way for widespread adoption in both naval and mercantile fleets by the mid-19th century.^[5]^[2] Despite the Ship Propeller Company's financial failure and the Admiralty's refusal to purchase her, the Archimedes marked a pivotal transition from sail and paddle to screw-driven steam power in global shipping.^[3]

Origins of screw propulsion

Historical precedents

The concept of screw propulsion for vessels dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries, with early theoretical and experimental foundations laid by natural philosophers and inventors. In 1752, Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli proposed the use of spiral wheels or screws to propel boats through water, describing the idea in mathematical terms as a means to generate thrust via rotating blades, though no practical implementation followed.^[6] Over a century earlier, in 1683, English scientist Robert Hooke demonstrated a screw-based device to the Royal Society, designed primarily as an instrument to measure a ship's speed and leeway by turning via water resistance, hinting at propulsion potential but not pursued for motive power.^[7] Practical experiments emerged in the late 18th century amid growing interest in submarine and surface navigation. American inventor David Bushnell incorporated a hand-operated screw propeller into his 1775 Turtle submarine, the first attempt to use such a mechanism for underwater propulsion during the Revolutionary War; the device allowed limited movement but failed in its primary mission to attach explosives to British ships.^[6] By 1794, British inventor William Lyttleton secured the first known patent for a screw propeller (British Patent No. 2000), featuring a long spiral wheel driven by manual labor through an endless rope system; tested on a small vessel at Greenwich dock, it achieved speeds of about 2 miles per hour, demonstrating basic viability despite its labor-intensive operation.^[6]^[7] The early 19th century saw further patents and trials, though most remained small-scale or abandoned due to technical challenges and competition from paddle wheels. In 1800, Edward Shorter patented two screw designs in Britain, including a two-bladed propeller on an inclined shaft with a universal joint; one version propelled a model vessel, the "Doncaster," at 1.5 miles per hour using eight men, but it did not advance to larger applications.^[6] American engineer John Stevens conducted notable experiments in 1804 on the Hudson River with a stern-mounted screw propeller powered by a defective steam boiler, reaching 7 knots over short distances on his 25-foot steamboat, yet he ultimately favored paddle wheels for practicality.^[8] Subsequent efforts, such as French inventor Joseph Marie Bourdon's 1824 screw design and American J. W. Brown's 1825 proposal for a rotating screw mechanism, built on these ideas but achieved limited success, often hampered by inefficient power transmission and material limitations.^[7] Between 1829 and 1836, at least 11 additional patents for screw propellers were granted in the United States, reflecting growing experimentation but no widespread adoption until steam engine integration matured.^[9] These precedents established the screw's hydrodynamic principles—thrust from inclined blades reacting against water—paving the way for more effective implementations in the late 1830s.

Key inventors: Ericsson and Smith

The development of the screw propeller, a pivotal innovation in marine propulsion, is primarily attributed to two independent inventors working in the 1830s: the English agriculturalist Francis Pettit Smith and the Swedish engineer John Ericsson. Their parallel efforts, though uncoordinated, converged on similar helical screw designs that addressed the inefficiencies of paddle wheels, particularly in rough seas and for warships. Smith's work directly informed the construction of the SS Archimedes, the world's first purpose-built screw-propelled steamship, while Ericsson's contributions advanced the technology across the Atlantic, influencing naval adoption in the United States.^[7] Francis Pettit Smith (1808–1874), a farmer from Kent with no formal engineering training, began experimenting with screw propulsion in 1835 after observing a toy boat. He constructed a spring-driven model that demonstrated the principle's viability, leading to his patent on May 31, 1836, for an "improved propeller" consisting of a single-turn wooden screw at the vessel's stern. In 1837, Smith tested a 6-horsepower, 6-ton boat on the Thames and English Channel, achieving speeds of up to 6 knots and proving the screw's superiority in adverse weather during voyages from Ramsgate to Hythe. These successes prompted the formation of the Ship Propeller Company in 1838, which funded the Archimedes—a 237-ton vessel with an 80-horsepower engine and Smith's patented propeller design. Launched on October 18, 1838, the ship exceeded expectations by reaching nearly 10 knots, twice the targeted 5 knots, during its initial trials in 1839. Smith's persistent advocacy and practical demonstrations were instrumental in overcoming Admiralty skepticism, paving the way for screw adoption in British naval vessels like HMS Rattler.^[3]^[7] John Ericsson (1803–1889), a prolific inventor who had emigrated from Sweden to England in 1826, developed his screw propeller independently amid his broader work on steam engines and naval architecture. He filed a patent on July 13, 1836—just weeks after Smith's—for a propeller suited to steam navigation, featuring a multi-bladed design that could be fully submerged to reduce drag. In 1837, Ericsson demonstrated a 45-foot steam tug, Francis B. Ogden, on the Thames, attaining 10 miles per hour and showcasing the propeller's efficiency over paddles. Despite Admiralty rejection due to concerns over vibration and power transmission, he continued refining the concept after moving to the United States in 1839. His designs culminated in the USS Princeton (1843), the first U.S. Navy screw-propelled warship, equipped with a six-bladed propeller that enabled speeds of up to 12 knots and outpaced paddle steamers in trials. Although Ericsson had no direct involvement in the Archimedes, his contemporaneous patents and experiments validated the screw's potential, contributing to its global acceptance and later innovations in ironclad warships like the USS Monitor (1862).^[10]^[7]^[11]

Design and construction

Hull and general specifications

The SS Archimedes was constructed with a wooden hull following schooner lines to minimize hydrodynamic resistance, making it suitable for both steam and sail propulsion. Designed by naval architect Edward Pascoe, the vessel measured 106.7 feet (32.5 m) in length between perpendiculars, with an extreme beam of 21.8 feet (6.6 m) and a depth of hold of 13 feet (4.0 m).^[12] Her gross tonnage was 237 tons burthen, reflecting her modest size as an experimental craft intended to demonstrate screw propulsion viability.^[1]^[8] The hull's fine after-body and placement of the propeller in a recess within the deadwood enhanced water flow and efficiency during trials. Draught varied between 9 feet (2.7 m) forward and 10 feet (3.0 m) aft when fully loaded, allowing access to shallower ports compared to larger paddle steamers.^[12]^[1] Built by Henry Wimshurst at his Millwall shipyard on the River Thames, she was launched in October 1838 and completed the following year at a cost of approximately £10,500.^[12] As a three-masted steam schooner, Archimedes incorporated auxiliary sailing capability with fore, main, and mizzen masts, enabling hybrid operation that extended range and provided redundancy during engine issues. This configuration underscored her role as a transitional design bridging sail and steam eras, influencing subsequent iron-hulled screw vessels.^[1]

Engine and propeller system

The SS Archimedes was equipped with a low-pressure steam engine manufactured by G. and J. Rennie of London, rated at 80 nominal horsepower.^[1]^[13] This engine operated at approximately 26 revolutions per minute and featured a two-cylinder oscillating design, which allowed for a compact installation suitable for the vessel's experimental nature.^[14] The power output drove the propeller through a geared transmission system, increasing the shaft speed to around 139 revolutions per minute, an arrangement that optimized torque delivery for the novel propulsion method.^[13] The propeller itself was the invention of Francis Pettit Smith, who patented an Archimedean screw design in 1836 and refined it for marine application.^[12] Initially fitted with a single-threaded wooden screw of 7 feet in diameter, the system underwent modifications during early trials to improve efficiency; the final configuration adopted a two-bladed screw measuring 5 feet 9 inches in diameter and approximately 5 feet in length, with a pitch of about 10 feet.^[14]^[15] Positioned in a recess forward of the rudder within the deadwood aft, the propeller benefited from a streamlined water flow, minimizing drag and enhancing thrust compared to paddle wheels.^[12] This design demonstrated negative slip in initial tests—indicating the vessel moved faster than the theoretical advance of the screw—before adjustments shifted it to a slight positive slip for balanced performance.^[12] The integration of the engine and propeller marked a significant engineering advancement, as the geared drive allowed the low-revving engine to achieve the higher speeds needed for effective propulsion without excessive boiler pressure.^[13] During Thames trials in 1839, the system propelled the 237-ton vessel to speeds of up to 7 mph (approximately 6 knots), confirming its viability for sea-going operations.^[15] Further refinements, including propeller diameter reductions from 7 feet to 5 feet 9 inches, were informed by comparative tests against paddle steamers, ultimately proving the screw's superiority in rough seas and maneuverability.^[14]^[12]

Early operations and trials

Maiden voyage and initial sea trials

The SS Archimedes underwent initial engine trials on the River Thames beginning in March 1839, shortly after her completion, to assess the performance of the novel screw propeller under controlled conditions.^[2] These preliminary tests, conducted near London, demonstrated the vessel's ability to maneuver effectively without the exposed paddle wheels typical of contemporary steamships, marking a significant departure from established propulsion methods.^[1] Observers noted the propeller's efficiency in shallow waters and its reduced vulnerability to damage, though specific speed data from these early runs remains limited in historical records.^[2] On May 15, 1839, the Archimedes embarked on her maiden sea voyage from Gravesend to Portsmouth, covering approximately 140 nautical miles in 21 hours against a fresh westerly breeze off the North Foreland.^[16] This passage achieved an unexpectedly high maximum speed of 10 knots (19 km/h), surpassing expectations for the 80-horsepower engine and validating the screw's potential for open-water operations.^[16] The voyage highlighted the propeller's advantages in adverse weather, as it remained submerged and operational without the drag or interference faced by paddle wheels.^[1] Further initial trials in May 1839 included stops at Sheerness and Portsmouth, where the ship's performance elicited widespread admiration from naval personnel and engineers.^[1] During measured-mile runs at Purfleet in October 1839, the Archimedes recorded speeds of approximately 6.6 knots against wind and tide (9 minutes 5 seconds per mile) and up to 13.3 knots with favorable conditions (4 minutes 30 seconds per mile), confirming an average of around 9 knots near the turn of the tide.^[1] These results underscored the screw propeller's reliability and efficiency, paving the way for broader adoption in maritime design.^[2]

Breakdowns and redesign efforts

Following the successful maiden voyage from Gravesend to Portsmouth in May 1839, which took 21 hours despite adverse weather conditions, the SS Archimedes soon encountered significant mechanical challenges during its early promotional operations. An accident to the ship's boilers occurred shortly after these initial trials, compelling a return to London for the installation of entirely new boilers. This repair effort lasted five months, highlighting the experimental nature of the vessel's steam propulsion system and the limitations of early boiler design in screw-driven ships.^[7] Subsequent voyages revealed further vulnerabilities in the engine components. While en route to Texel in the Netherlands for additional demonstrations, the crankshaft fractured, forcing the ship back to England for urgent repairs. This breakdown underscored the stresses placed on the transmission system by the novel screw propeller arrangement, where the engines drove the shaft through large spur gears. The incident delayed operations but provided an opportunity for targeted improvements.^[7] In response to these setbacks, redesign efforts focused on enhancing the propeller's efficiency and reliability. During the crankshaft repair, the screw's configuration was modified from a single continuous helical blade forming one full turn to a double-threaded design with two half-turn blades positioned on opposite sides of the axis. This alteration aimed to reduce torque demands on the shaft and improve thrust distribution, contributing to better overall performance in subsequent trials. These modifications reflected the iterative engineering process that propelled the adoption of screw propulsion in maritime vessels.^[7]

Major demonstrations and service

Dover comparative trials

In April and May 1840, the British Admiralty organized comparative trials for the SS Archimedes at Dover to assess the screw propeller's viability against paddle-wheel propulsion in practical service conditions.^[1] Captain Edward Chappell, RN, was appointed to superintend the tests and prepare an official report, during which the Archimedes was matched against the Royal Navy's fastest Dover-Calais mail packets, including the paddle steamers Ariel (152 tons), Beaver (128 tons), Swallow, and Widgeon (164 tons).^[17]^[18] The trials encompassed multiple runs over the 26-mile channel crossing under varying weather, focusing on speed, fuel efficiency, maneuverability, and performance with auxiliary sails, with primary comparisons against the Widgeon. In calm, smooth water, the Widgeon—with its higher indicated horsepower of approximately 90 ihp compared to the Archimedes' 80 ihp—achieved a marginal speed advantage of about 0.5 knots, completing passages in roughly 2 hours 10 minutes.^[17] However, the Archimedes, burdened at 237 tons yet with a lower power-to-weight ratio (0.34 ihp per ton versus the Widgeon's ~0.55), demonstrated comparable efficiency and superior stability, maintaining structural integrity without paddle exposure risks. With moderate winds and sails deployed—leveraging the Archimedes' greater sail area against the packets' more restricted rigs—the screw steamer pulled ahead decisively. It recorded a Dover-to-Calais run in 2 hours 1 minute at an average 10 knots and the return leg in 1 hour 53.5 minutes, outpacing the Widgeon by 9 and 5.5 minutes, respectively, and setting a record faster than any contemporary mail packet.^[17] Maneuvering tests further highlighted the propeller's advantages, enabling quicker astern propulsion and tighter turns without the vulnerability of exposed wheels in rough seas. Chappell's report, submitted to the Admiralty, praised the screw's overall superiority for naval and merchant applications, noting its unobstructed deck space, reduced vulnerability to damage, and enhanced sailing performance, which collectively justified further investment despite initial cost concerns.^[19] These results directly influenced the Navy's decision to construct the 900-ton screw sloop HMS Rattler for additional evaluations, accelerating the propeller's adoption in larger warships and commercial vessels.

Circumnavigation of Britain and promotional voyages

Following the successful Dover trials in May 1840, the SS Archimedes embarked on an extensive promotional voyage around Britain under the command of Captain Edward Chappell of the Royal Navy, accompanied by inventor Francis Pettit Smith. Commencing in July 1840, the ship visited every principal port along the British coast, providing opportunities for shipowners, marine engineers, shipbuilders, and other stakeholders to observe the screw propeller in operation during sea trials and demonstrations. This circumnavigation served as a key promotional effort by the Ship Propeller Company to showcase the reliability and efficiency of screw propulsion over traditional paddle wheels, highlighting the vessel's ability to maintain speeds of up to 9 knots under various conditions.^[20]^[1]^[13] The journey aroused considerable admiration among maritime professionals for the Archimedes's performance, though adoption of the screw propeller remained gradual due to entrenched preferences for paddle technology. By calling at major ports such as those in England, Scotland, and Wales, the voyage allowed for hands-on evaluations and discussions that underscored the propeller's advantages in open-sea navigation, including reduced vulnerability to damage compared to exposed paddle wheels. These demonstrations were instrumental in building interest among key figures in maritime engineering.^[20]^[1] Upon completing the British circumnavigation, the Archimedes undertook further promotional voyages to extend its reach internationally. In late 1840, it sailed from Plymouth to Oporto (now Porto), Portugal, crossing the Bay of Biscay and completing the passage in a record 68.5 hours at an average speed exceeding 9 knots, demonstrating the screw's suitability for longer oceanic routes. This voyage, along with subsequent trips to Antwerp and other European ports at the request of foreign governments, further promoted the technology's potential for commercial and naval applications, solidifying the Archimedes's role as a pioneering vessel in maritime innovation.^[20]^[1]

Later career and fate

Loan to Brunel and influence on SS Great Britain

In 1840, while construction of the SS Great Britain was underway in Bristol, Isambard Kingdom Brunel encountered the SS Archimedes during its visit to the docks and arranged to borrow the vessel from its owner, Francis Pettit Smith, for extensive trials over several months.^[21] These tests focused on evaluating the performance of various screw propeller designs, including variations in blade number and shape, to assess efficiency and reliability in different conditions.^[15] The trials demonstrated significant advantages of screw propulsion over traditional paddle wheels, such as improved fuel economy due to lighter machinery and better protection of the propeller within the hull, particularly in rough seas. Brunel, initially skeptical, became convinced of its superiority after observing the Archimedes outperform paddle-driven ships in speed and stability during these experiments.^[22] Smith suggested a four-bladed propeller configuration, but Brunel adopted his own six-bladed design for the initial propeller of the Great Britain, which was later modified to four blades after sea trials.^[1] This experience directly influenced Brunel's decision to redesign the SS Great Britain, abandoning its original paddle-wheel plans in favor of screw propulsion, marking it as the first large ocean-going iron-hulled ship to use this system. The change, approved by the Great Western Steamship Company board in December 1840, enhanced the vessel's performance and set a precedent for future maritime engineering.^[1]^[22]

Commercial service and eventual loss

Following its loan to Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1840, the SS Archimedes was employed by the Ship Propeller Company for further demonstration voyages to promote the screw propeller technology. Under Captain Chappell, the vessel visited principal British ports to exhibit its capabilities, achieving speeds of up to 9.5 knots during these operations.^[1]^[23] The Archimedes made a record passage from Falmouth to Oporto in 68.5 hours and was subsequently dispatched to the Texel to demonstrate the propeller to the Dutch government, crossing the Bay of Biscay en route and proving the system's reliability in open waters. These activities represented the ship's transition to practical service, though they remained primarily promotional rather than routine commercial trading.^[1]^[23] Despite the technological successes, the Ship Propeller Company incurred substantial financial losses on the Archimedes venture, estimated at approximately £50,000, as the British Admiralty declined to purchase the vessel or adopt the propeller immediately. The company was wound up shortly thereafter, with no dividends paid to investors even after the patent expired in 1856, by which time screw propulsion had been widely embraced in both naval and merchant fleets.^[23] Following the company's dissolution around 1841, the Archimedes was sold and continued in merchant service; she was later converted to sail and reportedly ended her career in the 1850s operating between Chile and Australia.^[24]

Legacy

Adoption in naval and merchant shipping

The success of the SS Archimedes in demonstrating the practical advantages of screw propulsion over paddle wheels significantly accelerated its adoption in both naval and merchant shipping during the 1840s. The ship's 1840 circumnavigation of Britain and subsequent promotional voyages showcased its efficiency and reliability, convincing shipbuilders and naval authorities of the technology's commercial and military potential.^[7]^[25] In merchant shipping, the Archimedes directly inspired the construction of the first screw-propelled commercial vessels. Between 1840 and 1841, several British ships were built using variations of Francis Pettit Smith's screw system, including the Princess Royal at Newcastle, the Margaret and Senator at Hull, and the larger Great Northern of 1,500 tons at Londonderry. These early merchant adopters highlighted the screw's advantages in cargo capacity and resistance to damage compared to paddle wheels, paving the way for broader integration in transatlantic and coastal trade routes. By the mid-1840s, screw propulsion had become a viable alternative for merchant fleets seeking improved fuel efficiency and maneuverability.^[7]^[26] Naval adoption was equally transformative, with the Royal Navy leading the transition. Influenced by the Archimedes' performance, the Admiralty laid down HMS Rattler in 1841 as its first screw-propelled warship, conducting extensive trials from 1843 to 1845 that refined propeller design and efficiency. In a pivotal 1845 demonstration, the Rattler pulled the paddle-wheel sloop HMS Alecto stern-first at 2.5 knots in a tug-of-war, proving the screw's tactical edge; this led the Lords of the Admiralty to order twenty additional vessels fitted with screws under Smith's supervision.^[7]^[25]^[26]^[27] Across the Atlantic, the U.S. Navy commissioned USS Princeton in 1842–1843, the first screw-propelled American warship, designed under John Ericsson's guidance and achieving speeds of about 7 knots, which further stimulated international naval interest.^[7]^[25]^[26]^[10] These developments marked the screw propeller's shift from experimental novelty to standard propulsion in warships, enhancing speed, seaworthiness, and vulnerability to enemy fire.

Recognition of contributors and modern assessments

Francis Pettit Smith, the primary inventor of the screw propeller system employed on SS Archimedes, received significant recognition for his pioneering work in marine propulsion. In 1855, he was awarded an annual pension of £200 by Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in acknowledgment of his contributions to steam navigation.^[28] Two years later, in 1857, a national testimonial raised £3,000 along with a presentation plate to honor his perseverance and innovation.^[28] Smith was knighted in 1871 for his services to naval engineering and appointed curator of the Patent Museum (now part of the Science Museum) in South Kensington in 1860, where he oversaw exhibits related to industrial inventions.^[3] Additionally, in 1856, the Ship Propeller Company, which had backed the vessel's construction, presented him with a silver tea and coffee service commemorating the success of Archimedes as the first steamship to deploy a screw propeller effectively.^[29] Other contributors to Archimedes received more limited contemporary acknowledgment, often tied to their firms' reputations. Henry Wimshurst, who constructed the hull at his Thames shipyard in London, was praised for the vessel's robust wooden design, which facilitated its successful sea trials, though no specific personal honors are recorded.^[1] The engineering firm G. and J. Rennie, responsible for the twin-cylinder vertical steam engines (each rated at 40 horsepower) and the associated machinery including the propeller shaft, gained prominence through the project; their work on Archimedes marked an early milestone in their portfolio of marine engine production, leading to further Admiralty contracts.^[30] Edward Pascoe, the naval architect who designed the ship's lines, contributed to its hydrodynamic efficiency but is primarily noted in historical engineering records without individual awards.^[1] In modern assessments, SS Archimedes is regarded as a foundational achievement in maritime technology, credited with demonstrating the superiority of screw propulsion over paddle wheels and accelerating its adoption in both naval and commercial vessels. Historians emphasize its role in shifting global shipping paradigms, as its 1839 trials—where it outperformed paddle steamers like HMRC Vulcan—provided empirical evidence that convinced skeptics, including the British Admiralty, to transition to screws by the mid-1840s.^[7] A centenary exhibition at the Science Museum in 1937 highlighted its legacy, displaying models and artifacts alongside modern propellers, such as those from RMS Queen Mary, to illustrate the evolution from experimental design to high-efficiency systems.^[4] Contemporary maritime scholars view Archimedes not merely as a technical success but as a catalyst for industrial innovation, enabling larger, more efficient steamships that supported 19th-century globalization, though its wooden construction and early engine limitations are noted as transitional features.^[31]

References

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