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Sahul Shelf

The Sahul Shelf is a broad, submerged continental shelf extending more than 500 kilometers northwest from the modern coastline of northern Australia toward the island of Timor, forming a key component of the Pleistocene landmass known as Sahul, which connected mainland Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania during glacial periods of lowered sea levels.^[1] Covering approximately 400,000 square kilometers—over 1.6 times the area of the United Kingdom—this tectonically stable platform is dominated by the Bonaparte Basin and features extensive carbonate terrace platforms, including the Londonderry, Sahul, and Van Diemen Rises, along with deep gorges and paleochannels that reflect ancient drainage systems.^[1]^[2] Geologically, the Sahul Shelf originated as a submerged extension of late Cenozoic erosional surfaces shaped by uplift, weathering, and denudation during the middle and late Tertiary, with subsequent deformation creating a central basin surrounded by shallow rises, banks, terraces, and channels that exhibit steplike topography.^[2] Its morphology subtly mirrors ancient structural patterns, including subhorizontal surfaces on banks and terraces formed during Pleistocene lowstands, and it has remained sediment-starved, preserving relict geomorphological features such as palaeoshorelines and barrier reefs.^[2] During the Late Pleistocene, particularly in Marine Isotope Stage 4 (approximately 71,000–57,000 years ago), the shelf emerged as a vast archipelago of islands, facilitating early human migration into Sahul via southern routes from Southeast Asia.^[1] By Marine Isotope Stage 2 (29,000–14,000 years ago), full exposure revealed diverse landscapes including the expansive Malita inland sea (about 18,500 square kilometers), a large freshwater lake comparable in size to half of modern Lake Eyre, and encircling escarpments that supported up to half a million people in a mosaic of habitable environments.^[1] Rising sea levels around 18,000 years ago progressively drowned these features, profoundly influencing demographic shifts, cultural adaptations, and biogeographic exchanges between the Sunda and Sahul shelves, such as floristic migrations across the Wallace Line.^[1] Today, the shelf's submerged landscapes hold significant archaeological potential, with ongoing research using bathymetry and seismic data to reconstruct its role in human prehistory and regional ecology.^[1]

Etymology and Overview

Etymology

The term "Sahul Shelf" derives from the Dutch words "Sahoel" or "Sahull," used on 17th-century maps to denote a supposed submerged sandbank or shoal located between Australia and Timor in the Timor Sea. This naming reflected early European cartographic efforts to map the region's shallow marine features amid limited exploration. The full scientific designation "Sahul Shelf" was coined in 1919 by Dutch geologist Gustaaf Adolf Frederik Molengraaff (1860–1942) in collaboration with Max Weber, in their seminal paper on deep-sea research in the East Indian Archipelago, where they described it as the extensive continental platform connecting northern Australia to New Guinea.^[3]^[4] In the mid-20th century, as plate tectonics and paleogeographic reconstructions advanced, the term "Sahul" evolved from its original shelf reference to describe the broader paleocontinent—a unified landmass of Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania exposed during Pleistocene glacial lowstands. This usage emerged prominently in biogeographical studies to explain faunal distributions across the region, contrasting with the Asian "Sunda" shelf and landmass separated by deep-water barriers like Wallace's Line. The shift highlighted the shelf's role in facilitating biotic exchanges while maintaining distinct evolutionary trajectories for Australasian fauna.^[5]^[6]

Definition and Extent

The Sahul Shelf is a broad continental shelf forming part of the northern and northwestern margin of the Australian continent, extending from the mainland into the Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, and Gulf of Carpentaria, while connecting to the southern shelf of New Guinea.^[7] This geological feature represents a shallow underwater platform that links these landmasses, historically enabling biogeographic and human dispersal pathways during periods of lower sea levels.^[8] In its modern extent, the Sahul Shelf spans approximately 415,000 square kilometers, characterized by average water depths of 50-200 meters and delineated by the 200-meter isobath, which marks the transition to the continental slope.^[7] Its key spatial boundaries include the northern limit along the southern shelf of New Guinea, the eastern margin at Torres Strait and the Gulf of Carpentaria, the southern boundary along the Australian mainland coast, and the western edge at the Timor Trough and northwestern Indian Ocean margin.^[9] These confines encompass diverse submerged terrains, including carbonate banks such as the Sahul Banks and sedimentary basins like the Bonaparte Basin, shaped by tectonic stability.^[7] During the Last Glacial Maximum around 21,000 years ago, global sea levels dropped by about 120 meters, exposing up to 1.5 million square kilometers of additional land across the broader northern continental shelves of Sahul, including the Sahul Shelf, and integrating it into the larger Sahul continent, which combined the modern landmasses of Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.^[8] This paleogeographic expansion created extensive habitable lowlands and land bridges that facilitated early human colonization and faunal exchanges across the region.^[9]

Geography

Modern Configuration

The Sahul Shelf constitutes a vast, shallow continental platform encircling the northern and western margins of Australia, with depths generally below 200 meters, defining its modern submerged extent as a gently sloping feature from nearshore coastal zones to the shelf break at approximately 200 meters. This bathymetric profile exhibits subtle gradients, typically ranging from less than 50 meters in inner shelf areas to steeper inclines near the outer margin, accommodating diverse submarine landforms. Prominent features include the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, a broad embayment off northern Australia that averages under 100 meters in depth but deepens to 200 meters within incised channels, and the Browse Basin along the northwestern shelf, where the platform widens to over 300 kilometers offshore while maintaining shallow elevations conducive to sediment accumulation.^[10]^[11] Oceanographic dynamics on the Sahul Shelf are shaped by the interplay of major currents, notably the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF), which delivers warm, oligotrophic waters from the Pacific into the northern shelf regions, and the Leeuwin Current (LC), a poleward-flowing eastern boundary current along the western margin that transports tropical waters southward. These influences maintain sea surface temperatures across the shelf between 24°C and 30°C annually, with higher values (up to 29–30°C) in the northern ITF-influenced zones during austral summer and slightly cooler conditions (24–26°C) along the western LC path in winter. Salinities vary correspondingly, averaging 34.0–34.5 practical salinity units (psu) in ITF-dominated areas due to low-salinity inputs, rising to 35.0–35.5 psu in the more evaporative western sectors under LC modulation, fostering a dynamic mixing environment that supports tropical marine productivity.^[12]^[13] Sediment composition on the modern Sahul Shelf is predominantly terrigenous, comprising quartz-rich sands and muds derived from continental weathering, interspersed with biogenic carbonates such as foraminiferal and algal debris, particularly in the northern and northwestern sectors. These sediments reflect a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate system, where terrigenous fractions dominate inner shelf depocenters due to fluvial inputs, while carbonates increase toward the outer shelf and isolated knolls like those in the Timor Sea. Modern deposition rates, estimated at 0.5–2 mm per year in nearshore zones, are largely controlled by seasonal monsoon activity, with northwest Australian rivers delivering pulsed terrigenous loads during the wet season (December–March), promoting progradational patterns and localized sand wave fields.^[14]^[15]^[16] Recent bathymetric and geophysical surveys by Geoscience Australia, particularly those conducted in the early 2020s as part of national seabed mapping initiatives, have refined the shelf's configuration, revealing over 700 submarine canyons incising the margins—many originating at the shelf break—and scattered patch reefs, such as those in the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, which enhance habitat complexity. These datasets, derived from multibeam sonar and satellite altimetry integrations, underscore the shelf's role as a conduit for sediment transport and biodiversity hotspots, with canyon heads often linking to modern river mouths.^[17]^[18]

Paleogeographic Features

During the Pleistocene epoch, particularly at glacial lowstands, the Sahul Shelf was extensively exposed due to global sea levels dropping by up to 125 meters below present, transforming the region into a contiguous landmass connecting mainland Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.^[19] This exposure facilitated the formation of key land bridges, including the Arafura Sill, a shallow sill approximately 53 meters deep that linked northern Australia (Arnhem Land) to southern New Guinea, enabling faunal and floral exchanges across the region. Similarly, the Bassian Plain emerged as a broad isthmus, up to 100 kilometers wide and spanning the modern Bass Strait, connecting southeastern Australia to Tasmania and supporting diverse terrestrial ecosystems during the Last Glacial Maximum around 21,000 years ago. These bridges were integral to the paleogeography, with the Arafura Sill acting as a delayed inundation barrier until approximately 13,000 years ago, while the Bassian Plain persisted until rising seas fragmented it around 14,000–11,000 years ago.^[19] Major paleoriver systems shaped the hydrology of the exposed shelf, notably the Carpentaria River, a large fluvial network that drained interior highlands into the central basin of the Gulf of Carpentaria, forming extensive alluvial plains and supporting episodic freshwater flows during wetter interstadials. This system contributed to the development of paleolakes, such as Lake Carpentaria, a vast hypersaline to brackish body of water occupying much of the gulf basin during lowstands, with depths reaching up to 15 meters and fluctuating salinities influenced by monsoon variability and limited outflow across the Arafura Sill.00079-X) Other drainage features, including precursors to the modern Mitchell and Flinders Rivers, converged into this network, creating sediment-laden deltas and wetlands that dominated the central lowlands. Recent bathymetric surveys (as of 2023) have identified extensive paleochannels and dune fields, further illuminating fluvial networks and coastal refugia during lowstands.^[9] Topographically, the exposed Sahul Shelf exhibited pronounced variations, with broad central lowlands—largely flat plains and basins below 100 meters elevation—contrasting against peripheral highlands and escarpments along the western and northern margins, where elevations exceeded 200 meters and formed natural barriers. Coastal dunes and beach ridges fringed the paleoshorelines, particularly along the northwestern shelf, stabilizing sandy substrates amid aeolian processes during aridity peaks.^[19] At the Last Glacial Maximum around 21,000–18,000 years ago, the total exposed land area of Sahul reached approximately 9.8 million square kilometers (excluding New Guinea's additional shelf), representing a 27% expansion over modern configurations and encompassing diverse physiographic zones from arid interiors to coastal refugia.^[19] Inundation of the Sahul Shelf commenced post-18,000 years ago as deglaciation drove rapid sea-level rise, with about 90% of the submergence occurring during and immediately following Meltwater Pulse 1A between 14,600 and 8,000 years ago, when rates reached up to 23.7 meters per century and coastlines retreated by an average of 139 kilometers.^[19] The Arafura Sill and Bassian Plain were among the last features to flood, with the former breached around 13,000 years ago and the latter fully isolated by 11,000 years ago, leading to the modern marine configuration stabilized by approximately 6,000 years ago as sea levels approached present elevations.^[19]

Geology

Tectonic Formation

The Sahul Shelf forms an integral component of the Indo-Australian Plate, which originated through the Mesozoic breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Rifting processes initiating the shelf's formation began approximately 160 million years ago, as initial extension separated the Australian craton from adjacent Gondwanan fragments, including Antarctica and Greater India.^[20] This early rifting established the foundational architecture of the Australian continental margin, with the Sahul Shelf representing the submerged extension of the Australian continent around its northern and western peripheries.^[21] Subsequent tectonic evolution was dominated by seafloor spreading in the Cretaceous, particularly in the Indian Ocean basin, which drove the northward drift of the Indo-Australian Plate. This spreading, commencing around 130-120 million years ago following the separation of India, propelled the plate northward at an average rate of approximately 7 cm per year during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic.^[22] A pivotal event occurred in the Miocene, when the northward-moving Sahul Shelf collided with the Sunda Shelf of Southeast Asia, effectively closing the deep-water Indo-Pacific gateway and altering regional ocean circulation patterns.^[23] These dynamics transitioned the margin from active rifting to a predominantly passive state by the Aptian stage (~125 million years ago).^[24] The shelf's crustal structure reflects this post-rift passive margin development, characterized by thinned continental crust beneath the shelf proper, typically ranging from 20 to 30 km in thickness. This thinning resulted from Mesozoic extensional tectonics that stretched and attenuated the lithosphere, creating a stable passive margin overlain by thick sedimentary sequences. In basins such as the Bonaparte and Browse, the crust exhibits sub-equal thinning of upper and lower layers, accommodating the post-rift thermal subsidence and sediment loading.^[25] Cenozoic compression, driven by the ongoing Australia-Asia convergence, led to the reactivation of ancient fault systems inherited from earlier rifting phases. In the Browse Basin, for instance, Jurassic and older lineaments were rejuvenated during Neogene compression, resulting in inversion structures and subtle fault propagation into overlying strata. These reactivations, linked to the Miocene collision with the Banda Arc, imparted episodic deformation to the shelf without fundamentally altering its passive character.^[26]

Structural Morphology

The Sahul Shelf's subsurface architecture is dominated by a basement of Precambrian cratonic rocks extending from the Western Australian shield, characterized by block-faulted structures that reflect ancient tectonic lineaments. These Precambrian units, primarily metamorphic and igneous in nature, form the stable foundation of the shelf and are directly linked to the Pilbara and Kimberley cratons onshore. Overlying this basement is a thick sedimentary succession of Paleozoic to Mesozoic age, comprising clastic and carbonate deposits that reach thicknesses of up to 7-10 km in depocenters, as revealed by geophysical surveys. This sedimentary cover records prolonged subsidence and deposition following the initial rifting of Gondwana, with Paleozoic sequences including Devonian-Carboniferous shales and sandstones transitioning to Mesozoic fluvial-deltaic systems.^[27]^[28] Major sedimentary basins define the shelf's internal framework, with the Timor Sea Basin prominent in the northern sector, featuring Jurassic-Cretaceous sandstones deposited in rift-related environments. These sandstones, often interbedded with shales and coals, fill half-graben depocenters formed during the Late Jurassic extension associated with the breakup of Greater India from Australia. Structural highs, such as the Rowley Shoals and analogous features like the Londonderry High, emerge from differential uplift of basement blocks, creating shallow platforms amid the broader subsiding basins. Seismic reflection data delineate these highs as fault-bounded elevations where thinner sediment cover exposes older Mesozoic units.^[27]^[29] Seismic profiles across the Sahul Shelf reveal a pervasive horst-and-graben morphology resulting from extensional tectonics, particularly during the Jurassic rifting phase, with normal faults striking predominantly east-west in the northern regions. These structures segment the shelf into alternating uplifts and basins, facilitating localized sedimentation and later inversion. In the northern areas, carbonate platforms developed atop horst blocks during the Early Cretaceous, forming extensive buildups that overlie the rift-fill sequences and contribute to the shelf's heterogeneous subsurface fabric. Anticlinal folds, oriented northwest-southeast, further deform the sedimentary layers, arising from mild compressional reactivation of extensional faults in the Neogene, and serve as key geological traps within the basin architecture.^[27]

Paleoenvironment

Climate and Sea Level Changes

The climate of the Sahul Shelf during the Pleistocene was profoundly influenced by global oscillations driven by Milankovitch cycles, which modulated Earth's orbital parameters and triggered glacial-interglacial transitions. These cycles, encompassing variations in eccentricity, obliquity, and precession, led to periodic expansions of polar ice sheets, resulting in eustatic sea level fluctuations that alternately exposed and submerged the continental shelf. During glacial maxima, such as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 21,000 years ago, global sea levels dropped by approximately 120–130 meters due to increased ice volume, fully exposing the Sahul Shelf and connecting Australia and New Guinea into a single landmass.^[30]^[31]^[32] Regionally, these glacial conditions weakened the Australian summer monsoon, promoting aridification across northern and northwestern Australia as reduced moisture influx from the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool curtailed precipitation. This drying was exacerbated by the exposure of the Sahul Shelf, which altered atmospheric circulation patterns, including strengthened easterly winds and a cooler surface albedo that suppressed convection. Post-glacial warming during the early Holocene reversed these trends, with sea levels rising at rates of 10–20 mm per year on average, driven by ice sheet melt, leading to the progressive inundation of the shelf.^[33]^[30] Key evidence for these changes comes from oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) data in deep-sea cores from the Indo-Pacific region, which record eustatic sea level variations through shifts in foraminiferal isotopes reflecting ice volume and ocean temperature. Pollen records from lacustrine and marine sediments in northern Australia further indicate vegetation shifts, such as expansions of arid-adapted taxa during glacial periods, corroborating the regional drying. These proxies highlight significant exposure of the shelf during late Pleistocene glacial stages, particularly Marine Isotope Stages 4 through 2 (approximately 71,000–14,000 years ago), with maximum exposure during the Last Glacial Maximum around 21,000 years ago, followed by rapid inundation from 14,000 to 7,000 years ago during meltwater pulses that submerged vast coastal lowlands.^[31]^[34]^[9]

Geological Time Scale Integration

The Sahul Shelf's geological development is firmly rooted in the Phanerozoic Eon, inheriting its foundational structure from the Paleozoic era as part of the Gondwanan supercontinent. During this period, the region underwent extensive sedimentation in stable cratonic basins, with Paleozoic sequences dominated by siliciclastics and carbonates reflecting a passive margin setting within eastern Gondwana.^[35] This inheritance provided the stable basement upon which later Phanerozoic events built, including early rifting precursors in the late Paleozoic. Transitioning into the Mesozoic, particularly the Jurassic-Cretaceous interval, the shelf experienced significant extensional tectonics during the breakup of Gondwana. Rifting initiated in the Late Jurassic around 160-150 million years ago, driven by the separation of Australia from Antarctica and India, forming rift basins such as the Sahul Syncline and leading to volcanic and sedimentary infilling.^[36] By the Early Cretaceous, seafloor spreading commenced, marking the onset of the Indian Ocean's formation and the shelf's transformation into a passive continental margin. In the Cenozoic era, the Sahul Shelf achieved relative tectonic stabilization following the cessation of rifting, with widespread subsidence facilitating the accumulation of post-rift sedimentary sequences up to several kilometers thick. Paleogene to Neogene deposition included mixed terrigenous and carbonate systems, influenced by regional thermal subsidence and minor compressional adjustments from distant plate interactions.^[37] This era's sedimentation patterns reflect a maturing passive margin, with progradational carbonates dominating the outer shelf. The Quaternary period, beginning 2.58 million years ago, integrated global glacial cycles with shelf dynamics, where Pleistocene fluctuations in sea level—driven by Milankovitch forcing—alternated between exposure during glacial maxima (sea levels ~120 m below present) and inundation during interglacials. These cycles promoted episodic sedimentation, including fluvial aggradation on the exposed shelf and marine reworking during transgressions, shaping the modern shelf morphology.^[9] Dating the Sahul Shelf's stratigraphic record relies on robust geochronological methods tailored to its rock assemblages. For the Precambrian basement, including extensions of the Pilbara Craton beneath the shelf, radiometric techniques such as U-Pb zircon dating reveal Proterozoic ages around 1.8 billion years, recording late-stage orogenic and extensional events that stabilized the cratonic core.^[38] Cenozoic layers, conversely, are primarily dated via biostratigraphy, utilizing fossil assemblages like foraminifera and nannofossils to establish chronostratigraphic frameworks with resolutions down to 1-2 million years.^[36] Recent tectonic models from the 2020s project continued evolution of the Sahul Shelf under the Australian plate's northward motion at ~7 cm/year, potentially leading to differential subsidence in northern sectors due to flexural loading from New Guinea's uplift and interactions with the Indo-Australian subduction zone. Uplift may occur in southern margins from isostatic rebound, though overall subsidence dominates, exacerbating vulnerability to sea-level rise.^[39]

Ecology and Biogeography

Pleistocene Ecosystems

During the Pleistocene epoch, the exposed Sahul Shelf, encompassing modern-day Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania, supported a diverse array of terrestrial and freshwater biomes shaped by fluctuating sea levels and climatic variability. Northern regions featured expansive savannas and tropical seasonal forests, while central areas were dominated by open woodlands and sclerophyllous habitats; in contrast, the uplands of New Guinea harbored montane rainforests and diverse altitudinal forest zones that varied with topography and elevation.^[5]^[40]^[41] These ecosystems were interconnected via land bridges during glacial lowstands, facilitating species dispersal while promoting endemism in isolated refugia such as highland pockets and arid interiors.^[42] Megafauna played a central role in these biomes, with giant marsupials like Diprotodon optatum—the largest known marsupial, weighing up to 3 tonnes—inhabiting semi-arid plains, savannas, and open woodlands across much of Sahul.^[43] Other prominent taxa included short-faced kangaroos (Procoptodon goliah), dromornithid birds (Genyornis newtoni), and carnivores such as the marsupial lion (Thylacoleo carnifex), adapted to browse on tough chenopod shrubs or mixed C3/C4 vegetation in shrublands and heathy understoreys.^[43]^[44] Freshwater systems, including paleo-rivers, lagoons, and episodic lakes like those in the Lake Eyre Basin, sustained unique assemblages of fish and invertebrates, with Plio-Pleistocene sea-level changes influencing the distribution and diversification of taxa such as ancient rainbowfish relatives and gastropods across connected drainages.^[23] Fossil evidence from sites like South Walker Creek in eastern Sahul reveals arid-steppe-like ecosystems around 40,000 years ago, with pollen and macrofossils indicating sclerophyllous forests transitioning to grasslands amid increasing aridity.^[44] Similarly, the Willandra Lakes region, including Lake Mungo, preserves records of semi-arid lake-margin environments with chenopod shrublands and episodic wetlands supporting diverse vertebrate remains from approximately 40,000 years ago.^[45] These assemblages highlight habitat mosaics of grasslands, shrub-steppes, and riparian zones that persisted through climatic oscillations.^[42] The late Pleistocene saw a major megafaunal extinction event across Sahul, with approximately 88 large vertebrate taxa disappearing during the Pleistocene, the majority within the last 50,000 years, coinciding with intensified aridification and hydroclimatic deterioration around 48,000–40,000 years ago.^[42]^[44] Regional drying, increased fire regimes, and shifts from mesic to xeric habitats—such as the replacement of grasslands with sclerophyll woodlands—likely stressed browser-dependent species like Diprotodon, contributing to staggered local die-offs without evidence of synchronous collapse.^[43]^[44] This event marked the end of Sahul's iconic megafaunal-dominated ecosystems, leaving a legacy of ecological restructuring.^[42]

Floristic and Faunistic Exchanges

The biogeographic boundary known as the Wallace Line has historically limited faunistic and floristic exchanges between the Sunda Shelf (Southeast Asia) and the Sahul Shelf (Australia-New Guinea), resulting in distinct biotas with few shared taxa east and west of the line.^[46] However, exchanges intensified during the Miocene around 12 million years ago (Ma), when tectonic uplift of New Guinea facilitated stepping-stone dispersal across Wallacea, allowing Sundanian lineages to colonize Sahul via humid-adapted pathways.^[47] Examples include shared avian taxa, such as certain passerine birds, which dispersed eastward, while marsupials remained predominantly Sahulian with minimal westward movement due to climatic barriers.^[46] Dispersal between Sunda and Sahul primarily occurred via stepping-stone migration across Wallacea during Pleistocene glacial lowstands, when sea levels dropped by up to 120 meters, exposing additional islands; within Sahul, land connections like the Torres Strait linked Australia and New Guinea. Conversely, vicariance events driven by post-glacial shelf submergence isolated populations, promoting allopatric speciation as rising seas fragmented habitats and created barriers to gene flow. These dynamics are evident in molecular phylogenies, which document zoochorous dispersal (animal-mediated) for 90% of floristic exchanges, with stepping stones in Wallacea enabling colonization of drier Sahulian environments by humidity-tolerant Sundanian plants.^[47] Key Gondwanan relics underscore pre-exchange biogeographic patterns on Sahul, including eucalypts (Myrtaceae), whose fossils date to the Eocene (~52 Ma) and reflect vicariant origins from ancient southern continents rather than Sunda-Sahul links.^[48] Similarly, ratites (flightless birds like emus and cassowaries) exhibit polyphyletic phylogenies supporting multiple Gondwanan vicariance events, with no evidence of Miocene Sunda exchanges.^[49] Dated molecular analyses reveal Miocene floristic connections, such as disjunct distributions in genera like Macaranga and Planchonella, with 82% of 49 analyzed nodes post-dating 12 Ma, highlighting intercontinental dispersal dynamics.^[47] Modern legacies of these exchanges include endemic Sahul families like Proteaceae (subfamily Grevilleoideae), which diversified heterogeneously across Gondwanan paleobimes, with high endemism in Australia reflecting isolation post-separation.^[50] In contrast, post-Holocene Sunda elements, such as certain rain forest understory plants, have established in northern Sahul through ongoing dispersal, though limited by climatic filters, contributing to mixed biotas in convergence zones without widespread invasion.^[51] Recent studies (as of 2025) highlight the role of vicariance in shaping distributions of soil invertebrates and passerine birds, complementing dispersal models and underscoring the Indo-Australian Archipelago as a biodiversity hotspot.^[52]^[53]

Human Prehistory

Initial Peopling

The initial peopling of the Sahul Shelf by anatomically modern humans is estimated to have occurred between approximately 50,000 and 45,000 years ago, though earlier dates around 65,000 years ago from some archaeological sites remain debated; recent genetic analyses as of 2025 suggest arrival no earlier than 51,500 years ago based on the timing of Neanderthal admixture in Indigenous Australian genomes.^[54]^[55] This colonization involved island-hopping through the Wallacean archipelago from the Sunda Shelf, with migrants navigating a series of sea crossings up to 100 kilometers wide during periods of lowered sea levels that exposed continental shelves.^[56] Key archaeological evidence for early arrival comes from the Madjedbebe rock shelter in northern Australia, where occupation layers dated to around 65,000 years ago using optically stimulated luminescence contain flaked stone tools, ochre, and grinding stones, supporting coastal migration routes along the exposed Sahul Shelf edges; however, these dates are highly disputed due to methodological concerns in OSL dating and conflicting genetic evidence favoring later occupation.^[57]^[58] These routes likely followed resource-rich shorelines, facilitating adaptation to the shelf's diverse paleoenvironments. The exposed shelf during glacial maxima provided a land bridge-like corridor between Australia and New Guinea, enabling initial settlement without extensive open-ocean voyages beyond Wallacea.^[59]^[60] The founding population consisted of small groups totaling 1,300 to 1,550 individuals, sufficient to overcome extinction risks and establish viable colonies across Sahul's varied biomes from arid interiors to tropical coasts.^[61] Genomic studies of modern Indigenous Australian populations reveal signatures of a severe founder effect and genetic bottleneck, with all lineages descending from a single ancestral group that underwent reduced diversity upon isolation in Sahul around 50,000 to 37,000 years ago. This bottleneck is evidenced by low nucleotide diversity in mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups, reflecting the challenges of small-group dispersal and adaptation to novel ecosystems.^[62] Technological innovations among these early inhabitants included edge-ground axes, fragments of which appear in the Madjedbebe assemblage and represent some of the world's earliest known examples of this tool type, unique to Sahul for their precocious development shortly after arrival.^[57] These axes, hafted for woodworking and resource processing, underscore the migrants' advanced adaptive toolkit, distinct from contemporaneous Asian technologies and tailored to Sahul's megafaunal and vegetated landscapes.

Migration Patterns and Evidence

Following initial settlement on the northern margins of Sahul around 50,000 years ago, human populations underwent rapid inland expansion between approximately 50,000 and 40,000 years ago, dispersing southward through a combination of coastal corridors and riverine pathways that facilitated access to diverse ecosystems across the continent.^[41] This dispersal was characterized by strategic mobility, leveraging lowered sea levels that exposed expansive plains and river systems, enabling groups to traverse vast distances in relatively short periods.^[8] Archaeological evidence from key inland sites underscores this swift colonization. At Devil's Lair in southwestern Australia, human occupation is dated to around 48,000 calibrated years before present (cal BP), with hearths, stone tools, and faunal remains indicating sustained use of the cave as a habitation site during early expansion phases.^[63] Similarly, the Nauwalabila I rockshelter in the Northern Territory yields artifacts and occupation layers originally bracketed between 53,000 ± 5,400 and 60,300 ± 6,700 years ago using early optical dating methods, though these ages are now widely questioned due to methodological limitations, with more recent assessments supporting occupation no earlier than around 50,000 years ago.^[64]^[65] These sites, along with others in the arid interior, demonstrate a pattern of opportunistic settlement rather than linear progression, supported by genetic modeling that posits stochastic, rapid peopling of the entire Sahul landmass within fewer than 5,000 years—equivalent to 150–200 human generations—driven by small, mobile groups rather than large-scale migrations.^[8] As populations expanded, behavioral adaptations emerged that highlight increasing cultural complexity. By around 40,000 years ago, evidence of deliberate fire use for landscape management appears, with charred sediments and altered vegetation patterns indicating controlled burning to promote food resources and reduce fuel loads in fire-prone habitats.^[66] Concurrently, ritualistic practices are attested through burials and early symbolic expressions; for instance, the cremated remains of Mungo Lady at Lake Mungo, dated to approximately 40,000 years ago, represent one of the earliest known intentional human interments, involving ochre application and possible ceremonial preparation, signaling sophisticated social structures.^[67] The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), peaking around 21,000 years ago, temporarily constrained dispersal due to aridification, but post-LGM sea-level rise—accelerating between 14,500–14,100 and 12,000–9,000 years ago—submerged up to 400,000 square kilometers of the Sahul Shelf's coastal fringes, compelling human groups to reorient toward emerging inland and higher-elevation refugia.^[9] This environmental shift likely intensified reliance on riverine networks for mobility and resource exploitation, fostering adaptations in tool technologies and subsistence strategies as coastal populations relocated.^[68]

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[14]
[PDF] characterisation of the marine environment of the north marine region
The seafloor is dominated by soft sediments. Relict terrigenous muds and sands predominate and have combined with reworked terrigenous sands and modern ...
[15]
(PDF) An isolated carbonate knoll in the Timor Sea (Sahul Shelf, NW ...
This paper constitutes a first detailed and systematic facies and biota description of an isolated carbonate knoll (Pee Shoal) in the Timor Sea (Sahul Shelf ...
[16]
Late Quaternary variability in sediment residence time and ...
These terrigenous sediments consist mainly of quartz, with subordinate feldspars and clays, and a biogenic carbonate component that is more prominent in shallow ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
Submarine Canyon Mapping | MARINE BIODIVERSITY HUB
New mapping by Geoscience Australia has identified 713 submarine canyons on the Australian margin, 95 of which are classified as shelf-incised canyons; ...
[18]
New seabed maps give sneak peek at what lies beneath
Oct 16, 2023 · Geoscience Australia has produced a national seabed map and released a 3D fly through of the South Australian, Tasmanian, Victorian, New South Wales and ...Missing: Sahul 2020s
[19]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.11.030
[20]
Tectonic features of the northern Australian margin, modified from...
Rifting between Australia and Antarctica was initiated around 160 Ma, followed by the breakup that started at ~93 Ma in the west (Broken Ridge/Kerguelen ...
[21]
Western and Northwestern Margin of Australia - SpringerLink
Most of the information on the western and northwestern margin of Australia has accrued during the past 20 years from petroleum and mineral exploration ...
[22]
Tracking the Australian plate motion through the Cenozoic ...
Sep 17, 2013 · Fast northward velocities (61 ± 8 and 57 ± 4 km/Ma) prevailed from 34 to 30 (±0.5) and from 23 to 16 (±0.5) Ma, respectively, with distinct ...
[23]
Miocene geologic dynamics of the Australian Sahul Shelf ...
Miocene geologic dynamics of the Australian Sahul Shelf determined the biogeographic patterns of freshwater planorbid snails (Miratestinae) in the Indo- ...
[24]
(PDF) The Neogene tectonic history of the North West Shelf, Australia
Aug 6, 2025 · We present a comprehensive model for Neogene deformation across the North West Shelf, based on seismic interpretation and mapping.
[25]
[PDF] Basement and crustal structure of the Bonaparte and Browse basins ...
Reduction in total crustal thickness above that high is achieved by sub-equal thinning of both upper and lower crust (Fig. 4, upper panel). Bonaparte Basin: ...
[26]
Tectonic modification of the Australian North‐West Shelf
Aug 6, 2025 · In the Browse Basin, the Neogene compression resulted in the reactivation of Jurassic and older fault trends (Harrowfield and Keep, 2005) ...
[27]
Geologic Framework of Continental Shelf off Northwest Australia1
Sep 20, 2019 · The offshore Bonaparte Gulf basin, as defined by gravity and aeromagnetics, contains substantial thicknesses of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.
[28]
The Timor Sea -Sahul Shelf Area - CSIRO Publishing
Ltd. ABSTRACT. Sediments of a total thickness estimated as exceeding. 24,000 feet have accumulated in the Timor Sea-Sahul Shelf.
[29]
Lower Cretaceous Sedimentation in the Sahul Syncline, North ...
Figure 1: The Sahul Syncline and the major structural elements in the north Bonaparte Basin, Timor Sea. Lines A-A', B-B' and C-C' are the cross-section and ...
[30]
The climate response of the Indo‐Pacific warm pool to glacial sea level
Jun 1, 2016 · Shelf exposure is the main mechanism whereby glacial changes in sea level influence warm pool climate The response is initiated by surface ...
[31]
Oxygen isotopes and sea level - Nature
### Summary of Key Findings on Oxygen Isotopes and Sea Level Changes During the Pleistocene, Especially LGM Drop
[32]
Sea-level change and demography during the last glacial ...
Feb 15, 2018 · We report the first quantitative model of the timing, spatial extent and pace of sea-level change in the Sahul region between 35-8 ka, and explore its effects ...
[33]
Aridification of Northwest Australia and Nutrient Decline in the Timor ...
Sep 15, 2023 · Our results suggest that northwest Australia underwent a step of increased aridification and that productivity in the Timor Sea declined during the transition.
[34]
Late Pleistocene shrub expansion preceded megafauna turnover ...
Dec 20, 2021 · Here, we reexamine Late Pleistocene pollen records for which 14C dating of terrestrial macrofossils is available and augment these data with ...
[35]
[DOC] Regional-Geology-of-the-Bonaparte-Basin_2022_FIN.docx
The Bonaparte Basin represents the easternmost offshore province of Australia's North West Shelf comprising also the Browse, Roebuck, Offshore Canning and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Palaeogeographic Evolution of the North West Shelf Region
Figure 5: Structural history beneath the North West Shelf region: a) incipient Gondwana rifting and block faulting in the. Permian; b) Mid Triassic to Early ...
[37]
[PDF] Sedimentology and geomorphology of the Nort-west Marine Region
The tidal range increases significantly in magnitude from the Dirk Hartog Shelf to the Sahul Shelf. Tides are <2 m on the inner Dirk. Page 4. 22. Hartog Shelf ...
[38]
evidence from the 3.5–1.8 Ga geological history of the Pilbara ...
Mar 1, 2012 · From 2.78–2.63 Ga the northern Pilbara Craton was affected by minor rifting, followed by deposition of thick basaltic formations separated ...
[39]
Slow Geodynamics and Fast Morphotectonics in the Far East Tethys
Jan 15, 2022 · More specifically, subsidence in Sahul is thought to have increased over time as the continent approaches the subduction and overrides the Indo- ...2.1 Numerical Model · 2.2 Bulk, Isostatic, And... · 3 ResultsMissing: projections | Show results with:projections
[40]
The case of Northern Sahul (Pleistocene New Guinea) - ScienceDirect
Aug 20, 2017 · The mountainous island interior is cool, and supports a diverse range of forests which vary with altitude, topography and aspect. During the ...
[41]
Physiography, foraging mobility, and the first peopling of Sahul
Apr 23, 2024 · We introduce an approach which models the impact of the physical environment on human mobility by combining time-evolving landscapes with Lévy walk foraging ...
[42]
Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in ...
The continental limits of Sahul are defined by the −130-m bathymetry line, and Sahul incorporates Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania. The Nullarbor Plain caves ...
[43]
What caused extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna of Sahul? - PMC
Feb 10, 2016 · Multiple independent lines of evidence point to direct human impact as the most likely cause of extinction.
[44]
Extinction of eastern Sahul megafauna coincides with sustained ...
May 18, 2020 · Explanations for the Upper Pleistocene extinction of megafauna from Sahul (Australia and New Guinea) remain unresolved.Missing: paleoriver | Show results with:paleoriver
[45]
The Mungo Mega-Lake Event, Semi-Arid Australia - PubMed Central
Jun 17, 2015 · The Willandra Lakes complex is one of the few locations in semi-arid Australia to preserve both paleoenvironmental and Paleolithic archeological ...Missing: steppe | Show results with:steppe
[46]
Paleoenvironments shaped the exchange of terrestrial vertebrates ...
Jul 6, 2023 · 1 and table S3) to Sahul, whereas only 19 families originating in Sahul (24% of all Sahulian families) crossed Wallace's Line to Sunda. A ...
[47]
The Sahul–Sunda floristic exchange: dated molecular phylogenies ...
Sep 9, 2014 · The Sunda shelf includes the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java, and the Sahul shelf includes New Guinea and Australia (Fig. 1) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
52 million years old Eucalyptus flower sheds more than pollen grains
Dec 3, 2020 · We report the finding of Myrtaceidites eucalyptoides pollen grains preserved within the anthers of a 52‐million‐year‐old Eucalyptus flower.
[49]
Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds
Sep 9, 2008 · Exhaustive analyses of DNA sequence data from 20 unlinked nuclear genes provide strong evidence that ratites are polyphyletic. We have ...Missing: Sahul eucalypts
[50]
Paleobiome dynamics shaped a large Gondwanan plant radiation
Here we unravel the complex and heterogenous diversification dynamics of Proteaceae (subfamily Grevilleoideae), a large Gondwanan plant clade.
[51]
Sunda–Sahul floristic exchange and pathways into the Southwest ...
Apr 19, 2023 · Two dispersal pathways into the Southwest Pacific are identified, (1) through New Guinea and the Solomon Islands to Fiji, and (2) from New Zealand to Fiji.
[52]
When did Homo sapiens first reach Southeast Asia and Sahul? | PNAS
Aug 6, 2018 · The diversity of habitats occupied in the process is striking (Fig. 1): high-altitude tropical forest-grassland (Ivane), subtropical savanna ( ...
[53]
Island-hopping study shows the most likely route the first people ...
Apr 2, 2018 · When people first migrated to Indonesia, reaching Australia by 65,000 years ago, they found a landscape that looked very different from today.
[54]
New DNA Evidence Suggests First Australians May Have Arrived ...
Jul 15, 2025 · New study uses DNA evidence to challenge claims that humans arrived in Sahul 65000 years ago, pointing to a later migration instead.
[55]
https://thedebrief.org/new-dna-evidence-suggests-first-australians-may-have-arrived-later-than-previously-thought/
[56]
Early human settlement of Sahul was not an accident - Nature
Jun 17, 2019 · Figure 1 shows the palaeogeography of the region at the two assumed times of human transit, the 17 sites chosen to represent the major crossing ...
[57]
Peopling of Sahul: mtDNA Variation in Aboriginal Australian and ...
We examined genetic affinities of Aboriginal Australian and New Guinean populations by using nucleotide variation in the two hypervariable segments of the ...
[58]
Early Human Occupation at Devil's Lair, Southwestern Australia ...
Jan 20, 2017 · Early Human Occupation at Devil's Lair, Southwestern Australia 50,000 Years Ago ... Australia's earliest human remains: Age of the Lake ...
[59]
The human colonisation of Australia - ScienceDirect.com
The lowest human occupation levels are bracketed by dates of 53.4 ± 5.4 ka and 60.3 ± 6.7 ka, while the upper levels show good agreement between optical and ...
[60]
Landscape burning facilitated Aboriginal migration into Lutruwita ...
Nov 15, 2024 · To identify major temporal changes in vegetation (pollen spectra), stratigraphically constrained CONISS cluster analysis was performed on ...
[61]
Thermoluminescence age determinations for the Mungo III human ...
The selective bleach results indicate the age of the burial to be older than 24.6±2.4 ka and younger than 43.3±3.8 ka, while the total bleach results give ages ...
[62]
Ancient Sahul's submerged landscapes reveal a mosaic of human ...
Dec 19, 2023 · New research conducted by a team of archaeologists and earth scientists has shed light on the ancient landscapes of Sahul, the Pleistocene (Ice ...