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Saining

Saining is a traditional Scottish folk practice of protecting individuals, homes, livestock, or land from harm or evil through ritual acts of blessing, consecration, or purification, often involving the sign of the cross, smoke from sacred herbs, water, or other elements.^[1] The term "saining" stems from the Scots verb sain, meaning to bless or hallow, which traces back to Old Scots sane (circa 1400) and ultimately to Old English segnian, derived from Latin signum ("a sign"), reflecting early Christian influences on the ritual.^[1] Cognate terms appear in Scottish Gaelic as seun or sian, denoting a protective charm, linking the practice to broader Celtic linguistic traditions.^[2] Historically rooted in pre-Christian animistic beliefs syncretized with Christianity, saining served to ward off malevolent spirits, remove curses, or ensure prosperity, particularly during seasonal festivals like Bealtainn, Samhuinn, or Michaelmas.^[3] Common methods include burning bundles of juniper (Juniperus communis) or rowan branches to fill a space with purifying smoke, processing sunwise (deosil) around boundaries with a flaming torch, or sprinkling holy water while reciting charms—such as those invoking protection from fire, water, or supernatural forces preserved in collections of Gaelic oral traditions.^[4]^[5] For instance, rowan sprays have been used to "sain" byres (animal sheds) against witchcraft, while milkmaids might croon blessings over cattle to shield them during milking.^[1] These rituals, documented in 19th-century folklore compilations, emphasize community and ancestral ties to the land, adapting over time but retaining their role in Scottish cultural and spiritual heritage.^[5]

Etymology and Terminology

Origins of the Word

The word sain, from which "saining" is derived, originates in Old English segnian, meaning "to bless" or "to mark with the sign of the cross," a term borrowed from Latin signāre through ecclesiastical influence.^[6]^[7] This root reflects early Christian practices of consecration using ritual gestures. The term evolved through Middle English sainen (attested around 1300 in northern dialects) into Scots "sain" by the late medieval period.^[7] The earliest documented use of "sain" in a Scottish context appears in 1375, in John Barbour's epic poem The Bruce, where it describes making the sign of the cross for protection.^[7] Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, the word features prominently in Scottish religious and literary texts, denoting consecration or blessing. For instance, in the Legends of the Saints (c. 1400), it refers to sanctifying food and drink; Walter Kennedy's The Flyting (1508) uses it for blessing a ship; and David Lyndsay's Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis (1540) employs it for self-blessing with the sign of the cross over the body.^[7] These usages underscore its primary association with Christian ritual acts of hallowing.^[7] By the 18th century, "sain" began to exhibit a semantic broadening beyond ecclesiastical blessing, incorporating elements of folk protection against supernatural harm. This shift is evident in literary and ethnographic records, such as Alexander Ross's Helenore (1768), which describes saining a childbirth bed with rowan leaves to ward off evil influences.^[1] Later 19th-century examples, like those in John MacTaggart's Gallovidian Encyclopaedia (1824), extend the term to ritual acts breaking witchcraft, such as saining livestock with peat smoke or hot irons for curative purposes.^[1] This evolution reflects the integration of Christian terminology into vernacular Scots folk traditions. The Scots term is cognate with Scottish Gaelic seun, signifying a protective charm, highlighting shared linguistic heritage in blessing practices.

Cognates in Celtic Languages

In Scottish Gaelic, the term sian or seun serves as a direct cognate to the Scots word "sain," denoting a protective charm or blessing intended to ward off harm. This usage reflects a shared Insular Celtic linguistic heritage, where seun specifically implies a safeguard against evil influences, often invoked in folk practices. Both terms derive from Latin signum ("a sign"), borrowed into Old English for the Scots form and into Old Irish for the Gaelic form, reflecting parallel Christian influences on native languages.^[6] The root traces back to Old Irish sén, which means a charm, incantation, or protective blessing, emphasizing connotations of shielding and prosperity. In Irish Gaelic, the term sén (Old Irish) appears in medieval contexts as a verb or noun related to blessing or marking for protection, as evidenced in early manuscripts that describe ritualistic safeguarding. For instance, protective invocations in texts like those compiled in the 12th-century Book of Leinster employ similar terminology to denote acts of consecration against misfortune.^[8] These cognates illustrate broader patterns across Goidelic languages, where terms derived from sén consistently carry protective overtones, linking Scots saining to ancient Celtic traditions of spiritual defense.^[9]

Historical Development

Pre-Christian Roots

Saining practices trace their pre-Christian foundations to Iron Age Celtic rituals centered on lustration and fire purification, which were integral to maintaining communal harmony and warding off spiritual threats. Lustration, a form of ritual cleansing often involving sacrificial offerings to purify individuals or the land, is described in classical accounts as a Druidic duty performed during times of crisis, such as plagues or military defeats, to appease deities and restore balance. Archaeological evidence from 1st millennium BCE sites in Scotland supports these purification rites through bog offerings, where artifacts and human remains were deliberately deposited in wetlands as votive acts symbolizing renewal and protection. For instance, the Deskford carnyx, a ceremonial bronze horn discovered in a Moray bog dating to the late Iron Age (circa 80–200 CE), exemplifies such depositions in liminal watery environments believed to connect the human and otherworldly realms. Similar finds, including structured deposits of smashed querns at Birnie in Moray, suggest ritual acts tied to purification and boundary marking during settlement phases.^[10] Classical Roman sources further illuminate Druidic ceremonies involving smoke and fire for protective purposes, portraying them as essential to Celtic spiritual life. Strabo recounts large-scale fire rituals where effigies filled with living offerings were burned, producing smoke that carried invocations to the gods for communal safeguarding against misfortune. Tacitus describes Druids on Anglesey (Mona) during the Roman invasion (circa 60 CE) brandishing torches and pouring forth curses to repel invaders and shield sacred sites from desecration. These accounts highlight smoke's role in amplifying ritual efficacy, creating a sensory barrier against malevolent forces, a practice echoed in broader Celtic lustration traditions across Britain. Bog bodies like Lindow Man from northern England (1st century CE) provide corroborating evidence, with victims showing multiple ritual killings—throat-slitting, garroting, and blows—possibly as purification sacrifices to avert calamity, their preservation in peat underscoring the bog's purifying properties.^[11] In Scottish pre-Christian folklore, these rituals were underpinned by animistic beliefs positing a world teeming with spirits, where saining-like acts warded off fairies and malevolent entities through elemental invocation. Early medieval tales, such as those preserved in Irish and Scottish oral traditions, depict sidhe (fairy folk) as capricious land spirits capable of blighting crops or afflicting humans, necessitating protective rites with fire or smoke to delineate safe spaces.^[12] This worldview, rooted in Iron Age animism, viewed natural elements as conduits for spiritual negotiation, ensuring prosperity by repelling otherworldly harm. Such practices laid the groundwork for later evolutions, blending seamlessly with incoming influences.

Christian and Post-Reformation Influences

During the early Christianization of Scotland from the 5th to 12th centuries, pagan purification and blessing rituals, including those ancestral to saining, were gradually integrated into emerging Christian practices as missionaries sought to accommodate local customs. This syncretism allowed elements like the use of smoke and water for warding off malevolent forces to align with baptismal rites, which often involved sprinkling holy water and exorcistic prayers to cleanse catechumens of sin and demonic influence. Such blending is evident in the Celtic Church's emphasis on protective invocations during initiations, where pre-Christian fire and herbal fumigation traditions merged with sacramental acts to symbolize spiritual renewal and safeguarding.^[13] The Protestant Reformation, culminating in the 1560 Parliament's adoption of the Scots Confession and suppression of Catholic rites, marked a significant decline in saining practices from the 16th to 18th centuries, as the Kirk rigorously condemned folk customs as "superstitious" and idolatrous, associating them with popery and residual paganism. Church sessions and civil authorities enforced bans on non-scriptural rituals, leading to their underground persistence or abandonment in Lowland and urban areas, where Calvinist theology prioritized unadorned worship over ceremonial protections.^[14] In contrast, saining endured in the Catholic Highlands, where resistance to Reformation mandates preserved a stronger continuity of traditional devotions amid ongoing persecution and isolation from Protestant centers. Highland communities, maintaining allegiance to Rome through clandestine masses and familial transmission, adapted saining into a form of vernacular piety that reinforced communal resilience against both spiritual and temporal threats.^[15] Nineteenth-century ethnographies further illuminated this hybrid legacy, with Alexander Carmichael's Carmina Gadelica (1900) compiling oral traditions from the Hebrides and western isles that reveal saining as interwoven with Christian theology. These records feature rituals invoking the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, and saints like Brigid for blessings via smoke or water, such as a juniper fumigation charm reciting: "I kindle this fire in the name of God... shielding from every danger," demonstrating how pre-Reformation syncretism persisted in prayer forms that sanctified everyday protections.

Methods and Techniques

Use of Smoke and Fire

In saining rituals, smoke is generated by burning juniper branches or needles in a cast-iron vessel, such as a skillet, pot, or cauldron, to create a dense, aromatic fumigation believed to dispel negative influences and provide protection.^[16] The resulting smoke is then directed throughout the space by walking in a clockwise circle or fanning by hand, often accompanied by spoken charms or incantations for enhanced efficacy.^[17] This method draws on the purifying properties attributed to juniper in Scottish folklore, where the plant's smoke is traditionally invoked to bless households and safeguard against harm.^[9] A specialized form of fire used in saining is the neid fire, or need-fire, kindled through friction methods like rubbing wooden sticks together or striking flints, particularly in times of crisis such as disease outbreaks among livestock.^[18] This "virgin" flame, untainted by ordinary hearths, is considered especially potent for purification; animals are driven between two such fires or through the smoke to cleanse them of illness or malevolent forces. Historically documented in the Scottish Highlands, need-fire rituals emphasized communal effort, with all village hearths extinguished beforehand to relight from the new source, reinforcing its role in emergency protective practices.^[19] During these smoke and fire techniques, practitioners often circle the area clockwise, known as deosil, while directing the smoke and reciting incantations to invoke blessings and seal protection.^[20] This directional movement aligns with broader Celtic traditions of sunwise progression for constructive magic, ensuring the ritual's intent permeates the space effectively.^[21]

Use of Water and Other Elements

In saining practices, water drawn from a "dead and living ford"—a river crossing traditionally used by both the living and funeral processions—was regarded as possessing potent protective qualities due to its liminal association with life and death. This "magic water," often collected in profound silence before dawn, was sprinkled around households, livestock, and individuals to purify and safeguard against malevolent forces, particularly during vulnerable times such as New Year's morning.^[22]^[23] Written charms, often in the form of inscribed Gaelic incantations or protective verses from oral traditions, played a central role in non-aqueous saining methods. These could be recited aloud during rituals to invoke blessings or etched onto paper, bark, or wood for carrying as talismans, drawing on ancient formulas to shield against illness and ill will.^[24]^[25] Beyond water, elements like rowan berries and turf were incorporated for anointing people, animals, or possessions, leveraging the rowan's reputed warding properties against witchcraft and the earth's grounding essence in turf to anchor protective energies. Rowan berries, strung or crushed into pastes, were applied to thresholds or worn as amulets, while sods of turf from sacred sites were used to mark or rub boundaries in blessing rites.^[26]

Ritual Contexts and Occasions

New Year's Celebrations (Hogmanay)

In the Scottish Highlands, a longstanding Hogmanay tradition involves the collection of water at dawn on New Year's Day from a "dead and living ford"—a river crossing believed to have been traversed by both the living and the deceased—to serve as a purifying agent for the household.^[27] This water, considered to possess inherent magical and protective qualities due to its liminal source, is drunk by household members and then sprinkled throughout the home, on beds, furniture, and all inhabitants to invoke blessings for health, prosperity, and safety in the coming year.^[27] The ritual, known as saining, aims to cleanse any lingering malevolent influences from the old year and sanctify the space for renewal.^[28] Following the water blessing, another key element of Hogmanay saining is the fumigation of homes and livestock using juniper smoke, typically performed shortly after midnight or early on New Year's morning.^[27] Branches of juniper are ignited and carried through the house and byre (cattle shed), allowing the dense, aromatic smoke to permeate every corner until it induces coughing and sneezing among the occupants, symbolizing the expulsion of evil spirits and the warding off of misfortune.^[27] This practice extends to the animals, ensuring their protection and fertility, and reflects a broader Highland belief in juniper's purifying powers to foster prosperity and guard against supernatural threats throughout the year.^[27] These saining acts are often accompanied by Gaelic prayers or incantatory songs recited by the head of the household, invoking divine favor and emphasizing themes of protection and abundance.^[29] For instance, the "Blessing of the New Year" (Beannachadh Bliadhna Ùir) from Alexander Carmichael's Carmina Gadelica includes invocations for peace, health, and safeguarding the home and its inhabitants during the year's transition, performed in Gaelic to draw on oral heritage.^[30]

Seasonal Festivals and Life Events

Saining rituals extended beyond New Year's observances to the Gaelic quarter days, particularly Bealtainn (Beltane) on May 1 and Samhuinn (Samhain) on November 1, where they served to protect livestock and households from malevolent influences. During Bealtainn, farmers kindled sacred need fires from which bonfires were lit; cattle were driven between these flames for purification, a practice known as saining with fire to cleanse away winter's ills and safeguard against disease or fairy mischief. Rowan branches, valued for their protective properties, were often burnt alongside juniper to produce smoke that was wafted over byres and doorsteps, ensuring fertility and warding off enchantment for the summer grazing season.^[31] At Samhuinn, saining focused on household lustration to mark the onset of winter's darker half, with hearth fires relit from communal need fires and smoke from rowan or bog-myrtle filling homes to dispel lingering spirits. Torches of straw and bog wood were paraded around field boundaries, a form of fire saining that protected stored harvests and family dwellings from supernatural threats, echoing the renewal themes seen in Hogmanay but adapted for seasonal transition. These quarter-day practices, rooted in pre-Christian agrarian cycles, persisted in rural Highland communities into the 19th century as communal acts of blessing and boundary-setting.^[31] In life events, saining held particular importance for newborns, who were vulnerable to fairy abduction until ritually protected shortly after birth. In 18th- and 19th-century rural Scotland, midwives performed saining by lighting a fir-candle—made from resin-soaked pine wood—and circling it sunwise three times around the mother's bed while reciting charms such as "May the Almighty debar a’ ill fae this umman, an be aboot ir, an bliss ir an ir bairn," with a Bible, bread, and cheese placed under the pillow for added sanctity.^[32] This smoke from the pine resin was believed to create a protective barrier against the "good neighbors" (fairies), who coveted unbaptized infants and unchurched mothers; strict watch was kept until the child was baptized and the mother churched.^[33] Water was also employed in protective lustration rituals around La Fheill Brìghde (St. Bride's Day, February 1), drawing on its purifying essence in coastal and Highland folklore.^[31] Healing rituals incorporating saining addressed ailments attributed to the evil eye (droch-shùil), a pervasive belief in Scottish folk medicine where envy or malice caused illness, wasting, or misfortune. During sickness, healers—often wise women—prepared forespoken water by collecting it from a border stream with three colored pebbles, marking it with a cross, and chanting incantations before anointing the afflicted person or sprinkling the water over them to break the curse. This water-based saining, sometimes poured onto a fire or rock to symbolize expulsion, was recorded in 19th-century texts as a standard remedy for fevers, eye afflictions, or sudden decline, restoring the patient's toradh (luck or prosperity) diminished by the evil eye. Charms known as sian were invoked alongside, combining verbal blessings with elemental anointing to shield against further harm, as practiced in Highland communities where medical access was limited.^[34]^[32]^[35]

Cultural Significance

In Scottish Folklore and Magic

In Scottish folklore, saining served as a key protective ritual against malevolent fairy influences, particularly to ward off changelings or abductions by the sidhe, often incorporating rowan branches or iron symbols believed to repel these supernatural entities.^[1]^[36] Accounts from the Scottish Borders and Highlands describe saining newborn children or lying-in women by circling them with smoldering materials to keep fairies at bay, emphasizing its role in safeguarding vulnerable individuals from enchantment or substitution.^[1] Rowan, revered for its red berries—each bearing a tiny pentagram shape opposite the stalk—and its protective qualities in folklore, was commonly used in such rites; loops or crosses of rowan wood, bound with red thread, were hung over doorways or carried as amulets to protect households and livestock from fairy mischief, a practice documented in Highland traditions.^[37]^[38] Iron tools or nails, placed nearby during saining, further reinforced this barrier, as folklore held that the metal's touch dissolved fairy illusions or compelled their retreat.^[36] Saining was frequently performed by "fairy doctors" or wise women in 19th-century Highland communities, who integrated it into broader charm magic to counter fairy-related harms.^[39] These practitioners, often local healers drawing on Gaelic oral traditions, conducted saining on cattle or homes suspected of fairy interference, using incantations alongside herbal smoke to restore balance and expel otherworldly threats.^[9] Ethnographic collections from the era, such as those preserving accounts from Inverness-shire and Perthshire, portray these women as custodians of esoteric knowledge, employing saining as a syncretic blend of pre-Christian and folk Christian elements to mediate between human and fairy realms.^[39] Within Scottish balladry and tales, saining appears as a communal safeguard embedded in the magical worldview, as evidenced in Sir Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802–1803).^[40] Such narratives, drawn from oral recitations, syncretize saining with heroic or domestic tales, underscoring its function as a shared cultural bulwark in everyday life.^[41] This protective essence briefly ties saining to broader folk practices aimed at preserving community harmony amid supernatural perils.^[36]

Protection and Healing Practices

In traditional Scottish practices, saining served as a primary method for warding off the evil eye, a malevolent gaze believed to cause misfortune or illness, through rituals involving smoke fumigation or the signing of the cross. Practitioners would pass juniper or other herbal smoke over individuals, homes, or livestock while reciting protective charms, aiming to dispel or reverse the curse's effects by symbolically cleansing the afflicted party.^[39] Similarly, cross-signing—tracing the sign of the cross over the person or object—was employed as a simpler protective gesture, often combined with spoken incantations to invoke divine safeguarding against enchantment.^[32] Saining extended to healing applications for livestock diseases, particularly in 17th- and 18th-century veterinary folklore, where need-fire—a specially kindled flame produced by friction from oak wood—was used to transfer illness from animals to the fire itself. In cases of murrain, a widespread cattle plague often attributed to supernatural causes like fairy interference, communities in the Scottish Highlands and Western Isles would extinguish all existing fires, then generate need-fire through ritual friction by groups such as 81 unmarried men, driving the herd between or through the flames to purify and restore health.^[42]^[43] This practice, documented in regions like North Uist and Caithness, reflected a belief in fire's purifying power to absorb and consume disease, with ethnographic accounts noting its communal execution during outbreaks to prevent recurrence.^[42]^[43] Beyond physical protection, saining rituals offered psychological and communal benefits by fostering group solidarity, as participants shared in synchronized actions like fire-kindling or incantation recitation, which reinforced social bonds and collective resilience against perceived threats. These communal saining rituals not only aimed at protection but also strengthened social bonds, preserving cultural traditions and communal resilience in rural Scottish society. Ethnographic studies of folk rituals highlight how such communal engagements generated emotional energy and a sense of shared identity, reducing anxiety through predictable, symbolic routines that affirmed community cohesion. In Scottish folklore, this extended briefly to safeguarding against fairy mischief, where saining warded livestock from supernatural ailments linked to disturbed fairy sites.^[43]

Modern Interpretations

Revival in Contemporary Paganism

The revival of saining in contemporary paganism has gained traction in recent decades, as neo-pagan movements such as Wicca and Druidry incorporated authentic Gaelic folk practices into their rituals. Practitioners drew heavily from Alexander Carmichael's Carmina Gadelica (1900), a collection of Highland prayers, charms, and incantations that preserved pre-Christian elements blended with Christian influences, adapting its saining formulas—such as those involving juniper smoke for protection—for modern ceremonies of purification and blessing.^[29] This popularization reflects broader efforts within these traditions to reclaim indigenous European spiritual techniques. In Scottish pagan groups, saining has been adapted for both personal rites, like self-blessing with herbal smoke to ward off negative influences, and communal rituals, such as seasonal cleansings during festivals. The British Druid Order (BDO), a key group, employs saining sticks made from local herbs in healing and group settings, continuing a thread from historical fairy doctor traditions into contemporary Druidic shamanism.^[44] Since the 2010s, online communities have further promoted saining through blogs, forums, and virtual workshops, stressing its cultural specificity to Scottish and Gaelic heritage as an ethical alternative to appropriated practices from other traditions. Platforms hosted by modern Celtic witches and Druids offer tutorials on preparing saining bundles with native plants like rowan and mugwort, often linking back to Carmina Gadelica for incantations, and host paid workshops to teach hands-on application for home and ritual use.^[31] This digital dissemination has democratized access, enabling global pagans of Scottish descent to revive the practice while maintaining its folkloric integrity, with continued growth into the 2020s through resources like ritual guides and social media tutorials as of 2024.^[45]^[46]^[47]

Comparisons with Global Purification Rituals

Saining, a Scottish Gaelic purification practice, shares superficial similarities with Native American smudging in its use of smoke for cleansing spaces and individuals, but differs markedly in materials, cultural context, and intent. While smudging typically involves burning white sage (Salvia apiana), a plant sacred to many Indigenous tribes for spiritual ceremonies, saining employs local botanicals such as juniper (Juniperus communis) or rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) to ward off malevolent forces and bless households, often during seasonal transitions like Hogmanay.^[31]^[48] These distinctions underscore saining's roots in Celtic folk traditions rather than Indigenous protocols, avoiding the structured prayers and feather-directed smoke fanning characteristic of smudging. In contemporary discourse, adopting smudging elements by non-Indigenous practitioners raises concerns of cultural appropriation, particularly due to the overharvesting of white sage, prompting recommendations to engage with culturally appropriate alternatives like saining.^[48] In contrast to Japanese misogi, a Shinto water purification rite emphasizing physical immersion for spiritual renewal, saining's water-based lustrations incorporate Gaelic incantations and align closely with the Celtic seasonal calendar, such as spring or autumn rites for protection. Misogi often involves full-body submersion under cold waterfalls or in rivers, accompanied by recitations and ascetic endurance, primarily to cleanse impurities (kegare) and achieve mental clarity, with heightened practice in winter for intensified purification.^[49] Saining, however, uses sprinkled or poured "forespoken" water—blessed through spoken charms—over people, livestock, or homes, emphasizing communal safeguarding against enchantment rather than individual ascetic struggle, thus highlighting its folkloric, incantatory uniqueness within Scottish traditions.^[31] Unlike the formalized Hindu homa, a Vedic fire ritual conducted by trained priests with precise mantras and offerings to invoke deities, saining operates as an informal folk magic practice accessible to householders without hierarchical oversight. Homa features a structured hearth-altar symbolizing a mandala, where ghee, grains, and herbs are immolated to purify karma and achieve spiritual awakening, often in tantric contexts across Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.^[50] Saining's fire elements, by comparison, involve ad hoc burning of local woods like pine or juniper in everyday settings for practical protection, lacking the priestly mediation and cosmological depth of homa, which reinforces saining's emphasis on vernacular, community-driven resilience in Scottish folklore.^[31]

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To protect from harm or evil by a ritual sign or act, esp. by making the sign of the cross, to consecrate, hallow, bless.
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[36]
A Loop of Rowan Tree: amulets against witchcraft
The records describe the rowan loops as amulets against witchcraft, but they also appear to have been prophylactic against ghosts, fairies, spirits, and the ...<|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] THE ABSENCE OF WITCH-HUNTING IN THE GÀIDHEALTACHD
Witch trial records have been used as primary sources for understanding the folk beliefs of common people in early modern Scotland regarding witchcraft, witches ...
[38]
Ministrelsy of the Scottish Border - Project Gutenberg
The chief, who led out the sirname of Scott upon this occasion, was (saith Satchells) Walter Scott of Ancrum, a natural son of Walter of Buccleuch. The ...
[39]
[PDF] The minstrelsy of the Scottish border
SIR WALTER SCOTT, Baet. TflTH. HIS INTRODUCTIONS, ADDITIONS, AND THE. EDITOR'S ... saining. Page 292. 268. MINSTRELSY OF. These water fiends are thus ...
[40]
[PDF] The peat-fire flame : folk-tales and traditions of the Highlands & Islands
... cattle of a crofter in. Caithness, who interfered with a faery knowe; and so serious was the plague that the need-fire had to be employed to stay it. The need- ...
[41]
The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough
310 In Germany and the Highlands of Scotland the need-fire was regularly, and in Russia and among the South Slavs it was sometimes, kindled by the friction ...Missing: folklore | Show results with:folklore<|separator|>
[42]
None
Below is a merged summary of references to "need-fire" in a Scottish context for cattle healing during the 17th-18th century, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into a table in CSV format, followed by a narrative summary that ties it all together. This approach ensures all relevant details are retained and easily accessible.
[43]
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/104943/9781000822854.pdf
[44]
Our Courses And Membership | Order Of Bards, Ovates & Druids
Our training course includes membership of the Order and is divided into three stages that correspond with the three traditional schools of the Bards, Ovates ...
[45]
Healing - Greywolf's Lair - The British Druid Order
Jan 30, 2021 · This Scottish folk charm is from Alexander Carmichael's Carmina Gadelica. The Serpent referred to is the power of life and growth which, at ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Saining Workshop - That Glasgow Witch
Out of stockIn this immersive workshop, you'll discover how to work with natural elements - smoke, water, words, and intent - through the lens of a modern Celtic witch.Missing: paganism | Show results with:paganism
[47]
Smoke Cleansing Around the World - Mountain Rose Herbs Blog
Jul 26, 2021 · Smoke cleansing is an ancient practice of burning botanicals for health or spiritual purposes, common in many cultures, with different rituals ...Missing: Druidic | Show results with:Druidic
[48]
Japanese Religion Through the Lens of Water - Kyoto Journal
In this article, I address Japanese religion through the lens of water within the context of Kyoto's geography of surrounding mountains, waterfalls, and rivers.
[49]
Homa: Tantric Fire Ritual
### Key Features of Homa Ritual