Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Pot

Pot is a slang term originating from the Mexican Spanish "potiguaya," referring to marijuana leaves, and commonly denotes , the psychoactive substance derived from the or plants, whose dried flowers, leaves, and resins contain over 100 cannabinoids, principally delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which binds to receptors to produce , altered sensory perception, and impaired coordination, alongside non-intoxicating (CBD). Humans have utilized for at least 12,000 years, initially for fiber, seeds, and medicinal purposes in ancient and to treat ailments like and , with recreational evidenced archaeologically from around 2500 years ago in , though widespread modern pot culture emerged in the amid countercultural movements and subsequent under laws like the U.S. , driven partly by racialized fears of Mexican immigrants. As of 2025, remains federally illegal in the United States as a Schedule I substance despite of medical utility for conditions like and chemotherapy-induced , with recreational in 24 states reflecting shifting policy amid debates over its risks, including acute , potential affecting 9% of users, and long-term associations with exacerbation in vulnerable individuals and reduced . Controversies persist regarding overstated therapeutic claims from biased advocacy sources versus peer-reviewed data highlighting causal links to respiratory issues from and motivational deficits from chronic heavy use, underscoring the need for rigorous, unbiased longitudinal studies over institutionally skewed narratives.

Definition and Origins

Terminology and Slang Usage

"Pot" is an informal term primarily used in the United States to denote , referring to the dried flowers, leaves, stems, and seeds of the prepared for consumption via , , or other means. This usage emerged as in during the early to mid-20th century and persists in casual among recreational users, distinct from precise botanical or legal designations like "" or "marijuana." The term avoids the clinical tone of scientific references, such as those focusing on active compounds, and instead reflects everyday, subcultural shorthand within consumer communities. Prevalent synonyms for pot include "weed," evoking the plant's weedy growth; "grass," alluding to its green foliage; "dope," a general term for intoxicating substances; "herb," highlighting its botanical origin; and "bud," specifying the resinous flower clusters. These alternatives carry similar informal connotations and are interchangeably used in street-level transactions and social contexts, often to obscure intent from non-users or authorities. "Ganja," borrowed from South Asian and Rastafarian traditions, implies higher potency or cultural ritual use, while "reefer" evokes mid-century jazz-era associations. Regional variations in slang underscore localized preferences: in parts of the U.S. , "chronic" or "kush" denotes premium strains, whereas "loud" or "gas" signals strong odors and effects in urban East Coast vernacular. Such terms diverge from medical lexicon, where "cannabis" pairs with specifics like THC content percentages rather than vague descriptors, emphasizing dosage precision over casual approximation. This nomenclature facilitates community bonding but can complicate regulatory or therapeutic discussions by prioritizing euphemism over standardization.

Etymology and Historical Naming

The term "," referring to , first appeared in in 1938, likely as a of the Mexican word potiguaya, which denoted marijuana leaves or the substance prepared from them. This traces to informal usage among Mexican-American communities and early adopters in the U.S., with some linguistic debate over whether it derives from a Tupi term for smoked or a corrupted phrase like potación de guaya (a cannabis-infused ), though the latter lacks strong attestation. The term gained early foothold in 1930s subcultures, where musicians employed it alongside other euphemisms like "muggles" or "" to describe the drug's recreational use, evading the formal and stigmatized of the era. Prior to "pot," the term "marihuana" (often Anglicized as "marijuana") dominated U.S. discourse starting in the early , originating from Mexican Spanish variants of mariguana or similar Nahuatl-influenced words for the plant. Federal Narcotics Bureau head Harry Anslinger deliberately promoted "marihuana" in the 1930s to racialize the substance, linking it to Mexican immigrants and jazz-influenced Black communities amid rising anti-immigrant sentiment following the , which contrasted with the established English term "" used for industrial hemp since the . This strategic naming facilitated the 1937 Marihuana Tax Act, embedding xenophobic associations that amplified stigma, as evidenced by contemporaneous propaganda films and reports portraying users as violent minorities. In the post-World War II period, "pot" proliferated through literature and , supplanting "marijuana" in casual to distance the substance from prohibition-era and foster a sense of subversive normalcy. This linguistic pivot reflected broader cultural rejection of official terminology, with "pot" evoking everyday domesticity over foreign menace, though government rhetoric under the Nixon administration persisted with "marijuana" in the 1970 to sustain punitive framing. Such naming dynamics empirically shaped public perception, as studies of media archives indicate heightened fear responses to "marijuana"-laden narratives compared to neutral botanical references.

Botanical and Chemical Profile

Plant Morphology and Cultivation

, the primary species associated with pot production, is an annual dioecious herb in the family, characterized by separate male and female plants that typically reach heights of 1 to 4 meters, though some varieties can exceed 6 meters under optimal conditions. The stem is fluted and erect, supporting palmately compound leaves with serrated leaflets arranged in an opposite-decussate pattern during vegetative growth, transitioning to alternate phyllotaxy in the flowering phase. Female plants produce resinous flowers clustered in racemes, which are the primary source of psychoactive compounds, while males generate sacs; both sexes exhibit axial branching that increases with environmental favorability. Cultivation demands high-intensity light, equivalent to full sun exposure outdoors or 600-1000 μmol/m²/s indoors, to support rapid vegetative growth and development. require well-drained, nutrient-rich soils with a of 6.0-7.0 and controlled relative varying by stage: 65-70% during establishment to prevent , 40-70% in vegetative phases, and 40-50% in flowering to minimize risk without exceeding 60%. Outdoor yields can range from 400-800 grams of dried flower per square meter under favorable climates with proper plant density, while indoor hydroponic or soil-based systems optimized for and density achieve 400-600 grams per square meter per harvest cycle, influenced by and environmental controls. Modern cultivation often involves hybrids derived from Cannabis sativa and C. indica landraces, selectively bred since the 1970s to enhance flower density, resin production, and overall yield rather than fiber or seed traits dominant in earlier hemp varieties. These efforts, initiated in regions like California, crossed tropical sativa types with more compact indica varieties from Afghanistan and Hindu Kush to shorten flowering times and boost inflorescence mass, resulting in prevalent hybrid strains that dominate commercial production. While pure sativa varieties grow tall and lanky with longer internodes suited to equatorial latitudes, indica-influenced hybrids exhibit bushier architectures better adapted to temperate indoor setups, reflecting decades of targeted selection for agronomic efficiency.

Cannabinoids and Psychoactive Components

The Cannabis sativa plant produces over 100 distinct cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds, with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) serving as the principal psychoactive component responsible for euphoric and perceptual alterations through its agonism of CB1 receptors in the endocannabinoid system. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive cannabinoid, often co-occurs with THC but lacks direct affinity for CB1, potentially modulating THC's effects via indirect mechanisms such as allosteric modulation or pharmacokinetic interactions. Laboratory analyses of seized or cultivated samples reveal that pre-1980s cannabis typically contained less than 5% THC by dry weight, with averages around 1-3% in the 1960s and 1970s due to landrace strains and rudimentary breeding. In contrast, selective breeding and hybridization in modern commercial strains have elevated THC concentrations to 5-30%, with many high-potency varieties averaging 15-25% as measured by gas chromatography in forensic and regulatory testing programs. THC:CBD ratios vary widely; traditional hemp-like varieties featured high CBD (up to 20:1 CBD:THC), while contemporary recreational strains prioritize THC dominance (often >20:1 THC:CBD), reflecting market-driven cultivation shifts documented in potency tracking databases. Beyond THC and CBD, minor cannabinoids such as (CBG), (CBN), and (CBC) constitute fractions of total content, typically below 1% each in profiled extracts, and may contribute to overall pharmacological profiles through biosynthetic pathways originating from CBG as a precursor. The "entourage effect" hypothesis posits synergistic interactions among s, , and that enhance therapeutic or psychoactive outcomes beyond isolated compounds, but empirical validation remains limited, with recent reviews citing insufficient evidence for receptor-level synergy and challenges like terpene volatility and . Controlled studies show variable support, such as mimicking analgesia in isolation, yet broad claims of multiplicative effects lack consistent replication across randomized trials. Extraction techniques, including solvent-based methods like butane hash oil (BHO), yield concentrates such as shatter, which achieve 60-90% THC purity by isolating glands and evaporating solvents under vacuum, as quantified in potency assays from regulatory labs. These products, often translucent and brittle in form, amplify THC delivery compared to flower, with shatter routinely testing at 80-90% THC in commercial samples, enabling precise dosing but also concentrating impurities if processing standards falter. Such advancements in —via closed-loop systems—have proliferated since the , driven by legalization, though they introduce variability from selection and post-processing .

Historical Development

Ancient and Traditional Uses

The earliest documented uses of date to ancient around 2700 BCE, where it was recorded in texts attributed to Shen Nung for medicinal applications, such as treating , inflammation, and gynecological disorders, alongside its primary role as a source for textiles and ropes. Archaeological evidence supports cultivation for hemp as far back as 6000–10,000 years ago in the region, with and fabric remnants indicating widespread industrial application rather than psychoactive intent. Physical evidence of cannabis smoking emerges from the Jirzankal Cemetery in , dated to approximately 500 BCE, where residues of high-THC were found in wooden braziers used in ritualistic burning, likely for intoxicating vapors during funerary practices. This aligns with descriptions by the Greek historian in the 5th century BCE of nomads inhaling smoke in enclosed tents as part of purification rituals following burials, a practice corroborated by similar archaeological finds of charred seeds and braziers across . In , appeared in Hindu religious contexts around 1000 BCE, prepared as —a paste or drink from leaves and flowers—used in ascetic and devotional rites associated with , though textual integration into Ayurvedic occurred later, around the CE, for purported and effects. Such uses remained largely ritualistic or medicinal, without evidence of broad recreational consumption akin to modern patterns. Across Europe and Asia, hemp dominated as an industrial crop for ropes, sails, and coarse fabrics from antiquity through the 19th century, with Egyptian records of rope use by 2800 BCE and pervasive adoption in Mediterranean and Eurasian trade, underscoring its economic primacy over any marginal psychoactive applications. Prior to colonial-era dissemination, no widespread culture of recreational cannabis smoking or "pot" as a leisure substance is attested in historical or archaeological records, with uses confined predominantly to utility, ritual, or targeted therapeutics.

Prohibition Era and Global Spread

The influx of Mexican immigrants following the 1910 introduced marijuana, known as marihuana in Spanish-speaking communities, to the , where it became linked to reports of increased violence and public disorder in border regions. Commissioner Harry Anslinger campaigned against it, citing of psychosis and among users, often emphasizing associations with minority groups to garner support for . The Marihuana Tax Act, enacted on October 1, 1937, required a tax stamp for legal possession, transfer, or production, but made stamps nearly unobtainable, resulting in over 1,000 arrests in its first year and prohibition nationwide. U.S. advocacy influenced international frameworks, culminating in the , adopted March 30, 1961, which classified and its resin in Schedule I as drugs with high abuse potential and limited medical value, mandating signatory nations to prohibit non-medical production and trade. The convention, ratified by over 180 countries, standardized controls by equating with substances like , driven by concerns over trafficking and epidemics reported in the mid-20th century. Domestically, the U.S. Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, specifically its title, placed marijuana in Schedule I, citing its lack of accepted medical use, high potential for , and risks as a precursor to harder drug use based on contemporaneous epidemiological data from urban youth cohorts. Subsequent reviews, such as those by the Department of Health and Human Services, have noted limited empirical support for the "gateway" hypothesis, with correlation often attributable to shared risk factors rather than causation. Prohibition disseminated globally through colonial administrations and treaty compliance; for instance, the United Kingdom's 1928 regulations under the Dangerous Drugs Act extended 1920 opium controls to , criminalizing its possession and importation to curb smuggling from and align with protocols. European powers, including and the , imposed bans in African and Asian colonies during the 1920s–1930s to preserve labor productivity in plantations and militaries, viewing cannabis-induced lethargy as a threat to imperial efficiency. By the 1960s, over 90 nations had enacted similar restrictions, often adapting U.S.-style narratives of moral decay despite varying local usage patterns.

Post-1960s Resurgence and Legal Shifts

The movements of the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the subculture, propelled into mainstream visibility as a for expanding and rejecting establishment authority. Usage became emblematic of anti-war protests, communal living, and spiritual exploration, with events like the 1969 festival amplifying its association with peace and liberation. This era marked a shift from clandestine consumption to open normalization among youth, despite federal prohibitions under the of 1970. Building on this cultural foundation, policy reversals began with medical access. California's Proposition 215, approved by voters on November 5, 1996, as the Compassionate Use Act, exempted qualified patients and caregivers from state criminal penalties for possessing or cultivating recommended by a for conditions like cancer or AIDS-related anorexia.) This initiative, passing with 55.6% support, initiated a wave of state-level medical programs, defying federal Schedule I classification and sparking legal conflicts resolved partially by the 2003 case , which upheld federal authority but did not preempt state compassion exemptions. Recreational legalization accelerated post-2010, with Colorado's Amendment 64 and Washington's Initiative 502 both approved by voters on November 6, 2012—Amendment 64 by 55.3% and Initiative 502 by 55.7%—authorizing regulated sales, possession up to 1 , and home cultivation for adults 21 and older. These measures established taxed retail frameworks, influencing 24 states plus D.C. to enact recreational laws by October 2025, though federal enforcement persisted via the Rohrabacher-Farr amendment barring funds for medical interference. Federal rescheduling efforts faced delays into 2025. In August 2023, the Department of Health and Human Services recommended reclassifying to Schedule III, citing accepted medical uses and low abuse potential relative to Schedule I criteria, prompting the to propose the rule in May 2024. However, administrative proceedings, including a December 2024 hearing, extended review amid incoming administration transitions, leaving in Schedule I as of October 2025 despite bipartisan support in for reforms like the STATES 2.0 Act. Empirical usage data reflect resurgence: CDC estimates indicate 52.5 million Americans, or about 19%, reported past-year use by 2023, up from prior decades amid state liberalizations. Conversely, youth trends show declines post-legalization in several states, with adolescent current use falling from 23.1% in 2011 to 15.8% in 2021 nationally, and high school past-year use dropping from 23% in 2013 to 17% in 2023, attributed to regulatory barriers like age restrictions and education campaigns.

Methods of Use

Inhalation Techniques

Inhalation represents the most rapid and bioavailable method of , with THC absorption rates of 10% to 35% due to direct delivery bypassing first-pass . Peak plasma THC concentrations typically occur within 3 to 10 minutes following , enabling swift onset of effects. Common techniques include combustion-based and non-combustive , each varying in efficiency, toxin profile, and device evolution. Smoking via joints, pipes, or bongs entails igniting dried cannabis flower, with initiating around 200°C and producing products including , , and . These methods expose users to deposition 3 to 5 times higher than per unit, exacerbated by deeper and breath-holding practices that enhance retention in airways. Bongs filter some through but retain risks of microbial from residue buildup. Vaporization heats cannabis flower or oils to 160–220°C, volatilizing cannabinoids and terpenes without full combustion, thereby reducing harmful byproducts like benzene and tar compared to smoking. However, device coils can leach heavy metals such as nickel, chromium, and lead into aerosols, with concentrations varying by hardware quality and usage. Portable and desktop vaporizers proliferated post-2010 alongside legalization trends, offering controlled temperature settings for optimized cannabinoid release. Dabbing involves flash-vaporizing high-potency extracts (often 70–90% THC) on a heated nail or surface reaching 232–316°C (450–600°F), followed by through a rig. This method, surging in popularity from onward with extract , achieves high with up to 40% of available THC captured in vapor. Electronic rigs introduced post- mitigate inconsistencies, though elevated temperatures risk degrading and forming minor toxins.

Ingestion and Alternative Forms

Ingestion of typically involves oral consumption through edibles or tinctures, where raw must first undergo —a heating process that converts the non-psychoactive (THCA) into psychoactive (THC) by removing a carboxyl group, usually at temperatures of 200–245°F for 30–40 minutes. Effects from these forms onset variably between 30 minutes and 2 hours due to digestion and first-pass metabolism in the liver, which converts THC into the more potent 11-hydroxy-THC , contrasting with the rapid of inhaled methods. Oral of THC ranges from 4–20%, significantly lower than inhalation's 10–35%, leading to inefficient and prolonged duration of effects up to 8–12 hours. Dosing edibles presents challenges due to potency variability and delayed onset, with standard servings recommended at 5–10 mg of THC for users to minimize risks, as higher amounts can exceed intended effects once they manifest. The lag in perceptible effects—often 1–4 hours—frequently results in overconsumption, heightening risks of acute , including severe anxiety, , or hospitalization, particularly among inexperienced users who redose prematurely. Tinctures, administered sublingually or swallowed, share similar but may offer slightly faster sublingual absorption, though still subject to the same limitations. Alternative non-inhaled forms include topicals and transdermals, applied to the skin for localized effects without significant systemic psychoactivity, as cannabinoids penetrate the stratum corneum poorly without enhancers, yielding low bioavailability estimated below 10% for most formulations. Topicals such as creams target peripheral relief via direct skin , while transdermal patches aim for sustained release into the bloodstream, though on remains limited and enhancer-dependent. Suppositories, inserted rectally or vaginally, have gained attention since around 2020 for targeted delivery bypassing first-pass metabolism, with rectal bioavailability potentially higher than oral (up to 20–30% in some animal models, though specifics vary), and early studies noting applications for or . These methods avoid inhalation but require precise formulation to mitigate inconsistent influenced by pH, dosage, and individual physiology.

Physiological and Psychological Effects

Acute Impacts on Cognition and Physiology

The primary psychoactive constituent of , Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), binds to type 1 (CB1) receptors predominantly in the brain and peripheral tissues, mediating acute physiological responses including and altered motor function. This receptor agonism typically elevates by 20 to 50 beats per minute shortly after or , an effect attributable to activation and , persisting for up to three hours. Concurrently, THC disrupts coordination, manifesting as decreased muscle strength, hand steadiness, and , as evidenced in controlled models. These changes stem from CB1-mediated inhibition of release in motor pathways, independent of subjective perceptions like relaxation. Cognitively, acute THC exposure impairs and processing speed via CB1 receptor density in prefrontal and hippocampal regions. Reaction times slow detectably in laboratory tasks, with meta-analyses of studies indicating deficits comparable to blood concentrations of 0.05-0.08%, though exact magnitudes vary by dose and . and anxiety emerge in 20-40% of users during intoxication peaks, particularly with higher-THC strains, linked to amplified threat perception in circuits rather than mere . Such dysphoric responses correlate with individual factors like and setting but reflect causal disruption of emotional regulation. Dose-response relationships underscore impairment thresholds: oral THC doses of 7.5 mg produce subtle deficits in time perception and , escalating to reliable and attentional lapses at 15 mg in infrequent users. Inhalation equivalents (e.g., 10-15 mg THC) yield peak levels within minutes, amplifying these effects via rapid CB1 saturation, as confirmed in pharmacokinetic trials. These acute alterations prioritize metrics from controlled settings over self-reported highs, revealing consistent in psychomotor and cardiovascular domains.

Chronic Health Risks and Dependencies

Approximately 9% of individuals who use develop dependence over their lifetime, with higher rates among daily users approaching 25-50%. , characterized by tolerance, cravings, and inability to cut down despite negative consequences, meets criteria in affected cases, supported by longitudinal surveys tracking progression from initiation to chronic patterns. Heavy users exhibit symptoms upon abrupt cessation, including , anxiety, , reduced , and physical discomfort, with prevalence of cannabis reaching 12% among frequent consumers in clinical cohorts. These symptoms peak within 1-2 days and can persist for weeks, complicating cessation efforts as evidenced by meta-analyses of studies. Chronic inhalation of correlates with respiratory pathologies, including chronic bronchitis, where cohort data show odds ratios of 2-3 for symptoms like persistent and production compared to non-users. Longitudinal analyses of smokers report increased large-airway resistance and , akin to effects but compounded by deeper inhalation practices. Links to remain understudied due to with co-use, though 40-year Swedish conscript cohorts indicate a twofold elevation in those with >50 lifetime exposures, suggesting plausible carcinogenicity from and combustion byproducts. Prolonged exposure impairs cognitive domains, with meta-analyses of abstinent chronic users revealing small-to-medium deficits in , executive function, and , persisting beyond acute in heavy lifetime consumers. Midlife from longitudinal cohorts links decades of use to reduced hippocampal volume and altered brain activity during memory tasks, independent of baseline IQ. Elevated schizophrenia risk accompanies adolescent-onset cannabis use, with the Dunedin birth cohort demonstrating a twofold relative increase in psychotic disorders among users, rising to 2-4 times in genetically predisposed subgroups via gene-environment interactions like COMT variants. This association holds after adjusting for prodromal symptoms and reverse causation, underscoring causal contributions in vulnerable populations per prospective designs.

Empirical Evidence on Therapeutic Claims

The U.S. has approved a limited number of cannabis-derived or synthetic medications for specific therapeutic uses. , a synthetic form of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), received approval in 1985 for treating refractory to conventional antiemetics, as well as anorexia associated with weight loss in AIDS patients. , another synthetic mimicking THC, was approved in 1985 for similar refractory nausea indications. Cannabidiol (CBD)-based Epidiolex was approved in 2018 for rare forms of , including Lennox-Gastaut and Dravet syndromes, based on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrating reduction, though it lacks THC and applies narrowly to these conditions. As of 2025, no additional cannabis-derived drugs have gained FDA approval for broader therapeutic claims, reflecting stringent evidentiary requirements amid variable trial outcomes. Systematic reviews of RCTs indicate modest efficacy for cannabis-based medicines in alleviating (CINV) unresponsive to standard therapies. A 2015 Cochrane review of 23 RCTs found cannabinoids superior to for complete of (relative risk 1.38) and (relative risk 1.28), particularly in cases, though benefits were tempered by higher adverse events like . (NNT) estimates for meaningful symptom relief range from 6 to 10, suggesting limited population-level impact. Recent guidelines, including a 2024 American Society of Clinical Oncology endorsement, affirm adjunctive use for CINV but emphasize insufficient evidence for prevention or standalone therapy. For , evidence from meta-analyses of RCTs supports small to modest reductions, primarily in neuropathic subtypes, but with low certainty due to heterogeneity in formulations, dosing, and outcomes. A 2018 Cochrane review of 16 RCTs reported cannabis-based medicines increased the proportion achieving ≥50% pain relief (21% vs. 17% ; risk ratio 1.41, NNT ≈24), alongside improvements in and distress, yet effects waned over time and psychoactive side effects were common. A 2025 confirmed cannabinoids reduce chronic noncancer pain intensity (standardized mean difference -0.43) but highlighted NNT of 24 for clinically meaningful relief, outweighed by (NNH) of 6 for adverse events like . In cancer-related pain, a 2023 Cochrane analysis of 11 RCTs found no significant benefit over for opioid-refractory symptoms. Emerging 2025 data on suggest short-term potential for specific extracts, though long-term remains unproven. A phase 3 RCT of VER-01, a full-spectrum extract, reported ≈30% pain reduction after 12 weeks versus (p<0.001), with better tolerability than opioids in comparative arms, based on numeric rating scale improvements. However, development—evident in prior use studies where initial benefits diminish after 4-8 weeks—limits sustained utility, and no RCTs demonstrate prevention of functional decline or superiority to established therapies. Claims for other conditions lack robust RCT support. For , systematic reviews confirm transient reduction (up to 45% acutely) but no sustained effect or , rendering cannabinoids ineffective for disease modification or long-term management due to short duration (3-4 hours) and delivery challenges. No high-quality evidence substantiates as a curative agent for cancer; while palliation of symptoms like or shows inconsistent modest gains, RCTs fail to demonstrate antitumor activity or survival benefits. Overall, beyond targeted palliation, therapeutic assertions often rely on low-quality or anecdotal data, with systematic reviews underscoring the need for larger, standardized RCTs to clarify causal mechanisms amid confounding psychoactive effects.

Legal Framework

International Treaties and Classifications

The of 1961, which entered into force in 1964, forms the cornerstone of international control by classifying and resin in Schedule I—denoting drugs with high abuse potential and little to no recognized medical value—and additionally in Schedule IV, imposing the strictest production and restrictions due to their perceived liability to produce ill effects outweighing therapeutic benefits. This treaty, ratified by 186 parties as of 2023, obligates signatories to limit to medical and scientific purposes, prohibiting non-medical , , and use while requiring licensing, record-keeping, and of illicit materials. Complementing the 1961 Convention, the 1971 placed delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive component of , in Schedule I, subjecting it to analogous controls for substances with significant abuse risks and limited therapeutic utility. The 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances further strengthened enforcement by mandating criminal penalties for , , and trafficking of , regardless of quantity, to combat organized crime. Between 2018 and 2020, the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence conducted a comprehensive review of cannabis and related substances, citing emerging evidence of therapeutic benefits such as for and , but rejecting full descheduling from Schedule I due to documented abuse potential, dependence risks, and insufficient data on long-term safety for broad medical endorsement. The UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted these findings in December 2020 by removing cannabis from Schedule IV—easing some export/import barriers for medical extracts—while retaining Schedule I status, thereby affirming controls akin to those for opioids like despite acknowledged medical applications. As of October 2025, ongoing reclassification debates persist within UN bodies, fueled by domestic medical programs in over 50 countries, yet the conventions' emphasis on abuse data and compliance hinders broader reforms, creating interpretive tensions where states pursue recreational by narrowly construing obligations to exclude non-medical markets. Enforcement variances underscore these frictions: the ' gedoogbeleid (tolerance policy), formalized in the 1976 Act amendments, de facto permits retail sales of up to 5 grams per person in licensed coffee shops to mitigate , bypassing full despite requirements for . In contrast, many Asian jurisdictions maintain zero-tolerance regimes with penalties, such as mandatory or execution for trafficking in , prioritizing strict adherence amid concerns over regional drug trafficking routes.

U.S. Federal and State Variations

At the federal level, remains classified as a I under the of 1970, indicating no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse. In October 2022, President Biden issued pardons for prior federal simple possession offenses committed before that date and directed a review of scheduling, but no descheduling has occurred by October 2025. The Department of Health and Human Services recommended rescheduling to III in August 2023, acknowledging moderate abuse potential and accepted medical use, prompting ongoing rulemaking, yet retains I status pending finalization. By October 2025, 24 plus the District of Columbia have legalized recreational for adults aged 21 and older, permitting , , and sales under state-regulated frameworks, while 14 additional states allow only medical use and the remaining 12 maintain full or limited . State laws typically limit to 1-2 ounces of flower or equivalent concentrates, with caps of 6-12 , though varies by locality, including municipal opt-outs in states like and . law preempts these state authorizations, prohibiting interstate transport even between legal jurisdictions and subjecting participants to potential penalties, including up to one year for simple . Tensions arise from enforcement gaps and federal-state frictions, as appropriations riders like the Rohrabacher-Blumenauer amendment (renewed annually) restrict Department of Justice funding to prosecute state-compliant operations but offer no such protection for recreational markets, enabling selective federal interventions. State-legal businesses face banking restrictions under federal anti-money laundering rules, with most institutions declining services due to perceived risks, exacerbating cash-only operations despite repeated failures of the to pass —most recently reintroduced as SAFER in 2025 without enactment. Federal agencies, including the IRS, enforce Section 280E of the tax code, disallowing ordinary business deductions for cannabis firms and imposing effective tax rates over 70% in some cases, while rare but notable actions, such as asset forfeitures or licensing denials on , underscore ongoing conflicts.

Global Legalization Trends and Outcomes

pioneered national recreational legalization in December 2013, establishing a state-regulated system for production, distribution, and sales to curb drug-related violence associated with cross-border trafficking. Post-legalization, -related homicides and incidents linked to the drug declined, as the regulated supply diminished incentives for illegal imports from neighboring countries. However, average THC potency in legal products has risen over time, from around 10% in early regulated batches to exceeding 15-20% in recent years, complicating efforts to enforce consumption limits and contributing to higher visits for acute intoxication. Canada fully legalized recreational cannabis on October 17, 2018, via the , creating a federally licensed market for adults aged 19 and older. Youth cannabis use rates (ages 15-17) remained relatively stable post-legalization, with past-year prevalence hovering around 20-25% through 2023, though daily or near-daily use among 18-24-year-olds increased modestly from 10% pre-legalization to 15-17% by 2024. Cannabis-related arrests dropped by over 50% in the initial years, freeing resources, but the persists with approximately 20-27% of consumption sourced illegally as of 2023, driven by higher legal prices and taxes. In , partial legalization advanced with Germany's Cannabis Act effective April 1, 2024, permitting adults to possess up to 25 grams in public and cultivate three plants at home, alongside nonprofit cannabis clubs for . Early 2025 evaluation data indicate possession offenses fell by 60-80%, reducing judicial burdens without corresponding rises in youth usage or traffic fatalities. Luxembourg followed in 2023 with home cultivation allowances, while maintains medical-only access legalized in 2017, with no recreational reforms enacted by October 2025 despite ongoing debates. Across these jurisdictions, legalization has consistently lowered minor crimes but struggled with potency regulations, as black-market products often exceed legal THC caps (e.g., 10% in ), sustaining unregulated high-potency supply chains.

Societal and Economic Implications

Cultural Integration and Media Portrayal

Early portrayals of marijuana in American media emphasized exaggerated dangers, as seen in the 1936 propaganda film Reefer Madness, which depicted users descending into insanity, violence, and moral decay to stoke public fear amid limited scientific understanding of the substance. This sensationalism contributed to early 20th-century prohibition efforts but contrasted with emerging countercultural views in the 1960s, where marijuana symbolized rebellion against authority and was embraced by hippie movements as a tool for consciousness expansion and social nonconformity. Such depictions shifted public perception toward viewing cannabis as a marker of youthful defiance rather than inherent peril, though they often overlooked emerging reports of acute psychological effects like paranoia in vulnerable users. By the 1970s, comedic films like Cheech & Chong's (1978) further normalized marijuana use through humor, portraying stoners as affable protagonists engaging in harmless antics, which helped destigmatize the drug within mainstream entertainment and influenced perceptions of it as a benign recreational substance. This normalization extended into music, particularly , where references to cannabis surged from 11% of top rap songs in 1979 to 69% by 1997, often linking it to success, relaxation, and ; empirical studies associate such exposure in with increased initiation of use among urban adolescents. Post-legalization in states like (2016), Hollywood depictions evolved toward casual integration in films and series, reducing outright villainization but frequently glamorizing consumption without addressing documented risks such as impaired and , potentially amplifying cultural acceptance beyond evidence-based caution. Countervailing efforts included anti-marijuana campaigns like the (DARE) program, launched in 1983, which used school-based instruction by officers to warn of drug harms, including marijuana's role in and cognitive deficits; however, longitudinal evaluations found limited immediate effects and no sustained reduction in use one or two years post-intervention. These portrayals, while aiming to balance glamorization with cautionary narratives, demonstrated mixed , as peer-reviewed analyses indicated DARE failed to significantly alter lifetime marijuana use rates among participants compared to controls. Overall, 's pivot from alarmism to endorsement has prioritized cultural relatability over rigorous scrutiny of harms, with hip-hop videos alone serving as a major vector for normalized exposure to cannabis imagery among youth.

Market Dynamics and Black Market Persistence

Legal cannabis sales in the United States reached approximately $33.6 billion in 2023, encompassing both medical and recreational markets across states with varying degrees of legalization. This figure reflects growth driven by new adult-use markets, with projections estimating $38.5 billion in 2024, though the industry faces challenges from regulatory fragmentation. Excise taxes on these sales generated billions for state revenues, such as $2.9 billion across 23 states and the District of Columbia in 2023, funding public services including education and infrastructure. However, high tax rates—often exceeding 30% in states like and —have incentivized consumers to favor cheaper illicit sources, undermining the anticipated displacement of underground trade. Despite , the remains dominant in several key states, capturing an estimated 60% of in as of 2024, where licensed wholesale production totaled only $1.03 billion against a larger unregulated supply. Statewide seizures exceeded $534 million in illegal value in 2024, including over 150,000 pounds of product and 774,000 eradicated, indicating persistent large-scale illicit cultivation often linked to organized groups evading taxes and regulations. High taxes and compliance costs inflate legal retail prices to $40–$60 per ounce in , compared to $100–$200 nationally for equivalents that undercut by avoiding 15% excise plus local levies, sustaining demand for unregulated product. Federal prohibitions on interstate commerce, upheld under the , prevent legal operators from achieving , artificially elevating prices and bolstering illicit networks that routinely cross state lines unchecked. A 2025 California analysis highlighted how this ban disadvantages licensed businesses while enabling actors, including foreign-linked operations, to maintain supply chains and profits. Congressional scrutiny in 2025 linked ongoing involvement, such as Chinese-affiliated farms in rural areas, to these dynamics, with illicit trade funding ancillary despite state-level efforts. Overall, these factors demonstrate that has not eradicated activity, as structural barriers and fiscal policies perpetuate a where illicit sales rival or exceed legal volumes in high-tax jurisdictions.

Controversies and Empirical Critiques

Public Health and Youth Exposure

Following recreational in in 2012, unintentional pediatric exposures to , particularly via edibles resembling or gummies, led to a marked rise in visits among children under 12. The mean annual rate of such visits at a major increased from 1.2 per 100,000 in the two years prior to legalization to 6.9 per 100,000 in 2015, reflecting a more than fivefold elevation, with edibles implicated in over half of cases due to their appealing packaging and delayed psychoactive onset encouraging accidental or experimental overingestion. This pattern persisted, as edibles accounted for a disproportionate share of toxic reactions compared to inhaled forms, exacerbating risks for vulnerable young patients whose lower body weight amplifies THC potency. National surveys indicate that while overall past-year use among adolescents has remained relatively stable or declined since widespread began, specific metrics of frequent and novel consumption have risen, particularly THC vaping. from the Monitoring the Future () study show past-30-day cannabis vaping prevalence increasing from 6.1% lifetime use across grades in 2013-2016 to 13.6% in 2019-2020, with 2021 rates at 2.9% for 8th graders, 8.4% for 10th graders, and 12.4% for 12th graders. This "vaping epidemic" among youth correlates with legalized markets offering high-potency concentrates, enabling discreet and rapid delivery of THC levels far exceeding traditional flower. Longitudinal studies reveal use during disrupts cerebral cortical maturation, with pronounced effects on the (), which governs like impulse control and and continues developing until approximately age 25. In a cohort of adolescents tracked over years, regular users exhibited accelerated PFC thinning and reduced in regions tied to self-regulation and , persisting even after abstinence. These structural alterations, observed via MRI, suggest causal interference with and myelination processes critical in this developmental window, potentially heightening vulnerability to cognitive deficits and psychiatric outcomes. Such findings from prospective designs underscore the PFC's sensitivity to THC's interference with endocannabinoid signaling during , outweighing cross-sectional confounds.

Crime, Traffic Safety, and Gateway Effects

Studies indicate that cannabis legalization has been associated with higher prevalence of THC-positive drivers in fatal crashes. In Washington State, the proportion of tested drivers in fatal crashes positive for THC rose from approximately 14.6% before retail sales to 21.4% one year after, though the change was not statistically significant. Nationally, roadside surveys showed THC positivity among nighttime drivers increasing from 8.6% in 2007 to 12.6% in 2013-2014, coinciding with early medical legalization expansions. Meta-analyses estimate cannabis use elevates crash risk by odds ratios of 1.92 to 2.66, with impairment—manifesting as slowed reaction time, reduced coordination, and poor lane tracking—typically lasting 2-3 hours after smoking but potentially extending longer based on dose and individual factors. The gateway hypothesis posits as a precursor to harder drug use, supported by longitudinal data showing progression. Analysis of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) found that 44.7% of lifetime users progressed to other illicit drugs, with cumulative probability rising over time. While causality remains debated—due to factors like propensity for experimentation—adjusted models indicate initiation precedes and correlates with elevated odds (approximately 2-3 times) of subsequent , , or other compared to non-users. Legalization has not demonstrably reduced drug-related crime or cartel violence as harm reduction advocates claim. FBI Uniform Crime Reporting data reveal mixed effects on overall crime rates in legalized states: some analyses show no long-term increase or even declines in certain categories like theft, while others link retail sales to rises in property and violent offenses. In Mexico, partial cannabis reforms since 2018 yielded no significant drop in drug possession or violent crime arrests, with cartels adapting by intensifying focus on heroin, fentanyl, and methamphetamine trafficking to offset lost marijuana revenue from U.S. markets. Homicide rates remain elevated, exceeding 30,000 annually since 2018, underscoring that market shifts fail to dismantle entrenched violence.

Economic and Policy Failures in Legalization

Despite generating substantial tax revenues, legalization in states like has failed to equitably distribute economic benefits, with minority groups remaining underrepresented in business ownership. In , marijuana tax collections reached approximately $2.6 billion cumulatively by , including and taxes, though annual figures have declined from a peak of $423 million in fiscal year 2021 to $248 million in the most recent budget year. Nationwide, adult-use states collected about $2.9 billion in taxes alone in , yet over 80% of business owners are white, with Black ownership at only 4.3% and Hispanic at 5.7%, despite historical disparities in that disproportionately affected minorities. This underrepresentation persists due to barriers like limited access to capital and licensing preferences favoring established players, undermining claims of . Cannabis taxes often function regressively, imposing higher effective burdens on lower-income consumers who comprise a larger share of the . Excise and taxes, typically ranging from 15% to 37% across states, apply uniformly without income adjustments, leading econometric analyses to conclude they exacerbate as usage correlates with . In practice, revenues have not offset these inequities, with declining in mature markets like signaling market saturation and potency-driven substitution rather than broad economic uplift. The absence of a federal framework as of October 2025 has imposed significant compliance burdens on state-legal industries, estimated to cost businesses millions annually in fragmented regulations. remains federally classified under Schedule I, with rescheduling to Schedule III recommended by HHS in 2023 but stalled amid ongoing review, forcing operators to navigate banking restrictions, interstate barriers, and duplicative state testing requirements that can exceed $2,500 per batch. These costs, including security, tracking, and legal liabilities, disproportionately hinder small and minority-owned entrants, while enforcement expenditures in legalized states often rival or exceed net tax gains after for regulatory overhead. Comparisons with decriminalization models, such as Portugal's 2001 policy, highlight 's policy shortcomings in curbing use and harms. Portugal's approach, personal possession while maintaining on production and sale, resulted in lower rates of problematic drug use and overall consumption compared to pre-policy levels, with past-year prevalence stabilizing around 10-12% versus increases to over 20% in U.S. recreational states post-legalization. U.S. commercialization has driven higher youth and adult initiation through normalized marketing, contrasting Portugal's health-focused dissuasion without creating a taxed that sustains demand via legal availability. This divergence underscores how full amplifies consumption via supply expansion, yielding fiscal benefits that fail to materialize in reduced social costs or equitable outcomes.

References

  1. [1]
    Cannabis slang: why is marijuana called “pot”? - Weedmaps
    Nov 19, 2020 · The term pot, which like marijuana is categorized “because of language,” may derive from the Spanish word potiguaya, meaning marijuana leaves.<|separator|>
  2. [2]
    Marijuana - Mayo Clinic
    Aug 15, 2025 · There are more than 100 active compounds in cannabis. The most common cannabinoids are delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol, also called THC, and ...
  3. [3]
    Cannabis (Marijuana) | National Institute on Drug Abuse - NIDA - NIH
    Sep 24, 2024 · CBD is not intoxicating like THC. However, it may have side effects including drowsiness, decreased appetite, vomiting and diarrhea.
  4. [4]
    History of cannabis and the endocannabinoid system - PMC
    Cannabis was attested to around 12 000 years ago near the Altai Mountains in Central Asia, and since then, cannabis seeds have accompanied the migration of ...
  5. [5]
    The origins of cannabis smoking: Chemical residue evidence from ...
    Jun 12, 2019 · Some scholars have suggested that cannabis formed part of Zoroastrian religious and mortuary practices during the first millennium CE (38–40), ...
  6. [6]
    Marijuana Legality by State 2025 | Where Is Weed Legal? - DISA
    See where marijuana is legal in 2025. Interactive map shows state-by-state weed laws, medical and recreational use, and answers “can I smoke weed in…?”
  7. [7]
    Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use - PMC - PubMed Central
    Short-term marijuana use can cause impaired memory and motor skills. Long-term use can lead to addiction, altered brain development, and cognitive impairment.
  8. [8]
    The effect of marijuana use in adolescence on college and graduate ...
    Marijuana use in adolescence leads to a large reduction in the likelihood of college and graduate degree attainment by the time respondents are aged 33–43 years ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  9. [9]
    Cannabis Addiction and the Brain: a Review - PMC - PubMed Central
    Here we review previous research on the acute and long-term effects of cannabis use on the brain and behavior, and find that the three-stage framework of ...
  10. [10]
    Brain Function Outcomes of Recent and Lifetime Cannabis Use
    Jan 28, 2025 · Evidence has indicated that cannabis use reduces neural activation related to memory, executive function, emotion, reward processing, and social ...
  11. [11]
    Why Is Marijuana Also Called Pot? - Dictionary.com
    Jul 20, 2010 · It literally means “the drink of grief.” Like pot, the word marijuana refers to cannabis, the hemp plant Cannabis sativa (or Cannabis indica).
  12. [12]
    Slang Names for Marijuana | American Addiction Centers
    Nov 15, 2024 · There are several nicknames and slang for pot, including grass, ganja, reefer, and herb. Learn more about these nicknames and other terms ...
  13. [13]
    Marijuana: Street Names, Slang, Nicknames + Emoji - Zinnia Health
    Sep 14, 2023 · Aunt Mary; BC Bud; Blunt; Boom; Cheeba; Chronic; Doobie; Dope; Gangster; Ganja; Grass; Hash; Herb; Hydro; Indo ...
  14. [14]
    Nicknames, Street Names & Slang for Marijuana - Casa Palmera
    Jun 20, 2019 · Weed; Pot; Reefer; Grass; Dope; Ganja; Mary Jane; Hash · Amp Joint; Dust; Dusting · Atom Bomb; A-Bomb; Canade; Woola; Woolie; Woo-Woo; Brown · Ace ...
  15. [15]
    Pot - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
    Pot originates from late Old English and Old French, meaning a deep vessel; also a verb "to put in a pot," and 1938 slang for marijuana from Mexican Spanish.Pot(n. 1) · Pot(v.) · Entries Linking To Pot
  16. [16]
    Why Is Weed Called Pot? The Real Spanish Origin Behind ... - Mood
    Sep 9, 2025 · The word "pot" likely comes from 1930s Mexican-American communities, not the mythical Spanish phrase "potación de guaya" that linguists cannot ...
  17. [17]
    Here's What People Called Pot in the 1940s - Time Magazine
    Apr 20, 2015 · The reason for the connection between jazz and pot was, the magazine guessed, that the illusion of a slower sense of time and a keener sense of ...Missing: 1930s culture
  18. [18]
    The Mysterious History Of 'Marijuana' : Code Switch - NPR
    Jul 22, 2013 · Numerous accounts say that "marijuana" came into popular usage in the U.S. in the early 20th century because anti-cannabis factions wanted to ...
  19. [19]
    Reefer Madness! The Twisted History of America's Marijuana Laws
    Jan 5, 2018 · Cannabis in Spanish was referred to as “marihuana” or "mariguana" ("marijuana" is the Anglicized bastardization). As the drug grew more popular, ...
  20. [20]
    The Biology of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabis, hemp, marijuana)
    Mar 3, 2021 · Cannabis sativa, also known as cannabis, hemp, or marijuana, is a dioecious annual with variable height, and is in the Cannabaceae family.
  21. [21]
    A Comprehensive Review on Cannabis sativa Ethnobotany ...
    Cannabis sativa has the particularity of being a fast-growing plant with a fluted stem that can reach 1 to 4 m with a diameter ranging between 1 and 3 cm ( ...
  22. [22]
    (PDF) Morpho-Anatomy of Marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.)
    Nov 29, 2022 · The plants of Cannabis sativa are erect, annual herbs, which are mostly dioecious,. rarely monoecious, growing up to 1–6 m in height (Miller ...
  23. [23]
    Plant Profile: Cannabis - Discover + Share
    Nov 6, 2018 · Cannabis is an annual herb with palmate leaves, growing 3-20 feet tall. It has dioecious flowers and contains cannabinoids, including THC and  ...
  24. [24]
    Closing the Yield Gap for Cannabis: A Meta-Analysis of Factors ...
    Apr 24, 2019 · Literature values report yields of 0.3122–1.972 g W−1, and are influenced by strain, light intensity and plant density (Toonen et al., 2006; ...
  25. [25]
    Temperatures and Medical Cannabis Growing: From Seedling to ...
    Feb 8, 2019 · ... plant that needs to develop roots, require high humidity levels between 65 and 70 percent. These high humidity levels are needed because the ...Missing: cultivation | Show results with:cultivation
  26. [26]
    Indoor Cannabis Growing: Relative Humidity and Temperatures
    Mar 31, 2016 · Humidity levels need to be lowered to 40-50% (extremely important) · You can get away with 55% (anything over 60% is real bad) · It's best to ...Best humidity and... · Late flowering (1-2 weeks... · Adjusting humidity levels and...
  27. [27]
    [PDF] Outdoor Grow Guide Yield
    kilogram per plant. Yield per square meter outdoor can range from 400 to 800 grams, depending on plant density and cultivation practices. These figures ...
  28. [28]
    The history of old cannabis genetics - Dutch Passion
    Jan 25, 2019 · This is thought to be the result of selectively bred and hybridised sativa varieties in Santa Cruz, California in the 1960s-70s. The mild ...
  29. [29]
    The History of Hybrids: How Breeding And Selection Led to Modern ...
    Oct 28, 2019 · Breeders crossed (i.e., hybridized) these strains with more potent, longer-flowering Panamanian, Colombian and Thai strains, and then ...
  30. [30]
    https://compound-genetics.com/blogs/compound-blogs/original-cannabis-breeds-and-breeding-history
  31. [31]
    Potentials and Challenges of Genomics for Breeding Cannabis ...
    Sep 25, 2020 · In fact, in addition to pure “indica” and “sativa” varieties, hybrid varieties with varying ratios of their genomes are common.<|control11|><|separator|>
  32. [32]
    Methods for quantification of cannabinoids: a narrative review
    Oct 9, 2020 · Around 144 cannabinoids have been identified in cannabis plant, among them tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most ...
  33. [33]
    In vitro and in vivo pharmacological activity of minor cannabinoids ...
    Nov 23, 2020 · The Cannabis sativa plant contains more than 120 cannabinoids. With the exceptions of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) ...
  34. [34]
    The Evolution of Potency in Marijuana: A Look Through the Years
    Oct 31, 2024 · The cannabis consumed in the 1960s and 1970s typically contained 1-3% THC. This meant users experienced milder effects compared to today's ...
  35. [35]
    Changes in Cannabis Potency over the Last Two Decades (1995 ...
    Jan 19, 2016 · We found the average Δ9-THC concentration for the period 1995 -2010 to be 8.73 ± 6.08% for samples from states with laws allowing the use of the ...
  36. [36]
    The Problem with the Current High Potency THC Marijuana ... - NIH
    In the 1990s it grew to 4%, and between 1995 and 2015 there has been a 212% increase in THC content in the marijuana flower. In 2017 the most popular strains ...
  37. [37]
    Profiling Cannabinoid Contents and Expression Levels of ...
    Nov 14, 2022 · Four cannabinoids, CBDV, CBD, CBC, and Δ9-THC, were detected in 11 individual Cannabis plants germinated from seeds of the five cultivars (Table ...
  38. [38]
    What is The Entourage Effect: Real Science or Theory? - Arvida Labs
    Oct 13, 2025 · The 2024 review found no reliable scientific proof of synergy at cannabinoid receptors, and most terpenes have such poor bioavailability and ...<|separator|>
  39. [39]
    Cannabis sativa terpenes are cannabimimetic and selectively ...
    Apr 15, 2021 · Terpenes found in Cannabis sativa are analgesic, and could produce an “entourage effect” whereby they modulate cannabinoids to result in improved outcomes.
  40. [40]
    The Facts About Marijuana Concentrates | Just Think Twice
    Marijuana concentrates are highly potent THC masses, like honey or butter, with 40-80% THC, up to four times stronger than regular marijuana.
  41. [41]
    Cured Resin Shatter vs Live Resin Shatter: Differences & Similarities
    Mar 4, 2025 · Shatter is known for its immensely high THC content, with levels around 80-90%. Shatter is a form of butane hash oil (BHO), made through a ...
  42. [42]
    Shatter vs Wax: Key Differences and Which One to Choose
    The THC percentage in both concentrates is similar, but the methods of consumption vary, which also influences the effect potency and duration. Shatter is ...
  43. [43]
    Cannabis in Chinese Medicine: Are Some Traditional Indications ...
    Mar 10, 2017 · The earliest historical references to cannabis in Chinese medicine are found in the Divine Farmer's Classic of Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao ...
  44. [44]
    Hemp Heritage - Asia Edition
    Jun 1, 2021 · According to historical records and archaeological research, hemp has been cultivated, sowed, and used in ancient China 6,000- 10,000 years ago.
  45. [45]
    The First Evidence of Smoking Pot Was Found in a 2,500-Year-Old Pot
    Jun 13, 2019 · Herodotus' writings represent the earliest textual evidence of cannabis' use as a mind-altering substance.
  46. [46]
    450 BCE: Scythians use cannabis in funeral rituals - Hemp History
    Herodotus describes how Scythians used cannabis, both to weave their clothing and to cleanse themselves in its smoke (Hist. 4.73-75).
  47. [47]
    1000 BCE: Bhang is first used in Hindu rites in India - Hempshopper
    Bhang was first used as part of the Hindu rite in India around 1000 BC. Around the eigth century CE Bhang was integrated into the medical practice of Ayurveda.
  48. [48]
    Early Uses Of Hemp - Sunny Skies CBD
    Aug 22, 2024 · Historical records indicate that hemp ropes were used in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt around 2,800 BCE. The strength and durability of hemp ...
  49. [49]
    Oldest evidence of marijuana use discovered in 2500-year-old ...
    Jun 12, 2019 · Clear physical evidence that mourners burned cannabis for its intoxicating fumes on a remote mountain plateau in Central Asia some 2500 years ago.
  50. [50]
    The Link Between U.S. Marijuana Law and Mexican Immigration
    Apr 19, 2019 · The following year, in 1937, Congress used its taxing power to make marijuana de facto illegal by making it very expensive to possess or ...
  51. [51]
    Busted - America's War On Marijuana | FRONTLINE - PBS
    After the Mexican Revolution of 1910, Mexican immigrants flooded into the U.S., introducing to American culture the recreational use of marijuana. The drug ...
  52. [52]
    [PDF] Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961
    2. The United Nations Conference for the Adoption of a Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs met at United Nations Headquarters from 24 January to 25 March 1961.
  53. [53]
    Narcotic Drugs - INCB
    The 1961 Convention establishes strict controls on the cultivation of opium poppy, coca bush, cannabis plant and their products, which, in the Convention ...1961 Convention · Yellow list · Psychotropic Substances · Status of estimates<|separator|>
  54. [54]
    Drug Scheduling - DEA.gov
    Schedule I drugs, substances, or chemicals are defined as drugs with no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse. Some examples of Schedule ...
  55. [55]
    [PDF] Maintaining Marijuana in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act
    Marijuana as a "Gateway Drug". The HHS reviewed the clinical studies evaluating the gateway hypothesis in marijuana and found them to be limited. The primary ...
  56. [56]
    Medicines legislation and regulation in the United Kingdom 1500 ...
    The Act came into force in 1928, and further regulations extended restrictions to include coca leaves and cannabis (Indian hemp). There followed a series of ...
  57. [57]
    A Brief Global History of the War on Cannabis | The MIT Press Reader
    Jan 23, 2020 · Colonial empires, with their unfailing concern for a robust military and hard-working labor force, have often viewed marijuana with suspicion.
  58. [58]
    [PDF] THE RISE AND DECLINE OF CANNABIS PROHIBITION
    This chapter discusses the early history of cannabis control; traces the history of how cannabis ended up in the 1961. Convention; the subsequent deviations and ...
  59. [59]
    The Hippies - Cannabis Talk 101
    Apr 24, 2023 · The hippie counterculture of the 1960s and 70s is often associated with the use of marijuana. From the Vietnam War protests to the Woodstock ...Missing: 1970s normalization
  60. [60]
    Hemp as a Cultural Symbol: From Counterculture to Today - Weedom
    Oct 6, 2025 · In the 1960s and 1970s, cannabis became a symbol of belonging. For the hippie movement, it represented a return to nature and spiritual freedom.
  61. [61]
    The Evolution of Cannabis Culture: From Counterculture to ...
    Sep 24, 2024 · - The Hippie Movement: In the 1960s, cannabis became widely associated with the hippie movement, which sought peace, love, and a rejection ...
  62. [62]
    Proposition 215: Medical Use of Marijuana.
    This measure amends state law to allow persons to grow or possess marijuana for medical use when recommended by a physician.
  63. [63]
    Colorado's Legalization of Marijuana | Milbank Quarterly
    On November 6, 2012, voters in Colorado and Washington moved to legalize the use and sale of marijuana by adults 21 and older. The passage of Amendment 64, ...Missing: cannabis | Show results with:cannabis
  64. [64]
    Experimenting with Pot: The State of Colorado's Legalization ... - NIH
    On November 6, 2012, voters in Colorado and Washington moved to legalize the use and sale of marijuana by adults 21 and older. The passage of Amendment 64, ...
  65. [65]
    https://moritzlaw.osu.edu/faculty-and-research/drug-enforcement-and-policy-center/research-and-grants/policy-and-data-analyses/federal-marijuana-rescheduling
  66. [66]
    DEA gives cannabis rescheduling update (Newsletter: October 8 ...
    Oct 8, 2025 · DEA gives cannabis rescheduling update (Newsletter: October 8, 2025) · California Gov. Gavin Newsom (D) signed a bill to enact restrictions on ...Missing: HHS | Show results with:HHS
  67. [67]
    Cannabis Facts and Stats - CDC
    Mar 7, 2025 · Cannabis is the most commonly used federally illegal drug in the United States; 52.5 million people, or about 19% of Americans, used it at least ...
  68. [68]
    Dramatic Drop in Marijuana Use Among U.S. Youth Over a Decade
    Oct 28, 2024 · Current marijuana use among adolescents decreased from 23.1% in 2011 to 15.8% in 2021. First-time use before age 13 also dropped from 8.1% to 4.9%.
  69. [69]
    Cannabis use falls among US teenagers but rises ... - The Guardian
    Sep 7, 2024 · Recent CDC data found that cannabis use decreased among high schoolers, from 23% using it in 2013 to 17% in 2023. It is possible that state- ...
  70. [70]
    Mechanisms of Action and Pharmacokinetics of Cannabis - PMC - NIH
    The bioavailability of inhaled THC is 10% to 35%. After THC is absorbed, it travels to the liver where most of it is eliminated or metabolized to 11-OH-THC or ...
  71. [71]
    The pharmacokinetics and the pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids
    The bioavailability of THC after inhalation reportedly ranges from 10% to 35% 20, attributable to variability (both intra‐ and intersubject) in inhalational ...
  72. [72]
    Pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids - PubMed
    THC bioavailability averages 30%. With a 3.55% THC cigarette, a peak plasma level of 152±86.3 ng/mL occured approximately 10 min after inhalation. Oral THC, on ...
  73. [73]
    Don't Smoke Your Medicine – Whole Flower Vaporize Instead
    Apr 9, 2024 · Cannabis vaporized at 350'F (180'C) releases most of the useful cannabinoids without any combustion (4). Combustion starts at 400'F (200'C) ...
  74. [74]
    Cannabis – a Rewritten History and Its Pulmonary Consequences
    Marijuana smoking involves techniques that expose users to carbon monoxide and tar deposition at a chance 3–5 times higher than tobacco smokers, and the ...
  75. [75]
    Marijuana “bong” pseudomonas lung infection: a detrimental ... - NIH
    In conclusion, marijuana smoking coupled with usage of bong results in a variety of lung disorders, including potential life‐threatening lung infection.
  76. [76]
    https://www.canatura.com/a/the-ultimate-guide-to-cannabis-vaporization-temperatures
  77. [77]
    Evidence That Metal Particles in Cannabis Vape Liquids Limit ...
    Nov 14, 2022 · Metal particles in cannabis vape liquids, including copper, zinc, lead, and manganese, contribute to poor measurement precision and ...
  78. [78]
    Is Your Marijuana Vaporizer Leaching Toxic Heavy Metals? It's ...
    Oct 31, 2021 · Researchers reported detecting “measurable levels” of chromium, nickel and copper—three metals known to be in the heating elements and coils of ...Missing: range | Show results with:range<|separator|>
  79. [79]
    What is the Best Dab Temperature? | Leafly
    May 9, 2024 · 545-570°F is a good overall range for most dabs, especially live resin, sugar resin, shatter, crumble, and rosin.The role of terpenes in dab... · What is the best dab... · Low-temp dabs: 400-500°F
  80. [80]
    Understanding dabs: contamination concerns of cannabis ... - J-Stage
    Up to 40% of the theoretically available THC could be captured in the vapor stream of a dab during inhalation experiments. Dabbing offers immediate ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
  81. [81]
    Understanding emerging forms of cannabis use through an online ...
    Jul 1, 2018 · From 2010–2016, relative post volume increased significantly for posts mentioning dabbing (3.63/1000 additional posts per year, p < .001), ...
  82. [82]
    https://www.puffco.com/blogs/cannabis-knowledge-base/dabbing-temperatures-guide
  83. [83]
    Decarboxylation guide: How to properly decarb weed - Leafly
    Jul 31, 2025 · Weed decarboxylation occurs between 200-245ºF. When making edibles, we recommend heating buds at 220ºF for 30-40 minutes. Compared to smoking ...
  84. [84]
    How to Decarboxylate Cannabis for Edibles and Extracts
    Apr 30, 2024 · Decarboxylation is the act of applying heat to cannabis, which transforms the inactive acidic forms of THC and CBD, known as THCA and CBDA, into their active ...Key Takeaways · Introduction to Decarboxylation · Preparing for Decarboxylation
  85. [85]
    How Long Do Edibles Take to Kick In? Duration, Side Effects
    typically around 30 to 60 minutes. However, onset time depends on a lot of factors.Onset time · Duration · Dosage · Benefits
  86. [86]
    Human Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Orally Administered ... - NIH
    Oral bioavailability of THC is 6%±3% following oral consumption in a food product and 10–20% after consumption of a cannabis extract. This is in contrast to the ...
  87. [87]
    https://www.namacbd.com/blogs/cbd-thc-info/bioavailability-of-thc
  88. [88]
    Edible dosing for beginners: With dosage chart by milligrams - Leafly
    Jul 31, 2025 · Edibles in dispensaries often come in 2.5 mg, 5 mg, or 10 mg doses, so we recommend buying gummies, mints, or another type of edible that can be ...How many milligrams of THC... · How long do cannabis edibles...
  89. [89]
    https://www.namacbd.com/blogs/cbd-thc-info/is-a-10mg-edible-too-much-for-a-beginner
  90. [90]
    Marijuana Edibles: Risks, Side Effects & Dangers
    Apr 17, 2025 · Risks include long-lasting effects, unknown potency, delayed onset, high overdose risk, severe side effects, and potential for self-harm or ...
  91. [91]
    [PDF] 7 Things You Need to Know about Edible Cannabis
    Because it can take up to four hours to feel the full effects, consuming more cannabis within this time period can result in over-intoxication.
  92. [92]
    The Transdermal Delivery of Therapeutic Cannabinoids - PMC - NIH
    Feb 18, 2022 · The topical and transdermal application of cannabinoid products has shown higher bioavailability rates in the presence of enhancers and has ...
  93. [93]
    Can THC Be Absorbed Through the Skin? - Veriheal
    Nov 19, 2024 · There are no human-based studies on the bioavailability of cannabinoids through a topical or transdermal application. However, preclinical ...
  94. [94]
    A Preliminary Investigation into the Use of Cannabis Suppositories ...
    Cannabis has also been used historically to address sexual pain. For example, a systematic review of 16 studies revealed that the use of CBD or THC at between ...
  95. [95]
    Cannabis 101: Suppositories - The Apothecarium
    A 2020 study demonstrated that rectal administration of cannabis suppositories reduced symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease [3]. Vaginal suppositories ...
  96. [96]
    Cannabis Use Disorder - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
    Mar 20, 2024 · Psychoactive effects are primarily derived from THC, which binds cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. CB1 receptors are located throughout the ...
  97. [97]
    The Impact of Marijuana on the Cardiovascular System
    Jun 19, 2020 · In a study done by Beaconsfield et al., an immediate effect of smoking marijuana is a 20–100% increase in heart rate. The effects on heart rate ...
  98. [98]
    Cannabinoid Poisoning: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology ...
    Jan 17, 2024 · Acute cannabis toxicity results in difficulty with coordination, decreased muscle strength, decreased hand steadiness, postural hypotension, lethargy, ...
  99. [99]
    An Evidence Based Review of Acute and Long-Term Effects of ... - NIH
    Cannabis use has been shown to impair cognitive functions on a number of levels—from basic motor coordination to more complex executive function tasks ...Missing: NHTSA | Show results with:NHTSA
  100. [100]
    [PDF] Marijuana-Impaired Driving – A Report to Congress - NHTSA
    It should also be noted that many studies have not shown impairment on these psychomotor tasks, cognitive and executive functions as have shown statistically ...
  101. [101]
    Effects of acute cannabis inhalation on reaction time, decision ... - NIH
    Acute cannabis use has been demonstrated to slow reaction time and affect decision-making and short-term memory.
  102. [102]
    Acute Mental Health Symptoms in Adolescent Marijuana Users
    Dec 17, 2018 · Overall, 40 respondents (27.4%) reported hallucinations, 49 (33.6%) reported paranoia or anxiety, and 63 (42.9%) reported having at least 1 ...
  103. [103]
    Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs visual working memory ...
    ... 15 mg dose of THC reliably impairs visual working memory. This effect was not, however, apparent for a lower 7.5 mg dose (Experiment 2, n = 23). We found a ...
  104. [104]
    A Clinical Framework for Assessing Cannabis-Related Impairment ...
    In healthy, infrequent cannabis users, acute oral THC doses of 7.5 and 15 mg slightly impaired time perception, therefore also affecting motor response ...
  105. [105]
    Effects of acute cannabis inhalation on reaction time, decision ...
    Feb 3, 2024 · Acute cannabis use has been demonstrated to slow reaction time and affect decision-making and short-term memory.
  106. [106]
    The Epidemiology of Cannabis Dependence - ResearchGate
    In US surveys done in the 1990s, cannabis dependence was estimated to affect 1-2% of adults in the previous year and 4-8% of adults in their lifetime. 33 In ...
  107. [107]
    Review of the Validity and Significance of Cannabis Withdrawal ...
    A withdrawal syndrome reliably follows discontinuation of chronic heavy use of cannabis or tetrahydrocannabinol. Common symptoms are primarily emotional and ...
  108. [108]
    Some Heavy Cannabis Users Experience Withdrawal After Quitting
    Oct 23, 2018 · 12 percent of frequent marijuana smokers experienced Cannabis Withdrawal Syndrome (CWS), which includes emotional, behavioral and physical symptoms.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
  109. [109]
    Prevalence of Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms Among People With ...
    Apr 9, 2020 · This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the prevalence of cannabis withdrawal syndrome in individuals who use cannabinoids ...
  110. [110]
    Marijuana Use, Respiratory Symptoms, and Pulmonary Function
    Jul 3, 2018 · Current marijuana smoking was associated with chronic cough (odds ratio [OR], 1.73 [95% CI, 1.21 to 2.47]), chronic sputum production (OR ...
  111. [111]
    P147 Effect of cannabis smoking on respiratory symptoms and lung ...
    All 9 studies (n = 11,848) examining respiratory symptoms reported an increase with cannabis smoking (odds ratio up to 3.0). 2 studies (n = 1,336) reported ...
  112. [112]
    Effects of cannabis on lung function: a population-based cohort study
    Cannabis use was associated with higher lung volumes, suggesting hyperinflation and increased large-airways resistance, but there was little evidence for ...Missing: odds | Show results with:odds
  113. [113]
    Marijuana use and risk of lung cancer: a 40-year cohort study
    Jul 12, 2013 · Conclusion: Our primary finding provides initial longitudinal evidence that cannabis use might elevate the risk of lung cancer.
  114. [114]
    Effect of cannabis smoking on lung function and respiratory symptoms
    Oct 20, 2016 · All studies reporting a significant decrease, ~1.5%, in FEV1/FVC ratio in marijuana smokers published incomplete data; in particular, most ...
  115. [115]
    Neurocognitive consequences of chronic cannabis use - PubMed
    A meta-analysis was performed on 13 selected studies testing performance of chronic cannabis users compared with non-users in six different neurocognitive ...
  116. [116]
    [PDF] Regular Use and Cognitive Functioning
    The acute effects of cannabis include euphoria and relaxation, changes in perception, time distortion, deficits in attention span and memory, body tremors, ...Missing: reaction NHTSA
  117. [117]
    Long-Term Cannabis Use and Cognitive Reserves and ...
    Mar 8, 2022 · This study tested the hypotheses that long-term cannabis use is associated with cognitive deficits and smaller hippocampal volume in midlife.
  118. [118]
    Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis - NIH
    Firstly, cannabis use is associated with an increased risk of experiencing schizophrenia symptoms, even after psychotic symptoms preceding the onset of cannabis ...
  119. [119]
    [PDF] Causal association between cannabis and psychosis
    Results On an individual level, cannabis use confers an overall twofold increase in the relative risk for later schizophrenia. At.
  120. [120]
    15 - Does cannabis use cause schizophrenia? The epidemiological ...
    This chapter examines the strength of the epidemiological evidence to support a causal relationship between cannabis use and increased risk of schizophrenia ...
  121. [121]
    FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process
    Feb 24, 2023 · The agency has, however, approved one cannabis-derived drug product: Epidiolex (cannabidiol), and three synthetic cannabis-related drug ...Missing: 2025 | Show results with:2025
  122. [122]
    https://www.npr.org/sections/shots-health-news/2025/10/20/nx-s1-5574424/cannabis-marijuana-back-pain
  123. [123]
    Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer ...
    Nov 12, 2015 · Cannabis‐based medicines may be useful for treating chemotherapy‐induced nausea and vomiting that responds poorly to commonly used anti‐sickness ...
  124. [124]
    Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer ...
    Nov 12, 2015 · Authors' conclusions: Cannabis-based medications may be useful for treating refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. However, ...
  125. [125]
    Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Adults With Cancer: ASCO Guideline
    Mar 13, 2024 · Cannabis and/or cannabinoids may improve refractory, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting when added to guideline-concordant antiemetic ...
  126. [126]
    Cannabis‐based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults
    Mar 7, 2018 · Cannabis‐based medicines may increase the number of people achieving 50% or greater pain relief compared with placebo (21% versus 17%; risk ...
  127. [127]
    Cannabis or Cannabinoids for the Management of Chronic ...
    Apr 4, 2025 · Review: In chronic noncancer pain, cannabinoids reduce pain (NNT 24) but increase adverse events (NNH 6). Anupam Goel, MD, MBA, FACP ...
  128. [128]
    Cannabis‐based medicines and medical cannabis for adults with ...
    Jun 5, 2023 · To evaluate the benefits and harms of cannabis‐based medicines, including medical cannabis, for treating pain and other symptoms in adults with cancer
  129. [129]
    Full-spectrum extract from Cannabis sativa DKJ127 for chronic low ...
    Sep 29, 2025 · Cannabinoids, cannabis, and cannabis-based medicine for pain management: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Pain 162, S45 ...
  130. [130]
    Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Glaucoma: A Review - PMC
    Cannabinoids lower intraocular pressure. However, the effect is short-lived. There is also a lack of well-formulated ocular delivery system. The available ...
  131. [131]
    Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta ...
    This meta-analysis summarizes the effectiveness of cannabis and cannabinoids for managing medical and psychotic disorders, including chemotherapy-induced.
  132. [132]
    Chapter 3: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
    Jul 10, 2019 · Schedule IV: 'CANNABIS and CANNABIS RESIN'. The drugs in all four Schedules are subject to the controls listed below, with additional ...
  133. [133]
    [PDF] Celebrating 60 Years of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of ...
    Mar 25, 2021 · The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 was drafted to ensure effective international control over the licit movement of narcotic drugs ...
  134. [134]
    [PDF] The International Drug Control Conventions
    Schedules of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol. Etorphine. Tetrahydro-7α-(1-hydroxy-1-methylbutyl)-6,14- endo ...
  135. [135]
    WHO review of cannabis and cannabis-related substances
    Overview of WHO review of cannabis and cannabis-related substances based on request from CND.Missing: rescheduling | Show results with:rescheduling
  136. [136]
    UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs reclassifies cannabis to ...
    Dec 4, 2020 · Cannabis and cannabis resin will now be classified as having a similar degree of abuse and dependence potential as medicines such as morphine and oxycodone.
  137. [137]
    What are the Possible Ramifications of the UN's Vote to Reschedule ...
    Dec 3, 2020 · On Wednesday, the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs narrowly voted to re-schedule cannabis under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 ...
  138. [138]
    [PDF] Cannabis policy in the Netherlands: moving forwards not backwards
    The Dutch approach to cannabis policy has always been fundamentally pragmatic, rather than politically or ideologically driven. When the 'new'.Missing: variances Asia
  139. [139]
    [PDF] Medical Cannabis Regulation in East and Southeast Asia
    Jul 31, 2025 · Introduction: A global shift towards legalising cannabis for therapeutic use has sparked significant debate in East and Southeast Asia, ...
  140. [140]
    Cannabis Rescheduling in 2025: Where It Stands Plus State-by ...
    Sep 10, 2025 · Bottom line right now: No final rule yet. Cannabis remains Schedule I at the federal level while the administration and DEA decide whether to ...
  141. [141]
    Where is Cannabis Legal in North America in 2025? - Cova Software
    Jun 6, 2025 · In the US, 24 states and D.C. fully legalized recreational cannabis, and 38 states have some form of legalization. In Canada, cannabis is legal ...
  142. [142]
    Federal Policy
    While the vast majority of states have reformed their cannabis laws, federal law has remained largely unchanged since the early 1970s.
  143. [143]
    Funding Limits on Federal Prosecutions of State-Legal Medical ...
    Dec 5, 2024 · Federal law generally prohibits the production, distribution, and possession of marijuana for both medical and recreational purposes.
  144. [144]
    SAFE/SAFER Banking Acts & the CLAIM Act (2025) - Cover Cannabis
    Aug 20, 2025 · SAFE Banking Act. Prohibits federal banking regulators from penalizing banks and credit unions for serving state‑legal cannabis businesses (and ...What Are the SAFE, SAFER... · Where Do Things Stand as of...
  145. [145]
    [PDF] SAFER Banking Act of 2025 - PA Office of Attorney General
    Jul 24, 2025 · 8 The bill respects both state sovereignty and the current status of cannabis at the federal level. It does not encourage legalization, nor does ...
  146. [146]
    https://www.marijuanamoment.net/marijuana-companies-ask-u-s-supreme-court-to-take-up-case-challenging-constitutionality-of-federal-prohibition/
  147. [147]
    [PDF] Getting-Regulation-Right-WOLA-Uruguay.pdf
    Since December 2013, the JND has carried out one major abuse prevention campaign involving cannabis, which is also designed to target the abuse of alcohol ...
  148. [148]
    Cannabis legalisation in Uruguay: public health and safety over ...
    Nov 20, 2018 · The government's plans are motivated by concerns over insecurity and public safety, and are therefore aimed at reducing criminality and violence ...
  149. [149]
    The Impact of Cannabis Legalization in Uruguay on Adolescent ...
    May 6, 2020 · In 2013, Uruguay became the first country in the world to ... violence and public health related harms (Cruz et al., 2016; Hudak ...
  150. [150]
    Key findings: Cannabis use in Canada (2023) - Health Infobase
    Dec 6, 2024 · Past 30-day cannabis use increased from 15% in 2018 to 17% in 2024, but was unchanged from 17% in 2023. In 2024, past 30-day use remained higher ...
  151. [151]
    Transitions to legal cannabis markets: Legal market capture of ...
    Legal market capture of cannabis 5 years post-legalization in Canada is ∼78 %. Dried flower accounted for approximately 60 % of all legal cannabis expenditures.
  152. [152]
    Self‐Reported Cannabis Prices and Expenditures From Legal and ...
    Aug 4, 2025 · Results from the Canadian Cannabis Survey (CCS)—Canada's national monitoring survey on cannabis—estimate that in 2023, 73% of past 12-month ...
  153. [153]
    Germany's First Evaluation Report on Cannabis Legalization Shows ...
    Sep 30, 2025 · According to the report, cannabis-related offenses recorded by police have fallen by 60 to 80% since legalization, marking the most substantial ...Missing: usage | Show results with:usage
  154. [154]
    https://euda.europa.eu/publications/european-drug-report/2025/cannabis_en
  155. [155]
    Germany's First Report on Cannabis Legalization Finds Opponents ...
    Oct 2, 2025 · When Germany's cannabis legalization was introduced in April 2024, critics voiced concerns about higher youth consumption, more traffic ...
  156. [156]
    Cheech and Chong discuss 40-year-old marijuana movie
    Apr 1, 2018 · Cheech and Chong discussed “Up in Smoke” and other marijuana matters during a phone interview with The Bee from their homes in Pacific Palisades.
  157. [157]
    New study finds glamorization of drugs in rap music jumped ...
    Apr 1, 2008 · Drug references in rap music jumped sixfold from 1979 to 1997, increasing from 11% to 69% of top songs, with marijuana linked to wealth and ...
  158. [158]
    Exposure to Cannabis in Popular Music and Cannabis Use among ...
    This study supports an independent association between exposure to cannabis in popular music and early cannabis use among urban American adolescents.
  159. [159]
    Behind the Scenes: The Impact of Cannabis on the Film Industry
    Aug 28, 2024 · The portrayal of cannabis in film has undergone a significant transformation over the decades. Initially depicted as a dangerous drug that led ...
  160. [160]
    [PDF] GAO-03-172R Youth Illicit Drug Use Prevention
    Jan 15, 2003 · The DARE program, established in 1983, uses a curriculum taught by police officers to teach decision-making skills and alternatives to drug use.<|separator|>
  161. [161]
    Long-term evaluation of drug abuse resistance education - PubMed
    DARE showed limited support for immediate impact on drug use, and no support for continued or emerging impact 1 or 2 years after instruction.
  162. [162]
    The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (Project ...
    This article reports the results of a 5-year, longitudinal evaluation of the effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE).
  163. [163]
    Combustible and Electronic Tobacco and Marijuana Products in Hip ...
    Oct 15, 2018 · Conclusions. Leading hip-hop music videos represent a considerable source of exposure to tobacco and marijuana use.
  164. [164]
    Projected US legal medical and recreational cannabis market size
    Combined U.S. medical and recreational cannabis sales could reach $33 billion by the end of 2022, largely driven by new adult-use markets.
  165. [165]
    U.S. Cannabis Market Size & Share | Industry Report, 2030
    The U.S. cannabis market size was estimated at USD 38.50 billion in 2024 and is ... Through these legalizations, the government can try to curb the illicit ...
  166. [166]
    These 23 States, DC Collected $2.9 Billion in Cannabis Excise Tax ...
    Apr 4, 2024 · While Washington levies the highest excise tax rate in the nation, its cannabis revenue didn't represent the highest percent of its total ...
  167. [167]
    [PDF] Marijuana Taxation and Black Market Crowd-Out - Reason Foundation
    Early-adopting states of marijuana legalization uniformly target tax revenue from excise taxes on the newly legal good, but differ over the structure, nature ...
  168. [168]
    60% of Cannabis Consumed in California Comes From Unregulated ...
    Mar 4, 2025 · In the licensed market, the wholesale value of cannabis produced in 2024 was $1.03 billion, according to the report, which also provides a ...Missing: black | Show results with:black
  169. [169]
    California Seized More Than $500 Million In Illegal Cannabis In 2024
    Mar 6, 2025 · State officials seized $534 million worth of illegal cannabis in 2024, Gov. Gavin Newsom's office reported Tuesday.
  170. [170]
    California seized 150K-plus pounds of illegal marijuana in 2024
    Nov 11, 2024 · California law enforcement has destroyed 774829 illegally cultivated cannabis plants and 106141 pounds of processed cannabis in 2024.
  171. [171]
    Black market cannabis thrives in California despite legalization
    Apr 8, 2024 · Marijuana legalization was expected to bring the industry out of the shadows. But in some states, the black market is alive and well.
  172. [172]
    Federal Ban On Interstate Marijuana Commerce Helps The Illicit ...
    Mar 5, 2025 · Federal Ban On Interstate Marijuana Commerce Helps The Illicit Market While Hurting Legal Businesses, California Report Finds · What's up next.
  173. [173]
    Congressional hearing on cannabis & organized crime sparks ...
    Sep 19, 2025 · Congressional hearing on cannabis & organized crime sparks debate (Newsletter: September 19, 2025) - Marijuana Moment.
  174. [174]
    Invasion of the Homeland: How Illegal, Chinese-Owned Marijuana ...
    Sep 18, 2025 · Since the 1960s, cannabis reform proponents have argued that a black market will always exist to meet the consumer demand for illegal cannabis, ...
  175. [175]
    Cannabis consumers' preferences for legal and illegal cannabis
    Sep 4, 2024 · In U.S. states that legalized and commercialized recreational cannabis, cannabis sales in illegal markets are still sizable or even larger ...
  176. [176]
    Unintentional Pediatric Exposures to Marijuana in Colorado, 2009 ...
    Sep 6, 2016 · The mean rate of marijuana-related visits to the children's hospital increased from 1.2 per 100 000 population 2 years prior to legalization to ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
  177. [177]
    Pediatric Cannabis Exposures After Legalization of Recreational ...
    Jan 7, 2022 · The proportion of cannabis-related ED visits with hospitalization increased significantly after the introduction of edibles (122 visits ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
  178. [178]
    Prevalence of Adolescent Cannabis Vaping: A Systematic Review ...
    Oct 25, 2021 · Across all school grades, the pooled prevalence increased for lifetime use (6.1% in 2013-2016 to 13.6% in 2019-2020), use in the past 12 months ...<|separator|>
  179. [179]
    A Review of Identifying and Addressing Youth Cannabis Vaping in ...
    Mar 25, 2023 · Current prevalence data from 2021 show that approximately 2.9% of 8th-grade students, 8.4% of 10th-grade students, and 12.4% of 12th-grade ...
  180. [180]
    Self-reported changes in cannabis vaping among US adolescents ...
    Recent data show prevalence of past 30-day cannabis vaping is 4% among 8th graders, 14% among 12th graders, and 17% among young adults (Miech et al., 2020).
  181. [181]
    Cannabis Use in Adolescence May Alter Development of Cerebral ...
    Sep 14, 2023 · Researchers found cannabis use was associated with accelerated thinning of the prefrontal cortex, a key aspect of brain development.
  182. [182]
    Association of Cannabis Use During Adolescence With ...
    Jun 16, 2021 · Results suggest that cannabis use during middle to late adolescence may be associated with altered cerebral cortical development, particularly ...
  183. [183]
    Impact of cannabis use on prefrontal and parietal cortex gyrification ...
    Cannabis use was associated with reduced gyrification in PFC regions implicated in self-referential thought and social cognition.
  184. [184]
    Cannabis and the adolescent brain | PNAS
    Jan 7, 2020 · He's found that exposure to THC or similar molecules during a specific window of adolescence delays maturation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), ...
  185. [185]
    Cannabis Effects on Driving Performance: Clinical Considerations
    Jan 30, 2023 · Cannabis may affect driving performance acutely (in the short-term) or over the long-term if a person is using sufficient quantities of cannabis for a ...
  186. [186]
    Probability and predictors of the cannabis gateway effect - NIH
    This study aims to estimate the cumulative probability of progression to illicit drug use among individuals with lifetime history of cannabis use.
  187. [187]
    [PDF] Is Cannabis a Gateway Drug? Key Findings and Literature Review
    Nov 7, 2018 · The gateway hypothesis contends that using cannabis causes an individual to progress to using harder illicit drugs such as cocaine or heroin.
  188. [188]
    Did recreational marijuana legalization increase crime in the long run?
    Some attribute the increase in crime rates to RML (Houston, 2020), while others credit RML for a decrease in crime rates in the affected states. According ...
  189. [189]
    [PDF] Crime and the Legalization of Recreational Marijuana
    The study found that recreational marijuana legalization caused a significant reduction of rapes and thefts, with a 30% drop in rapes and 20% in thefts.
  190. [190]
    Evaluating The Impact of Mexico's Drug Decriminalization Reform ...
    The reforms had no significant impact on the number of drug possession or violent crime arrests, after controlling for other variables (e.g. time trends ...
  191. [191]
    Criminal Violence in Mexico | Global Conflict Tracker
    Sep 15, 2025 · Mexico faces a crisis of kidnappings, disappearances, and other criminal violence that has left over thirty-thousand people dead each year since 2018.Missing: cannabis | Show results with:cannabis
  192. [192]
    Marijuana Tax Reports | Colorado Department of Revenue
    Tax Revenue Totals ; 2023, $274,121,043, $2,618,157,732 ; 2022, $325,103,684, $2,344,036,689 ; 2021, $423,486,053, $2,018,933,005 ; 2020, $387,480,110 ...
  193. [193]
    Colorado marijuana sales — and tax dollars — are still falling
    Nov 21, 2024 · Marijuana sales peaked in Colorado in the 2020-21 budget year, when the state collected $424 million in taxes. That fell to $248 million last year.
  194. [194]
    Addressing Social Inequities in Cannabis Business Financing
    Aug 7, 2024 · Over 80% of cannabis business owners are White, despite similar usage rates across racial groups. This highlights a major barrier to entry and ...Missing: United | Show results with:United
  195. [195]
    Cannabis Equity Initiatives: Progress, Problems, and Potentials | AJPH
    Apr 5, 2023 · Despite roughly equal usage rates, Blacks are 3.73 times more likely than Whites to be arrested for cannabis possession, suffering both the ...
  196. [196]
    Recreational Marijuana Taxes by State, 2025 - Tax Foundation
    Apr 1, 2025 · Possible federal legalization or descheduling of marijuana may encourage harmony between state systems. When states legalize marijuana, taxes on ...
  197. [197]
    Recreational cannabis excise taxation in the USA: Constructing a ...
    As the prices and taxes of recreational cannabis continue to decrease, tax incidence remains low and is not significantly associated with tax bases or rates, ...
  198. [198]
    Cannabis taxes have not solved Colorado's budget woes
    Dec 11, 2023 · Last fiscal year, Colorado only got $282 million in tax revenue from cannabis sales, down from $425 million in 2020-21. How marijuana is taxed ...
  199. [199]
    The 2025 Cost Reality Check: What It Really Takes to Start a ...
    May 19, 2025 · Compliance is the heartbeat of your cannabis business—and the bill that never stops. Testing costs can range from $500 to $2,500 per batch, ...Tier 2: Regional Expansion · Payroll: It's Not Just About... · Hidden Costs: The Ones That...<|separator|>
  200. [200]
    Marijuana liberalization and public finance: A capital market ...
    We find that the staggered passage of state-level laws that legalize marijuana for medical use increases states' borrowing costs by 7–9 basis points.
  201. [201]
    The costs and benefits of cannabis control policies - PMC - NIH
    As is the case for most drugs, cannabis use has costs and benefits, and so do the policies that attempt to minimize the first and maximize the second.
  202. [202]
    20 years of Portuguese drug policy - developments, challenges and ...
    Jul 17, 2021 · Portugal decriminalized the public and private use, acquisition, and possession of all drugs in 2000; adopting an approach focused on public health rather than ...
  203. [203]
    Cannabis – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report ...
    Jun 5, 2025 · HHC is listed as a controlled drug in at least 22 EU Member States as of February 2025, and in March 2025 the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs ...Missing: classifications | Show results with:classifications
  204. [204]
    [PDF] The Impact of Drug Decriminalization in Portugal
    Furthermore, it registers higher rates of overall and problematic drug use than in both Sweden and the Netherlands, countries having very different ...
  205. [205]
    [PDF] Drug Decriminalization in Portugal
    Portugal went from having one of the highest rates of problematic drug use in Europe before decriminalization, to having a rate of overall drug consumption that ...Missing: cannabis | Show results with:cannabis