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Saltasaurus

Saltasaurus is a genus of saltasaurine titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur characterized by its small size relative to other titanosaurs and the presence of dermal armor in the form of numerous small osteoderms embedded in its skin, making it the first sauropod in which such bony plates were definitively identified.^[1] The type and only species, S. loricatus, was named and described by Argentine paleontologists José F. Bonaparte and Jaime E. Powell in 1980 based on specimens collected from the Lecho Formation in Salta Province, northwestern Argentina.^[2] This medium-sized herbivore measured approximately 12 meters (39 feet) in length and likely weighed around 7 metric tonnes, featuring a robust build with short, pillar-like limbs adapted for supporting its body on terrestrial environments.^[3]^[4] Fossils of Saltasaurus loricatus date to the Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous epoch, approximately 70 to 66 million years ago, just prior to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.^[5] The known material includes partial skeletons with vertebrae, limb bones, and hundreds of osteoderms, revealing high skeletal pneumaticity in the presacral and caudal regions, which may have lightened the skeleton despite the added weight of armor.^[2] As a member of the Titanosauria clade, Saltasaurus belonged to the advanced subfamily Saltasaurinae, distinguished by features such as a broad pelvis and recurved paroccipital processes in the skull.^[5] Its discovery highlighted the diversity of armored titanosaurs in South America toward the end of the Mesozoic era, contributing to understandings of sauropod evolution, locomotion, and defensive adaptations.^[6]

Discovery and Naming

Fossil Discoveries

The fossils of Saltasaurus were excavated between 1975 and 1977 at Estancia El Brete in the Lecho Formation, Salta Province, northwestern Argentina, from strata dating to the Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 70 million years ago.^[7]^[2] The fieldwork was conducted by paleontologists José F. Bonaparte, Martín Vince, and Juan C. Leal, who uncovered remains from a single bonebed locality approximately 22 meters above the base of the formation.^[7]^[8] The holotype specimen, PVL 4017-92, comprises a complete sacrum fused to the ilia and was formally described in 1980.^[2] This bonebed also produced more than 100 associated elements from at least five individuals, including partial skeletons with numerous presacral and caudal vertebrae, limb bones such as femora and tibiae, and fragmentary skull material.^[2] The co-occurrence of multiple individuals in the assemblage hints at potential gregarious behavior among Saltasaurus.^[2] Earlier finds from the same region contributed to the recognition of Saltasaurus. In 1929, Friedrich von Huene described osteoderms from the Lecho Formation as the type material of the ankylosaur Loricosaurus scutatus, based on their armored appearance and association with titanosaur remains.^[9] These osteoderms were reclassified as belonging to Saltasaurus loricatus in 1980, confirming the presence of dermal armor in this titanosaur and linking them to the El Brete bonebed.^[2] Subsequent studies have refined knowledge of Saltasaurus fossils from northern Argentina. In 2015, detailed analyses of presacral vertebrae from the El Brete quarry expanded descriptions of neural arch structures, including laminae and fossae, enhancing understanding of vertebral pneumaticity in this taxon.^[10]

Etymology and Taxonomy

The genus name Saltasaurus derives from "Salta," the name of the Argentine province where the type fossils were discovered, combined with the Greek word sauros meaning "lizard."^[3] The specific epithet loricatus comes from the Latin word lorica, referring to a cuirass or armor, in allusion to the distinctive osteoderms covering the animal's body.^[7] The type species, Saltasaurus loricatus, was formally named and described by paleontologists José F. Bonaparte and Jaime E. Powell in 1980, based on a partial skeleton including vertebrae, limb bones, and osteoderms collected from the Upper Cretaceous Lecho Formation in northwestern Argentina.^[11] Two other species originally assigned to Saltasaurus, S. robustus (formerly Titanosaurus robustus) and S. australis (formerly Titanosaurus australis), were reclassified into the separate genus Neuquensaurus in 2004 by Leonardo Salgado and Rodolfo A. Coria.^[12] As of 2025, no additional valid species are recognized within the genus Saltasaurus.^[13] Upon its initial description, Saltasaurus was classified within the family Titanosauridae, a broad group of Late Cretaceous sauropods.^[11] In the 1990s, further analyses of its derived features, such as the osteoderms and vertebral morphology, led to the establishment of the more specific family Saltasauridae, named by Jaime E. Powell in 1992 to encompass Saltasaurus and closely related armored titanosaurs.^[14]

Anatomy and Description

Overall Morphology and Size

Saltasaurus was a medium-sized titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur, characterized by a relatively compact body plan compared to more elongate relatives within Sauropoda. Body length estimates vary based on skeletal scaling and volumetric modeling approaches, ranging from approximately 6 meters in early reconstructions to 12 meters in more recent analyses. Mass estimates similarly differ, from about 2.5 tonnes using limb bone scaling to 6.9 tonnes derived from three-dimensional volumetric reconstructions that account for body proportions and soft tissue distribution.^[2] The overall morphology featured a short neck composed of 12 cervical vertebrae, which were proportionally shorter and broader than those in many other sauropods, contributing to a more compact cranial reach. The presacral vertebral column included 12 cervicals and 20 dorsals, with centra that were opisthocoelous in the cervical region and exhibited a high degree of pneumaticity through small, eye-shaped lateral foramina and internal camellae, enhancing skeletal lightness while maintaining structural integrity. The trunk displayed a wide belly, suggestive of a voluminous gut for fermenting plant matter, supported by robust, pillar-like limbs adapted for a graviportal posture; these included a stout humerus and femur, with the humerus measuring around 66 cm in known specimens, underscoring the animal's weight-bearing adaptations.^[2] Dentition consisted of cylindrical, peg-like teeth with spatulate tips, suited for cropping vegetation rather than grinding, as evidenced by partial dental remains. Partial cranial elements indicate a robust skull with features such as a long, recurved paroccipital process, typical of Titanosauridae, though complete skull morphology remains incompletely known. Osteoderms were distributed across the body, forming an armored integument, but these represent a specialized overlay on the baseline skeletal framework.^[2]

Unique Features: Osteoderms and Dentition

Saltasaurus is distinguished among sauropods by its dermal armor, the first confirmed instance in this dinosaur group, consisting of osteoderms embedded in the skin. These include large, oval-shaped scutes measuring up to 12 cm in length, primarily distributed along the back and flanks in one or two rows, as well as over the trunk and anterior tail.^[2]^[15] Smaller ossicles, approximately 7 mm in diameter and subspherical, formed a dense mosaic covering much of the posterior body, with densities of about 27 per 10 cm².^[2] Histological examination reveals polygonal shapes with prominent vascular foramina, woven-fibered bone, and mineralized collagenous fibers, indicating formation through dermal metaplasia without extensive secondary remodeling.^[15] The armor was concentrated posteriorly, with estimates of over 100 osteoderms per individual, varying from large keeled plates to small granular ossicles, some fused at edges.^[2] This distribution suggests a flexible protective covering rather than rigid plating. Unlike the thick, heavily ossified armor of ankylosaurs, Saltasaurus osteoderms were thin and pliable, composed largely of cancellous bone with an external cortex of structural fibers.^[6] Embryonic titanosaurs from nearby Auca Mahuevo deposits exhibit early dermal armor development, with skin impressions showing patterns consistent with adult osteoderm arrangements, though less diverse than in Saltasaurus.^[16] The dentition of Saltasaurus featured cylindrical, low-crowned teeth adapted for stripping vegetation, with 4 premaxillary teeth and approximately 7–8 maxillary teeth exhibiting wear patterns consistent with low-level browsing. These teeth, typical of derived titanosaurs, show compression and spatulate tips, facilitating efficient cropping of plants at ground or near-ground heights.^[17]

Classification and Phylogeny

Historical Classification

Saltasaurus was first described and named by José F. Bonaparte and Jaime E. Powell in 1980, based on fossils from the Lecho Formation in Salta Province, Argentina. They placed the type species, S. loricatus, within the family Titanosauridae, highlighting its close affinities with other South American titanosaurs known from the Late Cretaceous, such as those from the Neuquén Basin.^[1] This initial classification emphasized the genus's titanosaurid characteristics, including robust limb bones and vertebral morphology, while noting the novel presence of osteoderms as a distinguishing feature among sauropods.^[13] In the early 1990s, further study of the anatomy led to refinements in its taxonomic position. Jaime E. Powell's 1992 monograph on the osteology of S. loricatus erected the subfamily Saltasaurinae to accommodate Saltasaurus and related forms, defined primarily by the presence of dermal osteoderms and unique vertebral features such as procoelous caudals with pronounced pneumaticity.^[2] This subfamily distinguished Saltasaurus from larger, non-armored traditional titanosaurs like Argentinosaurus, positioning it as a more derived member of Titanosauridae adapted to Late Cretaceous environments in Patagonia. Powell also separated S. robustus and S. australis (previously under Titanosaurus) into the new genus Neuquensaurus within Saltasaurinae, based on differences in limb proportions and armor distribution.^[18] Early cladistic analyses in the late 1990s supported Saltasaurus's placement as a basal titanosaur within a monophyletic Titanosauria. Paul Upchurch's 1998 phylogenetic study of sauropods recovered Saltasaurus as a member of Titanosauridae, with shared derived traits like camellate internal bone texture linking it to other South American forms, though its armored condition suggested specialization within the group.^[19] Pre-2020s debates included resolving earlier confusion with armored dinosaur remains. Osteoderms initially described as the ankylosaur-like Loricosaurus in 1929 were restudied in the 1980s following Saltasaurus's discovery, confirming them as titanosaurian and likely referable to Saltasaurus or Neuquensaurus, thus validating armored titanosaurs as a real clade rather than misidentified fragments.^[9]

Modern Phylogenetic Relationships

Saltasaurus is classified within the family Saltasauridae, a derived clade of lithostrotian titanosaurs characterized by the presence of osteoderms and specific vertebral features.^[20] Within Saltasauridae, the subfamily Saltasaurinae (including Saltasaurus) forms the sister group to Opisthocoelicaudiinae, a subfamily that includes Opisthocoelicaudia and related Asian forms, based on shared synapomorphies such as pneumatic caudal vertebrae and robust limb elements.^[21] Recent phylogenetic analyses have refined these relationships further. In a 2022 cladistic study incorporating 80 taxa and 412 characters, Navarro et al. positioned Saltasaurus as a derived saltasaurid, closely allied with other armored South American titanosaurs in a polytomy near the base of Saltasaurinae. This analysis emphasized Saltasaurus's placement within a monophyletic Saltasauridae, supported by high consistency indices indicating robust support for its derived status among titanosaurs. A significant update came in 2024 with the description of Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra from Spain, which established the new clade Lohuecosauria. This group encompasses Saltasaurus, the Spanish titanosaur Lohuecotitan pandafilandi, Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra, their most recent common ancestor, and all descendants.^[20] The recognition of Lohuecosauria highlights transatlantic dispersal patterns in Late Cretaceous titanosaurs, linking South American and European lineages. Cladistic revisions in 2025 of Romanian titanosaur material from the Hațeg Basin further contextualized Saltasaurus's position. Using an expanded dataset of 152 taxa and 570 characters, these analyses revealed high diversity among European island-dwelling titanosaurs but affirmed the endemism of advanced saltasaurids like Saltasaurus to Gondwanan landmasses, particularly South America, with limited Laurasian offshoots.^[22] Saltasaurus clusters closely with Neuquensaurus in South American saltasaurine assemblages and shares plesiomorphic traits with North American Alamosaurus, suggesting a basal position relative to more specialized armored derivatives within Lithostrotia.

Paleobiology and Paleoecology

Locomotion, Diet, and Behavior

Saltasaurus exhibited a graviportal locomotion typical of advanced sauropods, characterized by pillar-like limbs that supported its body weight in a subvertical posture, precluding the ability to run and favoring slow, deliberate movement with short strides.^[2] The robust humerus and straight femur, combined with shortened distal limb segments such as the tibia (approximately 54% of femur length), enhanced quadrupedal stability for weight-bearing.^[2] Its barrel-shaped trunk and overall hippopotamoid form led early interpretations to suggest adaptations for wading in bodies of water, potentially aiding buoyancy during movement in aquatic environments, though modern consensus regards Saltasaurus as fully terrestrial.^[2] As a low-browser herbivore, Saltasaurus likely fed on ground-level vegetation such as ferns and cycads, facilitated by its relatively short neck and small size compared to other sauropods. Its cylindrical teeth with spatulate tips were suited for cropping tough plant material rather than grinding, with food processing occurring via gastroliths or microbial fermentation in the gut.^[23] The wide ribcage and expansive abdominal cavity inferred from skeletal remains supported voluminous gut fermentation, allowing efficient breakdown of fibrous vegetation.^[2] It coexisted with other titanosaurs like Bonatitan, potentially partitioning low-browsing niches through differences in size and armor.^[7] Fossil assemblages containing multiple individuals, including no fewer than five adults and subadults at a single site, indicate possible herding behavior for protection or foraging.^[2] The dermal osteoderms, consisting of large plates and small ossicles, likely served a passive defensive role against predators or for intraspecific display, though their precise function remains interpretive.^[2] There is no direct fossil evidence supporting migratory patterns in Saltasaurus.

Reproduction and Growth

The primary evidence for the reproductive biology of Saltasaurus and closely related saltasaurids comes from the Auca Mahuevo nesting site in the Anacleto Formation of Patagonia, Argentina, where hundreds of titanosaurian eggs and embryos have been discovered, dating to approximately 80 million years ago. These nests consist of excavated depressions in sandstone, often rimmed with surrounding debris and filled with subspherical eggs measuring 12–15 cm in diameter. Clutches typically contain 15–40 eggs arranged in two or three stacked layers without a regular spatial pattern, suggesting they were laid in shallow mounds or depressions on a floodplain.^[24] Fossilized unhatched eggs from Auca Mahuevo preserve titanosaurian embryos, providing direct insights into early ontogeny. These embryos exhibit advanced skeletal development, with more ossified skulls than appendicular elements, and display cranial features consistent with saltasaurids, such as a large jugal contributing to the lower orbital margin. Hatchlings are estimated to have measured around 1 m in length upon emergence.^[25] The embryonic skin, preserved as calcitic casts, shows non-imbricating tuberculate scales in patterns including ground tubercles and rosettes, with no definitive osteoderms present but arrangements resembling those in adult Saltasaurus, indicating that armor ossification likely began in utero or shortly after hatching. Growth in Saltasaurus followed a rapid pattern typical of titanosaurians, enabling individuals to reach adult sizes of 12–13 m in length. Ontogenetic changes are evident in the skull, where juvenile forms are more elongated and gracile compared to the robust, shorter adult morphology. Bone histology from related saltasaurids suggests sustained high growth rates, with sexual maturity likely achieved at subadult stages around 10–25 years, though direct evidence for Saltasaurus remains limited.^[26] Direct evidence for parental care in Saltasaurus is absent, but the clustering of multiple nests across the Auca Mahuevo site, with over 500 eggs preserved in a 50 m² area, indicates colonial breeding behavior among these saltasaurids.^[24] This aggregation likely facilitated protection or synchronization of hatching, though adults' large size may have limited prolonged post-hatching interaction.

Paleoenvironment and Distribution

Saltasaurus inhabited the Lecho Formation of the Salta Group, a geological unit in the Andean foreland basin of northwestern Argentina, dating to the early Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 70–68 million years ago. The formation comprises fine- to coarse-grained sandstones deposited in fluvial and lacustrine environments, reflecting a dynamic sedimentary system influenced by rifting and basin subsidence.^[8]^[27]^[28] The paleoenvironment featured a warm, humid subtropical climate with rivers, lakes, and periodic seasonal flooding, as indicated by the fluvio-lacustrine depositional settings and associated palynological evidence from overlying strata. Vegetation consisted primarily of conifers such as Podocarpaceae and diverse angiosperms including eudicots (e.g., Proteaceae, Ulmaceae) and monocots (e.g., Arecaceae), alongside ferns and bryophytes, suggesting a transitional forest ecosystem.^[27]^[29] Associated fauna included other titanosaurs like Bonatitan, theropods such as the noasaurid Noasaurus, and crocodylomorphs, forming a diverse vertebrate assemblage in a setting with limited direct competitors for low-level browsing niches. Saltasaurus appears endemic to northern Argentina, with all known fossils recovered from Salta Province; while phylogenetic ties suggest potential for a broader Patagonian distribution, no confirmed specimens have been reported from other regions as of 2025.^[7]^[30]

References

[1]
[PDF] Dermal armor histology of Saltasaurus loricatus, an Upper ...
The first uncontroversial evidence of osteoderms in titanosaurs was presented by Bonaparte and Powell (1980) for Salta− saurus loricatus, a small bodied species ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[2]
[PDF] OSTEOLOGY OF SALTASAURUS LORICATUS - DinoChecker
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[3]
Saltasaurus | Natural History Museum
Saltasaurus is one of the last sauropods, living just before the group's extinction. Taxonomic details ... Bonaparte and Powell (1980); Type species: loricatus ...
[4]
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[5]
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Feb 7, 2017 · Dermal armor is one of the most intriguing features of some titanosaurs, the only sauropod dinosaurs that bore osteoderms.
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The fossils of Saltasaurus were excavated by José Bonaparte, Martín Vince and Juan C. Leal between 1975 and 1977 at the Estancia "El Brete". The find was in ...
[7]
[DOC] OSTEOLOGY OF SALTASAURUS LORICATUS
Type Species: Saltasaurus loricatus Bonaparte and Powell, 1980. Distribution: Upper Cretaceous (Upper Campanian? ‑ Lower Maastrichtian) Salta, Argentina.
[8]
titanosaurid (sauropoda) osteoderms from the late - jstor
Loricosaurus scutatus, which he referred to the Ankylosauria solely on the basis of several osteoderms, otherwise preserved with remains of Titanosaurus ...
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We describe the presacral vertebral anatomy of Saltasaurus loricatus. · The pneumatic foramina distribution is variable along the presacral vertebra.Missing: discoveries | Show results with:discoveries
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Saltasaurus - Prehistoric Wildlife
Nov 14, 2024 · Bonaparte & J. E. Powell – 1980. – Osteología de Saltasaurus loricatus (Sauropoda Titanosauridae) del Cretácico Superior del noroeste Argentino.
[11]
PBDB Taxon - The Paleobiology Database
It was recombined as Saltasaurus australis by McIntosh (1990); it was recombined as Neuquensaurus australis by Powell (1986), Powell (1992), Salgado and ...
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Aug 17, 2025 · Synonymy List. Year, Name and Author. 1980, Saltasaurus Bonaparte and Powell p. 20. 1980, Saltasaurus Molnar p. 139.
[13]
What is Saltasauridae? - DinoChecker
Year: 1992 ; Meaning: Salta lizards ; Locomotion: Quadrupedal (four leg drive) ; Synonyms: None known ; Saltasaurus loricatus, their<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
Dermal Armor Histology of Saltasaurus loricatus, an Upper ... - BioOne
Sep 1, 2010 · The material was collected from the Upper Cretaceous (?late Campanian—Maastrichtian) sediments of the Lecho Formation at the locality of El ...Fig. 1 · Ossicles · Fig. 5
[15]
EMBRYONIC SKIN FROM LATE CRETACEOUS SAUROPODS ...
Thus, Saltasaurus' osteoderms do not exhibit the diversity of patterns described for the skin of the Auca Mahuevo embryos. Osteoderms have been associated ...
[16]
Dentition and histology in titanosaurian dinosaur embryos from ...
Mar 16, 2010 · In titanosaurian embryos, 7–8 teeth are distributed along the entire length of the maxilla. Table 2. Summary of the sauropodomorph dental ...
[17]
The Appendicular Skeleton of Neuquensaurus, a Late Cretaceous ...
Sep 1, 2010 · Subsequently, McIntosh (1990) tentatively referred “T”. australis and “T”. robustus to the genus Saltasaurus, arguing that the differences ...
[18]
The phylogenetic relationships of sauropod dinosaurs - 1998
Mar 11, 2010 · The phylogenetic relationships of sauropod dinosaurs. PAUL UPCHURCH,. PAUL UPCHURCH. School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol ...
[19]
A Spanish saltasauroid titanosaur reveals Europe as a melting pot of ...
Sep 4, 2024 · A new clade is established, Lohuecosauria, including Saltasaurus, Lohuecotitan, their most recent common ancestor and all its descendants.
[20]
app010862023 - Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
as a saltasauroid (Saltasaurus, not Patagotitan), the sister group of Saltasauridae (Opisthocoelicaudia + Saltasaurus) (Fig. 7), with which it shares ...
[21]
Revision of Romanian Dinosaurs: Titanosaur Diversity & Size
No hyposphene-hypantrum complex is present, as is also typical of the dorsal vertebrae of nearly all titanosaurs, with the exception of Andesaurus and ...
[22]
(PDF) Late Cretaceous sauropod tooth morphotypes may provide ...
Aug 13, 2025 · Two general morphotypes are found, based on enamel wrinkling and general tooth morphology. Morphotype I, with mainly rugose enamel wrinkling, ...
[23]
(PDF) The Late Cretaceous nesting site of Auca Mahuevo ...
The late Cretaceous Auca Mahuevo nesting site (Neuquén Province, Argentina) has produced a large number of sauropod eggs, many of them containing the remains ...Missing: saltasaurid osteoderms
[24]
From egg to enormous dinosaur, the making of a titanosaur
This is as large as a golden retriever, quite a big baby to say the least. Compared to the adults though, this was incredibly small. Rogers' studies also ...
[25]
An Evolutionary Cascade Model for Sauropod Dinosaur Gigantism
The model consist of five separate evolutionary cascades (“Reproduction”, “Feeding”, “Head and neck”, “Avian-style lung”, and “Metabolism”).
[26]
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[27]
Dynamic of a lacustrine sedimentary system during late rifting at the ...
Apr 24, 2020 · The Lecho Formation corresponds to fine to coarse-grained sandstones deposited in aeolian to fluvio-lacustrine environments. It is organized in ...
[28]
Three-dimensional stromatolites from Maastrichtian–Danian ...
Apr 29, 2021 · We report the detailed analysis of well-exposed, highly informative stromatolite build-ups from a single stratigraphic horizon within the Maastrichtian–Danian ...
[29]
[PDF] A MID-LATITUDE MAASTRICHTIAN PALYNOLOGICAL RECORD ...
Argentina: Salta Basin: transitional strata of Los Blanquitos and Lecho formations (Late Senonian) ... Palynology and paleoenvironment of the Las Curtiembres ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
A saltasaurine titanosaur (Sauropoda: Titanosauriformes) from the ...
Saltasaurine titanosaurs are characterized by their relatively small size compared to other sauropods, extreme postcranial pneumaticity, and dermal armour ...Missing: diet | Show results with:diet