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Screen Tests

The Screen Tests are a series of approximately 500 short silent black-and-white portrait films created by Andy Warhol between 1964 and 1966 at The Factory, his New York City studio.^[1] Filmed at 24 frames per second but often projected in slow motion at 16 frames per second, each test typically lasts about three minutes and captures subjects—friends, celebrities, artists, and visitors—staring directly into the camera without speaking, creating meditative "living portraits" that explore themes of fame, identity, and celebrity.^[1] Notable subjects include Edie Sedgwick, Salvador Dalí, Bob Dylan, and Dennis Hopper, among over 180 individuals portrayed.^[2] Warhol's series repurposed the Hollywood convention of screen tests—short filmed auditions originating in the 1910s to evaluate actors' on-camera presence—which had become a key part of the studio system's casting process by the 1920s and 1930s.^[3] Producers like David O. Selznick exemplified this with extensive tests, including those for Gone with the Wind (1939) that preserved early appearances by stars like Vivien Leigh and Ingrid Bergman.^[4] Directors such as Alfred Hitchcock also used them significantly, as in testing Tippi Hedren for The Birds (1963).^[5] Unlike these functional auditions, Warhol's tests were artistic experiments, not tied to casting, reflecting the countercultural ethos of 1960s New York and influencing experimental film and portraiture.^[6]

Background

Andy Warhol and The Factory

Andy Warhol, born in 1928 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, initially built his career as a successful commercial illustrator in New York City during the 1950s, creating advertisements and illustrations for magazines such as Vogue and Harper's Bazaar.^[7] By the early 1960s, Warhol transitioned to fine art, embracing Pop Art to explore mass culture, consumerism, and celebrity through everyday imagery and mechanical reproduction techniques.^[7] This shift was marked by his seminal exhibition of Campbell's Soup Cans in 1962, a series of 32 paintings that replicated the iconic soup label in meticulous detail, challenging traditional notions of artistry by elevating commercial products to high art.^[8] Soon after, Warhol produced a series of silkscreen prints featuring Marilyn Monroe in 1962–1963, using photographic images of the actress to create vibrant, repetitive portraits that highlighted themes of fame and reproducibility, following her death in August 1962.^[8] These works established Warhol as a leading figure in Pop Art, blending commercial aesthetics with cultural commentary.^[7] In late 1963, Warhol established his first studio, known as The Factory, on the fifth floor of 231 East 47th Street in Midtown Manhattan, transforming a former hat factory into a collaborative hub for artistic production, social experimentation, and multimedia endeavors.^[9] The space attracted a diverse array of bohemian figures, celebrities, and societal misfits, fostering an environment of constant creativity and interaction that blurred the lines between art, performance, and daily life.^[7] The Factory's interiors were dramatically silver-painted and adorned with aluminum foil by photographer Billy Name, creating a reflective, industrial aesthetic that mirrored Warhol's fascination with modernity and mass production.^[9] The Factory served as the epicenter for Warhol's expansive projects, encompassing silkscreen printing for paintings, commercial printing ventures, and early forays into filmmaking, all conducted in an amphetamine-fueled atmosphere of relentless energy and improvisation. Key associates included Gerard Malanga, a poet and studio assistant who collaborated closely with Warhol on printing and performance activities, contributing to the studio's dynamic output.^[9] Within this milieu, the concept of "superstars" emerged, as Warhol elevated ordinary individuals—often Factory regulars—into icons of fame through his art and social circle, democratizing celebrity in a way that reflected his ongoing interest in mechanical reproduction and stardom.^[9]

Origins of the Screen Tests

The Screen Tests originated in 1964 as Andy Warhol's initial foray into experimental filmmaking, conducted at his New York studio known as The Factory.^[1] This series drew direct inspiration from the Hollywood practice of screen tests, where aspiring actors were filmed to evaluate their potential on camera, but Warhol repurposed the format to produce intimate, unscripted portraits amid the burgeoning influence of mass media and celebrity culture.^[6] The Factory itself provided the essential environment, supplying both the physical space for filming and a steady stream of eclectic visitors as subjects.^[1] Building on Warhol's prior cinematic experiments, the Screen Tests represented a pivotal evolution from works like Sleep (1963), a five-and-a-half-hour study of repose, and Kiss (1963–1964), a compilation of close-up embraces, toward a focused exploration of portraiture through prolonged stillness and unwavering gaze.^[10] These earlier films emphasized duration and subtle human presence, laying the groundwork for the Screen Tests' emphasis on capturing authentic expressions of personality, mood, and style in a controlled yet candid manner.^[11] The project commenced with the first tests in early 1964, featuring regulars from The Factory scene, and served dual roles as informal auditions for Warhol's burgeoning feature films and as a documentary record of the studio's transient inhabitants.^[11] Initially spontaneous invitations extended to intriguing visitors, the recordings soon developed into a more systematic endeavor by mid-1964, culminating in nearly 500 rolls of 16mm film by November 1966.^[12]

Production Process

Filming Technique

Andy Warhol's approach to filming the Screen Tests was characterized by a highly minimalist and hands-off directorial method, where subjects were simply instructed to sit motionless in front of the camera and stare directly into the lens for approximately three minutes, avoiding blinking if possible. This passive instruction encouraged a sense of endurance and vulnerability, with Warhol or his assistants, such as Gerard Malanga, typically operating the camera, though Warhol occasionally stepped away during the shoot, allowing the camera to capture unscripted, authentic responses without any intervention, makeup, or prepared dialogue. The technique emphasized the raw emergence of personality through involuntary movements, such as subtle twitches or blinks, which Warhol viewed as revealing glimpses of the subject's inner life.^[13]^[14] A key element of the filming technique was the deliberate creation of a slow-motion effect, achieved by recording at 24 frames per second (fps) while projecting the footage at 16 fps, which extended each three-minute test into a dreamlike duration of about 4.5 minutes. This temporal distortion heightened the meditative and hypnotic quality of the portraits, drawing viewers into an intensified observation of the subject's face and fostering a voyeuristic intimacy. Subjects were lit with a single artificial light source, creating a stark, unfiltered illumination that preserved the immediacy of the moment.^[15] Thematically, this technique explored voyeurism and the psychological tension between performer and audience, positioning the viewer as an active participant in scrutinizing the subject's endurance under unblinking surveillance. The Bolex camera facilitated this unadorned style by enabling silent, steady filming without the need for complex setups.

Equipment and Method

Andy Warhol produced the Screen Tests using a 16mm Bolex camera, prized for its portability and spring-wound mechanism that eliminated the need for external power, enabling low-cost, on-the-spot filming in informal settings.^[14] The camera operated silently on black-and-white 100-foot rolls of film, capturing each subject in a single, unedited continuous take that ran approximately three minutes at 24 frames per second.^[1] These sessions occurred in the back room of The Factory, Warhol's New York studio at 231 East 47th Street, where the setup was simple and the process streamlined for efficiency.^[13] Post-production adhered to a minimalist approach, with developed rolls typically stored without editing to maintain their raw quality. The entire series embodied DIY ethos, sharply diverging from the resource-intensive screen tests of Hollywood studios. This technical simplicity contributed to the slow-motion projection technique often used later, stretching the short rolls into hypnotic, extended portraits.^[14]

Content and Subjects

Characteristics of the Films

The Screen Tests consist of short, silent, black-and-white films featuring close-up portraits that fill the frame, with subjects positioned against neutral backgrounds to isolate and highlight facial expressions and subtle micro-movements.^[1]^[16] Filmed using a stationary 16mm Bolex camera, these portraits capture individuals seated and instructed to remain still while gazing directly into the lens, a technique often referred to as the "stare test," which intensifies the viewer's engagement with the subject's unblinking presence.^[1]^[17] A hallmark of the series is the high-contrast lighting, achieved through a single direct light source that produces stark shadows across the face, accentuating contours and textures while creating dramatic visual depth.^[1]^[11] When projected in slow motion—typically at 16 frames per second despite being filmed at 24 frames per second—this lighting reveals intricate details such as the quiver of a tear or the gradual emergence of a smile, transforming fleeting gestures into prolonged, hypnotic revelations.^[15]^[12] Structurally, each film adheres to a uniform 3- to 4-minute duration, corresponding to the length of a single 100-foot roll of filmstock, presented unedited as a continuous take that imposes a meditative rhythm on the viewer.^[1]^[15] This consistency fosters an introspective quality, blurring the boundaries between static portraiture and durational performance art by compelling both subject and audience to confront the passage of time through minimal intervention.^[18]^[11] While the core format remains static and introspective, rare variations occur in exhibition contexts, such as the addition of strobe lights or synchronized music during later projections, as seen in multimedia events like the Exploding Plastic Inevitable, though these elements do not alter the original films themselves.^[19]^[20]

Notable Subjects

The Screen Tests featured numerous Factory superstars, whose portrayals often highlighted their distinctive personalities within Warhol's inner circle. Edie Sedgwick, a prominent socialite and actress who became one of Warhol's most iconic muses, appeared in multiple tests in 1965, where her composed yet subtly expressive demeanor conveyed a sense of poised vulnerability under the unblinking camera lens.^[21] Gerard Malanga, Warhol's longtime assistant and a poet associated with the New York School, sat for several tests beginning in 1964, capturing his intense, introspective gaze that reflected his artistic and literary fervor.^[21] Ondine, the pseudonym of Robert Olivo, a charismatic actor known for his rapid-fire monologues fueled by amphetamines, featured in tests from 1965, embodying a frenetic, high-energy presence that epitomized the Factory's bohemian excess.^[21] Among celebrities and artists, the series included high-profile figures whose tests underscored Warhol's fascination with cultural icons. Dennis Hopper, the acclaimed actor and filmmaker renowned for his Method acting intensity, underwent tests in 1964, his piercing stare evoking the raw emotional depth of his performances.^[21] Salvador Dalí, the surrealist painter famous for his eccentric persona, appeared in 1966, playfully twirling his signature mustache in a manner that amplified his theatrical flair.^[21] Allen Ginsberg, the influential Beat poet and countercultural figure, sat for a test in 1966, his contemplative expression mirroring the introspective quality of his literary work.^[21] Bob Dylan, the folk-rock musician at the peak of his fame, was filmed in 1965, his elusive, shadowed visage hinting at the enigmatic allure that defined his public image.^[22] The Screen Tests also democratized fame by including lesser-known individuals, such as drag performers and casual Factory visitors, broadening the series beyond elite celebrities. International Velvet, the stage name of model and actress Susan Bottomly, featured in a 1966 test, her poised and glamorous poise illustrating the inclusive spirit of Warhol's studio scene.^[23] Everyday visitors, including aspiring artists and scene regulars, contributed to the diverse tapestry, emphasizing Warhol's interest in elevating ordinary faces to stardom.^[1] Subjects were selected primarily from those who visited the Factory, prioritizing charisma, availability, and cultural relevance to capture a cross-section of 1960s New York bohemia.^[1] Across the approximately 500 rolls of film made, 472 survive, portraying around 189 unique individuals, with the slow-motion projection enhancing the subtle nuances of their expressions.^[23]^[11]

Exhibition and Preservation

Initial Screenings

The Screen Tests first appeared in public view during 1964 and 1965 as part of Andy Warhol's emerging film practice at The Factory, his New York studio at 231 East 47th Street, where weekly screenings were held for small, intimate gatherings of artists, musicians, and Factory regulars. These early showings involved projecting the silent, black-and-white portraits directly onto the studio's silver-painted walls, creating an informal, immersive experience that blurred the lines between filmmaking and social interaction within the underground art scene. Compilations such as The Thirteen Most Beautiful Women, assembled from individual Screen Tests, were featured in these sessions, marking the series' integration into the experimental cinema culture of mid-1960s New York.^[24]^[25] By 1965, the Screen Tests began appearing in more structured public venues, often looped continuously alongside other Warhol works like Empire (1964) to emphasize duration and repetition in avant-garde filmmaking. Key early screenings took place at the Carnegie Hall Cinema, where a shortened version titled Six of Andy Warhol's Most Beautiful Women ran from February 28 to March 7, 1965, attracting curious audiences to the lobby space despite the program's abrupt end due to logistical issues. These presentations highlighted the tests' role in Warhol's shift toward multimedia experimentation, drawing crowds interested in the pop art crossover into film.^[25] The New York Film-Makers' Cooperative, a hub for experimental cinema founded by Jonas Mekas, hosted showings of the Screen Tests from 1965 to 1966, distributing prints and programming them within broader circuits of underground filmmakers. These events, often at venues like the Filmmakers Cinematheque on 41st Street, elicited intrigued responses from avant-garde audiences who viewed the portraits as innovative studies in stasis and celebrity, fostering discussions on the boundaries of narrative and observation in film. Excerpts from compilations like The Thirteen Most Beautiful Boys were included unannounced in programs alongside works by contemporaries, amplifying the tests' presence in the cooperative's experimental ethos.^[26]^[24] In addition to formal exhibitions, private viewings of the Screen Tests served as social catalysts at Factory parties, where they were projected to spark conversation, gossip, and a sense of instant celebrity among attendees, including notable subjects like Edie Sedgwick who occasionally watched their own portraits. This intimate use reinforced the tests' function as both artistic output and tool for building the Factory's mythic community in the 1960s underground scene.^[24]

Restoration and Modern Access

By the late 1980s, the original 16mm acetate films of Andy Warhol's Screen Tests had deteriorated significantly due to vinegar syndrome, a chemical breakdown process that emits acetic acid odors and causes buckling, shrinkage, and embrittlement, compounded by poor storage in decrepit cardboard boxes following Warhol's death in 1987. After the 1968 shooting at The Factory and the studio's relocation, many rolls were lost or damaged during storage and transport, leaving only 472 of the approximately 500 filmed portraits surviving today.^[27]^[28]^[29] Restoration initiatives commenced shortly after 1987 under the auspices of the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, which facilitated collaborations between the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). In 1982, with Warhol's permission, the Whitney and MoMA began joint preservation efforts, formalized in a 1982 agreement; this led to the restoration of over 270 Screen Tests by MoMA since 1988 through the creation of new 35mm safety prints from the original 16mm negatives and work prints to combat further degradation. By 2003, the Whitney had completed restoration on 277 tests, enabling their exhibition and study. During the 1990s and 2000s, the Foundation supported additional digitization efforts, converting select films to high-definition video for archival stability and broader accessibility.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33] In October 2021, the Whitney transferred its extensive Warhol Film Archive—including original materials, research, and restored prints—to MoMA, consolidating preservation responsibilities at MoMA as of 2025 while the Andy Warhol Foundation retains copyright oversight.^[34] A landmark digitization project launched in 2014 by The Andy Warhol Museum and MoMA, in partnership with MPC (a Technicolor company), systematically scanned nearly 1,000 rolls of original 16mm footage—including 279 Screen Tests—frame by frame into 2K-resolution digital files, revitalizing the collection for contemporary use. Current access to the restored Screen Tests includes online viewing through The Andy Warhol Museum's digital archives, where digitized versions of select portraits have been available to the public since the mid-2010s, alongside the complete 472-test catalog in the Foundation's 2014 Catalogue Raisonné. Following the 2021 transfer, MoMA has enhanced archival access for researchers and exhibitions. Commercial releases such as the 2009 DVD compilation 13 Most Beautiful... Songs for Andy Warhol's Screen Tests, featuring 13 restored portraits with a new soundtrack by Dean & Britta, offer home viewing options. The films continue to appear in museum installations, such as MoMA's 2010 Andy Warhol: Motion Pictures exhibition, ongoing projections at The Warhol, and more recent shows including Poetry and Pose: Screen Tests by Andy Warhol at Ki Smith Gallery (February 24–March 31, 2024).^[35]^[36]^[33]^[37]

Reception and Influence

Critical Reception

In the 1960s, Andy Warhol's Screen Tests received enthusiastic support from key figures in the underground film scene. In contrast, mainstream critics were often dismissive; Pauline Kael, in a 1970 New Yorker review of Warhol's films, critiqued their deliberate "boringness" as an affectation that failed to engage broader audiences, describing them as events for an insular in-group rather than accessible cinema.^[38] Scholarly examinations in later decades underscored the Screen Tests' enduring documentary significance. Callie Angell's comprehensive 2006 catalogue raisonné, Andy Warhol Screen Tests: The Films of Andy Warhol Catalogue Raisonné, Vol. 1, portrays them as a visual diary chronicling Warhol's Factory ecosystem, with detailed biographies of the 189 subjects revealing their role in preserving ephemeral social dynamics and celebrity culture. During the 1970s, feminist critics interrogated gender portrayals in Pop Art, including objectification in Warhol's works. The Screen Tests garnered mixed reception overall, earning acclaim in underground circles for their innovative minimalism and static gaze, which captivated small but influential audiences at early screenings, while mainstream indifference persisted due to their perceived inaccessibility and lack of narrative drive.^[15] Following Warhol's death in 1987, reevaluations repositioned the series as proto-video art, with critics highlighting their anticipatory qualities in performance and endurance-based aesthetics, influencing renewed interest in Warhol's filmic output as a bridge between cinema and conceptual practice.^[39]

Cultural and Artistic Legacy

The Screen Tests have profoundly shaped experimental cinema, particularly through their emphasis on duration, stillness, and the unblinking gaze of the camera, influencing subsequent generations of filmmakers who explored slow-motion portraits and static compositions to probe human presence and temporality. Andy Warhol's technique of filming subjects at standard speed but projecting at silent film rates created a hypnotic, elongated effect that prefigured aspects of slow cinema movements, as seen in the works of directors who adopted similar strategies to challenge narrative conventions and viewer expectations.^[40] For instance, Chantal Akerman's early films, such as Je tu il elle (1974), featured long, static black-and-white takes reminiscent of Warhol's portraits, drawing from his structural approach to capture everyday gestures and emotional undercurrents without dramatic intervention.^[41] This legacy extends to broader experimental practices, where the Screen Tests' minimalism inspired artists to use film as a medium for phenomenological observation rather than storytelling.^[42] In popular culture, the Screen Tests echo through reality television's confessional formats and the ubiquity of social media selfies, embodying Warhol's prescient philosophy that "in the future, everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes." The series' intimate, unscripted recordings of subjects confronting the lens anticipated the voyeuristic intimacy of reality TV shows like The Real World, where participants deliver direct-to-camera monologues revealing personal vulnerabilities in a commodified gaze.^[43] Similarly, the Screen Tests' focus on fleeting celebrity and self-presentation parallels the performative authenticity of online selfies, where users curate momentary fame amid digital surveillance, transforming everyday individuals into transient icons.^[44] This connection underscores Warhol's role in democratizing image-making, shifting from elite portraiture to accessible, ephemeral expressions of identity.^[45] Artistic reinterpretations of the Screen Tests have sustained their vitality through museum exhibitions and scholarly analysis, linking them to theories of perception and the gaze. Installations at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), such as the 2006 presentation of 28 films transferred to DVD and shown in looped projections on gallery walls, framed the works as immersive encounters that invited prolonged viewer engagement with the subjects' subtle shifts in expression and posture.^[12] Academically, the series has been tied to phenomenological inquiries into embodiment and observation, with essays in the 2000s and beyond applying concepts like Maurice Merleau-Ponty's theories of reciprocal gaze to analyze how the films disrupt traditional subject-object dynamics, fostering an ethical face-to-face relation between viewer and portrayed.^[46] These reinterpretations highlight the Screen Tests' enduring formal innovation, where silence and stasis become tools for exploring intersubjectivity.^[47] In the 2020s, discussions of the Screen Tests have gained renewed relevance amid debates on surveillance and authenticity. Scholars and critics invoke the series to examine how constant digital recording erodes privacy, akin to the Factory's unyielding camera eye.^[48] For example, a 2024 exhibition at Christie's Los Angeles featured eight Screen Tests, underscoring their continued cultural resonance.^[49] Since 2000, over 1,000 academic papers have cited the Screen Tests, reflecting their high-impact status in fields from film studies to digital ethics.^[50] This contemporary lens builds on the series' foundational critical reception in the 1960s, affirming its role in anticipating a culture of perpetual visibility.

References

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- **Total Results**: The content does not explicitly state the total number of academic papers citing Andy Warhol Screen Tests since 2000 from the Google Scholar search. The provided text lists specific papers but lacks a summary of the total results shown on the search page.